Review
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 26 September 2011
Accepted 10 November 2011
Keywords:
Salmonella
Cross-contamination
Recontamination
Food safety
Modeling
a b s t r a c t
The presence of Salmonella in foodstuffs represents an internationally accepted human health concern. Although
Salmonella causes many foodborne disease outbreaks, there is little evidence to support cross-contamination as a
major contributing factor. However, the paramount importance of preventing cross-contamination and recontamination in assuring the safety of foodstuffs is well known. Sources and factors linked to cross-contamination
and recontamination of Salmonella in foods are reviewed in detail. Those foods which are not submitted to lethal
treatment at the end of processing or which do not receive further treatment in the home deserves special attention. Salmonella cross-contamination and recontamination episodes have been connected to the following factors: poor sanitation practices, poor equipment design, and decient control of ingredients. We also examine
potential cross-contamination in the home. Cross-contamination and recontamination events at factory level evidence the difculty encountered for eradicating this pathogen from the environment and facilities, highlighting
the need to reinforce industry preventive control measures such as appropriate and standardized sanitation.
Also, at consumer level, Public Health Authorities should install hygiene education programs in order to raise
consumer awareness of the risks of cross-contamination in the home and their role in its prevention. Finally, a
review on cross-contamination models of Salmonella spp. is presented.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Importance of cross-contamination and recontamination events
Cross-contamination and recontamination routes and sources .
3.1.
Poultry meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Other meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Eggs and egg products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
Low-moisture foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
Fresh produce and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.
Milk, dairy and milk products . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.
Seafood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Cross-contamination in food-handling scenarios and retail points
5.
Biolm formation and food contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . .
6.
Modeling Salmonella transfer in foods . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction
Salmonellosis represents an important foodborne disease that
continues to pose a major and unacceptable threat to human public
health in both developed and developing countries (European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA), 2010). The dynamics of Salmonella infection
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 34 957218516; fax: + 34 957212000.
E-mail address: bt2cajie@uco.es (E. Carrasco).
0963-9969/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.11.004
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human cases in the European Union (EU) in 2008, representing the second most often reported zoonotic disease in humans following campylobacteriosis. Human salmonellosis cases reported in 2008 show a 13.5%
decrease from 2007 in the EU. However, several European countries
still show a signicant increasing trend, proving that continuous efforts
for prevention and control are still necessary.
In the EU, serotypes Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium are reported as the two major etiologic agents of salmonellosis that
have adapted to humans. In the US, Salmonella Enteritidis and Typhimurium represent the two most frequently reported serotypes according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Centers for Disease
Control, 2006). The distribution of Salmonella serotypes in Australia varies geographically. Thus, while S. Typhimurium was the most commonly
reported serovar in 2008, S. Enteritidis was frequently reported as cause
of human disease, despite it is not endemic in Australia (Yates, 2011).
While S. Enteritidis is mostly implicated in the consumption of poultry
and eggs, S. Typhimurium is linked to a range of food-producing animals
such as poultry, swine, cattle and sheep. S. Enteritidis was a rare serovar
until the mid-late 1980s when it emerged as a frequent cause of salmonellosis in European countries and across the globe (Cogan & Humphrey,
2003; Poppe, 1999). By the 1990s, S. Enteritidis replaced S. Typhimurium
as the most common serotype of salmonellosis isolated from humans in
many countries (Angulo & Swerdlow, 1999; Cogan & Humphrey, 2003;
Tschape et al., 1999). Australia and New Zealand, however, experienced
a relatively higher number of outbreaks due to S. Typhimurium compared to Canada, the US and the EU (Dalton et al., 2004). Previous salmonellosis outbreaks in Canada and the US have been linked to S. Enteritidis
(Centers for Disease Control, 2004). The global distribution of food and
the continuous movement of people around the world facilitate the
spread of this agent, allowing the introduction of emerging Salmonella
serotypes into importing countries.
In general, salmonellosis is transmitted when Salmonella cells are
introduced in food preparation areas. Several factors such as multiplication in food due to inadequate storage temperature, insufcient
cooking or cross-contamination are often implicated in salmonellosis
outbreaks (Ryan, Wall, & Gilbert, 1996; Todd, 1997). The main transmission routes of this pathogen are foods of animal origin contaminated with fecal matter (Haeghebaert et al., 2003; Swartz, 2002).
