P. B. BORISOGLEVSKI, L. F. DMOKOVSKAYA, V.P. LARIONOY, U.S. PINTAL, D, V. KAZEVIG, E. YA. RYABKOVA HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING UNDER GENERAL EDITORSHIP OF PROF, D. V. RAZEVIG Approved. by the Miniatry af Higher aud Secondary Specialized Education of Russian Pederel Union Socialist Republic ox text-book Jor siudente of energetic and. ecto-energetic ‘feeultiea and institutes of higher learning Translated from Russian By Dr, M, P, CHOURASIA Prof. of Electrent Kvgineering, Govt, Brgincering College, Jabalpur (U.P) KHANNA PUBLISHERS 2B. NATH MARKET, NAI SARAK, DELHI-110006. Phones: 2912380; 722417931 Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes with the Aid of Lightning Conductors 31-1 General Information ‘The lightning conductors asa means of protection from direct lightning strokes were used much before the beginning of the present era, but. they aquired wide recognition only in the middle of XVII ‘century asa result of the work of Benjamin Franklin and Lomonosov. Each lightning conductor consists of the lightning receiver pro- Jecting above the object to be protected, the earthing grid and the ‘conductor which connects the receiver with the earthing grid and is, ‘meant to carry the lightning current away safely to ground. There are vo different types of lightning conductor : the lightning masts and the ground wiees Good earthing of lightning conductors is an essential condition for reliable protection, since in case of a stroke in a badly earthed lightning conductor, very high voltages, capable of causing @_ break- down of insulating mediuim between the lightning conductor and the object under-protection, are posscble. Ta the beginning, before large- scale use of the lightning conductors (XVIII century), when serious attention was not paid to the value of resistance of the lightning conductor, incidents of fire caused by. lightning discharges in the lightning conductors were not rare which, thus, played harmful role in such cases The provision of a reliable electrical connection between alll parts of the lightning conductor is equally important, since during the passage of a current through the place of bad contacts, an inten sive arcing, which can also cate fire, takes place. The protective action of lightning conductors is based on the fact that charges, stored on its Up in the leader stage of lightning 44Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 25 discharge, produce greatest field intensity along the path becween the head of the leader canal and the tip of the lightning conductor, whereto the discharge is directed. ‘The height ground at which the leader discharge finally orients itself on one of the objects on earth, is called “the height (#1) of orientation of Jightning, which, in tne first instance, depends on the height h of the lightning conductor. Ic is customary to consider that for lightning conductors up to a height of 30 m, Hkh where the proportionality constant & has a value of 10—20. ‘The leader canal can descend to carth along different srajec- tories. Suppase that the. point of orientation of lightning moves slong Reina ing, whieh tes in the same plane. asthe lightalog Sata eethom iene see | When this point is situated directly j above the lightning conductor, the! discharge must take place in’ the Tightning. conductor. ‘However, in - proportion to the dsplacement ofthe Point of orientation from the light < fing. conductor the probability of lightning discharge to ground increa. sez. "That postion wil be critical Ti, 31, xperimonta determi when the breakdown voltages 1o the wat of the protective zon of lightning conductor Vy and to ind Fay are same. With further displacement of the point of Srientaion, lightning discharge manly srikes the ground Tt the object to be protected is located neat the lightaing Conductor, for dehnite height of the lightoing. conductor the. voltage between he lightning canal and the object will always be gester than the breakdown voltage either to the lightning conductor or to ground and the objet willbe protected for the diet lightning stroke. 312. Protective Zone of Lightning Conductors tis customary to call the space around a lightning conductor in which the probability of lightning stroke is small, “the protective zone”. In view of the fact that breakdown voltages of air gaps, specially for distances of tens of metres, have considerable statistical scatter, lightning conductors ensure protection of an object only with ‘a certain degree of probability (a) Experimental Determination of Protective Zone of Light- ning Conductors Protective zones of lightning conductors are determined by experiments on models, During this, itis assumed that the actual protective zones of real lightning conduetors of different heights are geometrically similar to the zones obtained in the laboratory on models,26 High Voltage Engineering ts ae uh cage wet a 9 model of ing The experiments are conducted according to the experimental setup of Fig, S12; the electrode from which the discharge. deve~ Tops imitates the. end of the Jeader Catal atthe, height of orientation, oF Fightning tn expersments conducted ‘ in the Soviet Union by A.A. Akopyan, for lightning rods of a height apts hve) 50 mth ws taken t0_ be equal” to 20, and. fr ground wites Hihe=10. For “lightning! conductors, of height above 30m the height of orientation tes ahen Yo Be cons, G80) Fig, 912. ingram for tho ex: for lightning masts and /1=300 for ional dirt a he around wie) The values aken can Eratocten sine WEeimpale. ot be vigorously jastieds however, Valine Gabertor|}~ctocnale theres abasis 19 sume that eit raha tne aac eaee Siatattite hogiarennfies use gives somewhat lower proiective Fighting eetetene ee Loney thus ensuring a definite margin Weteng SSeaanc grays 32 or safety deen eee Tin spite of the fact that most of Hightning discharges to earth have negative polarity, discharges of postive polarity are used dur- ing an experimental determination of protective zones, ‘This is due to the fact that a mecting steamer, as though making the lightning mast longer, develope from its Up ‘dusing lighting stroke. into Taited. objects. However, the length of shis meeting steamer for lightning rods of « height upto 100 metres docs mot exceed a. few tent of metres. Tn those spatk gaps with which one has to deal in oratory the charge na devloing form ging mas ihe larity of the upper electrode i negative and grealy increased pro= Icctive zones are obtained. With postive polailty of the upper cleetrode the ‘meeting streamer fromthe lightning rod compres 4 small Sracion ofthe spark gap (upto 1/3) which is much closer to the conditions occurring during lghining discharges. "However, the hecesity of using that polarity which decs not occur in natural cone ditions testes to very approximate modelling of the teal. procescs {na laboratory. Therefore it should be remembered that the pro- teclive zones obtained in a laboratory are of a conditional. nature and we can use them, only because many years of obuervations of the performance of real lightning masts confrined the reliability of the Fecommendations worked out on the bass f laboratory experiments The technique of experimental determination of the protective zones is as follows (Fig. 31-3). The electrode, located at a height 4H, is shifted in the horizontal direction relative to the model ofProtection from Direct Lightning Strokes ar lightning mast. For each location of the electrode, a definite num- ber of discharges is produced. ‘The experiment shows that for Fig. 313, Determination ofthe protective zone of a lightning mast on ita model, R=35 h, all discharges strike the lightning mast. For Ry some- ‘what greater than K, a part of the discharges strikes the ground, During this, the discharges deflect very much away from the vertic cal and strike the ground at a distance r>-6h. ‘The quantity + is the radius of the protective zone at the ground level. ‘The dis- tance R is called the radius of zone of 100% strokes to the light- ning mast. ‘The protective zone at a height hy is determined with the help of a mast of height hy which models the object to be protected. The electrocie and the model of the object which are initially situated in the same plane, are shifted with respect (o each other and in relation tc the model of the lightning mast. For cach mutual location of the clectrodes a definite numberof the discharges is conducted. Asa result, the maximum distance rz between the model of the object and the lightning mast at which the model of object is not struck by the discharge, is found. This distance rz is the radius of protective zone of the model of lightning mast at a height hs. Greater the number of discharges for cach location of the electrodes, greater the accuracy of determination of the radius of fhe protectee zone and smaller the. probability ofa stroke tothe node! of object Incated in the protective ane of the mode! of Hightne ing mast, Usially, protective ones are determined with proba: Diy ofstcoke to the model of object of 6 1% If the lightning conductor is not a lightaing mast but a ground wire, the electrode and the object are shifted along the horizontal in a plane perpendicular to the ground wire (Fig. 31°4). Experience shows that in this case the dimension of protective zone is b=1-2h, land the dimension of the zone of 100% stroke to the model of ground428 High Voltage Engineering wire equals B=2h. If the electrode is shifted further, thus increasing the distance upto the vertical plane in which the ground wire is Fig, 31-4, Determination of protretive zone of » grows ‘sire on ita most, situated, smaller and smailer strokes will occur to the ground wire and finally, at a certain distance, all the discharges will occur only to the ground. ‘The distribution of strokes determined experimentally is shown in Fig. 31°5, fiom which it follows that on an average all discharges of lightning, developing at a distance B<3h from the ground wire occtir to the ground wie. Fig, $16, Protective sone of s ‘Woen 0 ground wire aad the ground ‘ highoning mast. () Protective Zones of The Lightning Masts The protective zone of a single lightning mast upto a height of 30 m, (Fig. 31-6) is a space bounded by the surface o rotation of a curve which can be found from the forma, 6 tee Gh be, ernProtection from Direct Lightning Strokes a9 where hheight of lightning conductor 5 ry~radius of the protective zone at a height hy Ji—level under examination above the surface of ground (or height of the object to be protected) ; hm hg=he—projection