However, consumption of meat from infected animals may also occasionally be a source (Benenson, 1995; Tauxe, 1991).
Some investigations highlight the frequent occurrence of Salmonella in
meats and meat products (Mead et al., 1999) Overall, meat, poultry and
eggs are acknowledged as constant vehicles of Salmonella serovars and
generally involved in the infectious disease (Capita, Alvarez-Astorga,
Alonso-Calleja, Moreno, & Garca-Fernndez, 2003; Wilson, 2002).
However, a wide range of other foodstuffs such as milk, dairy products,
fruits, vegetables, and shery products can be sources of Salmonella
infection (Todd, 1997). The incidence of Salmonella has been studied in
poultry meat in many countries such as the United Kingdom
(Plummer & Dodd, 1995), Australia (Fearnley, Raupach, Lagala, &
Cameron, 2011), Malaysia (Rusul, Khair, Radu, Cheah, & Yassin, 1996),
Greece (Arvanitidou, Tsakris, Soanou, & Katsouyannopoulos, 1998),
Spain (Domnguez, Gmez, & Zumalacrregui, 2001) and Italy (Busani
et al., 2005). High prevalence rates have been found in these countries
and the serotypes isolated vary geographically with predomination of
S. Enteritidis, S. Thyphimurium, S. Hadar, S. Newport, S. Virchow and
S. Heidelberg. All these studies emphasize the fact that poultry meat
represents a major source of this pathogen and therefore, recontamination of cooked poultry should be considered as a major risk factor. However, the importance and the impact of recontamination events are
not frequently well-documented in reports and scientic literature.
This lack of supporting evidence may be explained by several reasons, such as incomplete insight in to the causes of foodborne diseases,
underreporting cases or lack of outbreak investigation (Reij, Den
Aantrekker, & ILSI Europe Risk Analysis in Microbiology Task Force,
2004).
The objective of this review is to examine the role of crosscontamination and recontamination of foods by Salmonella, the principal factors involved, and the strategies developed for prevention of
cross-contamination and recontamination.
2. Importance of cross-contamination and recontamination
events
In accordance to Prez-Rodrguez, Valero, Carrasco, Garca-Gimeno,
and Zurera (2008), who reviewed bacterial transfer modeling in
foods, dened cross-contamination as a general term which refers to
the transfer, direct or indirect, of bacteria or virus from a contaminated
product to a non-contaminated product. Similarly, other terms have
been used to describe bacterial transfer, but not in a general sense,
such as recontamination, which is dened as contamination of food
after it has been submitted to an inactivation process.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (1992), 25% of
foodborne outbreaks are closely associated with cross-contamination
events involving decient hygiene practices, contaminated equipment,
contamination via food handlers, processing, or inadequate storage.
Identifying sources of infection frequently proves complicated as accurate data is often difcult to obtain from governments, industries, and
also incomplete investigations.
Salmonellosis outbreaks linked to cross-contamination processes
have highlighted the importance of these events to identify high-risk
foods and practices. Given the high percentage of foodborne outbreaks
linked to cross-contamination events, future investigations will suggest
possible cross-contamination routes when a Salmonella outbreak occurs. Cross-contamination and recontamination information on outbreaks in scientic literature is scant. Review papers on outbreaks
remain frequently unpublished as they do not completely fulll prerequisites such as high number of patients affected, emerging pathogen,
unusual serotypes or new food matrices. Outbreaks source attribution
cannot be regularly conrmed by food sample investigation due to
lack of leftover food matter.
When Salmonella survival is allowed under cross-contamination
and recontamination conditions, several factors such as inadequate
temperatures during food preparation as well as survival through
undercooking or food handling scenarios become critical.
The potential risk of Salmonella spp. to contaminate sites and surfaces in the household has been studied (Gorman, Bloomeld, &
Adley, 2002). These authors emphasize how the preparation of raw
food such as fresh chicken may magnify the dissemination of Salmonella
to hands and food contact surfaces. A signicant proportion of crosscontamination scenarios occur in domestic kitchens. In fact, in the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain, more than 50% of reported foodborne outbreaks were observed in the home (Beumer, Bloomeld, Exner, Fara, &
Scott, 1998; Scott, 1996). Several authors have demonstrated that Salmonella cells from frozen broiler chicken were able to contaminate
food preparation areas (De Wit, Brockhuizen, & Kampelmacher, 1979;
Roberts, 1972; Van Schothorst, Huisman, & Van Os, 1978). Similarly,
De Boer and Hahne (1990) showed the ease with which salmonellas
can be transferred from chicken to utensils, a variety of kitchen surfaces,
hands and other foods; from those, Salmonella cells were recovered
from surfaces up to 6 h after contamination. Bradford, Humphrey, and
Lappin-Scott (1997) examined the ability of S. Enteritidis, under sterile
and non-sterile conditions, to be cross-contaminated from inoculated
eggs droplets to melon and beef and grow on these products at ambient
temperature. Consumer awareness of the need to implement Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) is of paramount importance in order to prevent
the spread of Salmonella cells in food preparation areas.
Researchers are increasingly studying the ability of Salmonella to colonize different inert food contact surfaces to form biolm (Bonafonte
et al., 2000; Hood & Zottola, 1997; Joseph, Otta, & Karunasagar, 2001)
and its potential to act as a continuous source of bacterial contamination,
which may cause post-processing contamination. These investigations
give insight in to the mechanisms underlying biolm formation, suggesting different strategies for prevention.
3. Cross-contamination and recontamination routes and sources
Cross-contamination and recontamination events linked to Salmonella
during food processing are reported in literature. Below is a review of
sources and routes of potential cross-contamination and recontamination
episodes by Salmonella spp. linked to different food categories.
3.1. Poultry meat
The association between poultry and Salmonella genus has long
since been recognized. It was not until the 1960s when the poultry industry started to grow thanks to the application of control measures
of pullorum disease and fowl typhoid (Poppe, 2000). Subsequently,
an increasing isolation of non-host specic Salmonella from poultry
products and human cases meant a challenge to identify the origin
of the strain involved in human cases. Currently consumption of poultry products remains as a well documented major source of salmonellosis, being undercooking and cross-contamination appointed as
recognizable risk events (Palmer et al., 2000; Roberts, 1983).
In Canada, Arsenault, Letelier, Quessy, Normand, and Boulianne
(2007) observed that the prevalence of Salmonella-positive ocks is
around 50%. When poultry ocks are infected at farms, Salmonella is
carried asymptomatically in the gastrointestinal tract and can be
readily transferred to carcasses through fecal contamination in the
abattoir. Further spread of cells may occur easily during processing
if carcasses become cross-contaminated. Also, the role of feed ingredients as a source of Salmonella in the poultry industry has received
great attention (Bailey et al., 2001). Feed products may constitute a
risk factor for introducing Salmonella since they are made from a wide
variety of potentially contaminated ingredients (Crump, Grifn, &
Angulo, 2002; Ricke, 2005).
During processing, certain stages including scalding, plucking
(defeathering), evisceration, and chilling of carcasses have been recognized as likely cross-contamination pathways (Hafez, Stadler, & Kosters,
1997; James, Williams, Prucha, Johnston, & Christensen, 1992; Ono &
Yamamoto, 1999). The objective of carcass scalding is to soften feathers
for subsequent defeathering. Once carcasses have begun the scalding
process, great numbers of microbes from skin, feathers and involuntary
defecations, are released to the scald water. Although survival of these
bacteria depends on temperature, even high temperatures used in
hard scalding (5863 C) may have a slight effect on organisms attached to skin. Slavik, Kim, and Walker (1995) observed that Salmonella
was not signicantly reduced after hard scalding. The mechanisms
that might result in cross-contamination during defeathering include
aerosols (Allen, Tinker, Hinton, & Wather, 2003b; Allen et al., 2003a),
direct contact between contaminated and uncontaminated carcasses
(Mulder, Dorresteijn, & Van Der Broek, 1978), and the ngers of the
picker machine (Allen, Hinton, et al., 2003a; Allen, Tinker, Hinton, &
Wather, 2003b; Berrang, Buhr, Cason, & Dickens, 2001; Campbell et
al., 1984; Clouser, Doores, Mast, & Knabel, 1995a; Clouser, Knabel,
Mast, & Doores, 1995b). In this line, Nde, McEvoy, Sherwood, and
Logue (2007) appointed the ngers of the picker machine as well as
scald water as sources of cross-contamination during defeathering. A
better understanding of cross-contamination mechanisms during
processing has been studied by authors through the use of molecular
typing (Bailey, Cox, Craven, & Cosby, 2002; Crespo, Jeffrey, Chin,
Senties-Cue, & Shivaprasad, 2004; De Cesare, Manfreda, Dambauh,
Guerzoni, & Franchini, 2001; Liebana et al., 2002).