of height of the lightning conductor above the level under examination (or above height of the object to be protected) ; called the active height of the lightning conductor. In order to be protected from direct lightning strokes, the object must be fully located within the cone like space which represents the protective zone of the lightning mast Since during experimental determination of protective zones, a number of departures fiom real conditions are permitted, there is Coon ation of “he Pralehe Tae aE a gt Vig. 317. Construction of the protective zone of a single Tightning mast re cimpliged construction ; protective 20.0 ‘onatrtcted from Bq. (11) need to make use of the accurate boundaries of protective zone Miluh become specially complicated, in. case of protection by. wo WiNtning masts, Tes posible to make use of the Simplified construc- lighWhoun in Fig. 3/7. The generator surface enclosing the. pro ots se vane can be represented -by a. broken line. One of the {ections ofthis broken “line ab is @ part of the straight line joining Meitip of the lightning conductor and a point on the surface of430 High Voltage Engineering ground situated at a distance of 0-75 A from the axis of the lightning mast : and the other section (dc) is a part of the straight line joining a point of the lightning conductor at a height of 0 h and a point fn the surface of ground situated at a distance of 1-5 A from the axis of the lightning mast. ‘The protective zone constructed according to (31'1) is also shown in the same figure for comparison. From Fig. 31-7 itis clear that the point bis situated at a height equal to jh. It is easy to show that the radius of protection at a level fig 3 is equal to 5 de 2 notsh(1¢lty) a ‘he ae of protection at a level b> hi reorsa( 1~ 2) 13) “The effectiveness of lightning masts of heights. greater than 30 m becomes les, since during this the height of orentation of lightning remains constant. For determining the radius of protective zone ofa light mast of height #>30'm, the values obtained from (31-2) and (31'3) must be multiplied by the coefficient Pay, 5 Construction of protective zone is done in the same way a8 in Fig, 31-7, but straight jines aa’ and ce’ are drawn through the points om the surface of ground situated at distances of 0:75 kp and 1°5 kp respectively from the axis of the lightning mast. The protective zone between two lightning masts have considerably greater dimensions than tho sum of protective zones of swo single lightning masts, Tt was mentioned. above that the radius of 100% strokes to the lightning mast is R=-3'5 h. Evidently, two lightning masts are situated ata distance of a=2h—=7h, the point of ground surface which lies anid-way between the’ to Fehning masts will not be struck by lightning.” If it is necessary to protect a point situated ‘mid-way between the two lightning masts Rea height of fig the distance berween the lightning masts of height <7 (ih), ie, must not be greater than seven times the ight of the lightning ‘masts. “Or, if height of lightning inasts nd the distance between them are known, height of a point ‘hick Ties mid-way bewween the lightning masts and ill be pro- {ected from lightning discharge is found as s ry The internal part of he protective zone of two lightning masts (Fig. 318) ina plane, passing through both the lightning masts is bounded by the ‘arc of a citcle which can beProtection from Direct Lightning Strokes at onstructed on three points : two of them are the tips of the lightning masts and'the third is situated mid-way between the lightning masts Fig. 3:4, Protective ane of two lightning masts at a height equal toh, Cros-section of the protective zone ia a Plane perpendicular the plane of Fig. 310 (Shown on the lel) i Constructed inthe same way2s for a single lightning matt of height qual toh, (eros-tcction along OO in Fig. 31°8). ‘The external prt of the protective vone of the lightning masts is determined in the same way as for single lightning masts For two lightning masts of height A>30 m, point fis determined where rs) ‘The radii of protective zone in the cross-sections 0—0 are similarly reduced by p times. Lr — Fig. 31.9. Protective zone of two lightning masts of differut heights, ke la Construction of protective zones for two lightning masts of different heights is shown in Fig. 319.432 High Voltage Engineering At first the protective zone of higher lightning mast is constructed. After that through the tip of the lightning mast of smaller height a horizontal line is drawn ill it intersects the protective zone of the single lightning mast of greater height. Considering that the tip of a certain fictitious lightning mast coincides with this point of intersection 3, protective zones of the lightning masts 2 and 3 of the same height A, and situated at a distance w’, are constructed Such objects as the equipment of outdoor distribution sub- stations are located on sufficiently large territory. They ave to ig 110. Avon ab a height by protected by threo lightning Fie Muaa of height h(i nd 3) ‘ening be protected by a number of lightning masts, In this case, the external part of the protective zone. is determined in the same way as the protective zone of two. lightning masts. The internal part of the protective zone of a number of lightning masts is not cons: fructed. An object of height Ay situated inside the triangle (or rectangie) formed by the lightning masts will be protected in case the diameter D of the circle passing through the tips of the lightning masts (or the diagonal of the rectangle at the corners of which the lightning masts are situated) is not greater than 8 times the active height (Aa—h—h,) of the lightning masts é.e. the condition that the area between the lightning masts at a level hy will be protected is D&B (h—h,) (316)Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 43 ‘The protects for three and four lightning ‘masts are shown in Figs. 31:10 and 31-11 Fig. 3611. Aru st hight hy protste. By fe lghing asta hh as fata tT oners ofa fsb For an arbitrary location of the lightning masts the condition. stated above mait be separately verified for each group of three Sightning masts near one another. IF the height of lightning masts exceeds 30m, the condition of protection ata level hy will be D any flashover on the object to be protected, the steengvh of th> insulation between the fobject and the lightning conductor max be higher chan the value ‘ol voltage on dhe lightning conductor440 High Voltage Engineering If the object happens to be a conductor, suspended on a string of insulators which, with its other end, is attached to a cross arm, it is necessary to satisfy the condition Va>150 R501, (30-12) where Ty—~is the impulse flashover voltage of the string of insu. Tatars. Jn the case when the object and the lightning conductor are separated by an air gap of lengch S, the condition so Ve js Sz ge ist be satisfied Taking the value of the permissible average intensity of the electric field in air gaps #y-,=500 KV/M we get SD03 K-01 LM. (3113) Fit is essential to prevent flashover from the earthing ge the lightning emductor ta the object situted on ground, itis ¢ tial chat the distance between them in earth is IyR so fe gry ‘he permissible average intensity of electric field in earth is Byp=30) KV/M. With the lightning current Ty of 150 kA used in calculations, we will get the condition 8,505 Ry M. (3115) 31-4. Specialities of Constructional Details of Lightning Conductors Structures of objects to be protected must, where it is possible, lve used as supports for fastening the curvent carrying parts of light- ning conductors. For example, in outdoor distributions substations 6f 110 KV and above, lightning conductors can be mounted on the ‘metallic gantries meant for supporting the busbars and. the gantries themselves canbe used as curreat carriers connecting the lightning conductors with the earthing grids Seyarately mounted lightning conductors can simikirly he made metallic feom steel tubes, iTheight of lightning conductors does not exceed 20 m, o in the for: of lattice constructions, if height is more than 20 m. ‘However, lightning conductors made on cement con crete or wooden supports happen to be cheaper (for height upto 20m). ."The reinforcement of cement concrose supports is used as current carriers; along wooden supports special current carrying conductors carrying Tightning current to ground are used. Tt is recommended Yo construct lightning conductors in the form of sell “suppgeting constractions with out (stay wires) guys,Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 441 We will ind the necessary cross-section of the current carrying ‘parts of lightning conductors, lightning receivers and current carrier. While calculating the heat developed in these parts, we shall neglect the heat radiated to the surrounding medium. The energy, ‘given out during the passage of current through a resistance per unit Tength, can be calculated as w f iy? de 8 Since the front of lightning current wave has a small effect on the heating of the conductor, we shall take o7, uel? wTe Since w=207 In this manner we get ra 5 Wear f( ee Tr Jatertyt r 0 i ‘The temperature rise of the conductor is determined by the following Forma: * else eee erie) where g—density of the material of the conductor ; C—its mean specific heat capacity 5 ‘S—cross-seetion of the conductor ; specific resistance of the material, We shall take the amplitude of lightning current as Zye150 A 5 and considering additional heating by repented discharges, we. shall take the legih of wave tail swerlOS ga, ‘There. are very, severe Conditions ‘which correspond 10 the transer, after one ofa multiple Stroke of lightning, of a quantity of electricity 9290 coulombs, OF which happens rarely. For commonly used steel conductors 9=7'8_gramjem?, 0=0'11 Calorie gr. degree. Average specific resistance of steel in theee High Voltage Engineering temperature range of 0-400°C canbe taken to be equal to p=310-* ‘ohm em, For this data we shall get the temperature rise as = rignale el conductar of resection S23 mt wl be heated by lightning current in all 215°C. Such a heating is fully. admissible even in the ease whet the cucrent carrer i mounted along timber. However, for increasing the mechanical strength and die lie span, steel conductors of 50 mm? crostsection ave recomrmensied (round steel of 8 mm. di). For protection from corrosion lighting conductors must be painted of zine plated. Use of multeeondctorstel wire isnot r= Fommended frm the point of view of cortosion