In carcass evisceration, a series of automated machines are involved.
This stage can contribute considerably to an increase in Salmonella prevalence (Sarlin et al., 1998). During evisceration, carcasses are sprayed
with water in order to remove organic remains and reduce microbial contamination by about 1 log unit. However, the removal of microorganisms
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pig carcasses are feces, pharynx and stomach, and environmental sources
such as contact surfaces and handling.
During slaughter, not only carcasses of infected pigs, but crosscontamination from the environment and other infected animals may
occur. Botteldoorn et al. (2003) studied the prevalence of Salmonella
in swine at the moment of slaughter and observed that the slaughterhouse environment was highly contaminated. These authors estimated
that cross-contamination accounted for 29% of the positive carcasses.
These results agree with other studies (Berends, Van Knapen, Snijders,
& Mossel, 1997; Borch et al., 1996) that observed that crosscontamination accounted for 30% of the entire pork carcass contamination in slaughterhouses. Continuous environmental infection sources
may maintain Salmonella in slaughterhouses indicating inefcient or
poor hygiene practices (Botteldoorn et al., 2003). In regard to risk factors at slaughter associated with the presence of Salmonella on hog carcasses, Letellier et al. (2009) underlined the importance of the
preslaughter and pre-evisceration environment on the nal contamination status of carcasses. They observed that cleanliness of the hogs and
status of scald water were signicant factors associated with Salmonella
status of the carcasses at the end of the slaughtering process. Genetic
characterization and serology used in this study highlighted that particular attention should be paid to herd contamination levels of incoming
animals and the pre-evisceration environment.
Once slaughtered, the next steps are manufacturing and preparation
and storage at retail. At these levels, three major factors such as
handling, time and temperature may signicantly inuence the microbiological quality of pork meat (Lo Fo Wong et al., 2003). Special care
must be considered in order to avoid cross-contamination between
products, as large quantities of raw meat of different origin may be handled closely together.
Besides swine, cattle are also known reservoirs of Salmonella; ground
beef has been implicated in salmonellosis outbreaks (Centers for Disease
Control, 2006). Despite Salmonella in ground beef has decreased with the
implementation of the HACCP system (Eblen, Barlo, & Naugle, 2006), the
risk of transmitting this pathogen through the food chain cannot be
disregarded, especially in raw, smoked or lightly cooked meat products.
Several investigations have studied the overall occurrence of Salmonella in
beef samples, showing prevalence rates of 1.1% (Little, Richardson, Owen,
De Pinna, & Threlfall, 2008b), 4.2% (Bosilevac, Guerini, Kalchayanand, &
Koohmaraie, 2009) and 6.0% (Gallegos-Robles et al., 2009). In the US, the
Food Safety Inspection Service has suggested that the current prevalence
of ground beef is 2.4%. Since standard culturing techniques (which are the
most popular) may have a lower level of sensitivity than others methods
such as immunomagnetic separation (Barkocy-Gallagher et al., 2003), the
prevalence of this pathogen in ground beef may be underestimated.
Additionally, cross-contamination in the kitchen can contribute
signicantly to salmonellosis incidence. Iordache and Tofan (2008)
demonstrated the ease with which two strains of Salmonella Enteritidis were able to cross-contaminate beef surfaces from inoculated egg
droplets.
The role of cross-contamination in RTE meats should also be regarded.
On a global scale, RTE meat products may act as vehicles for foodborne
pathogens. Some RTE meat products such as biltong (traditional South
African dried and spiced meat made from beef, wild game, or chicken)
or jerky (American dried meat product from domestic and wild animals)
have been involved in salmonellosis outbreaks (Bokkenheuser, 1963;
Centers for Disease Control, 1995; Neser, Louw, Klein, & Sacks, 1957). Previous studies conducted on other RTE products revealed that factors such
as food handlers, aprons, utensils, and work surfaces are potential sites
for bacterial contamination (Christison, Lindsay, & von Holy, 2007,
2008; Lues & Van Tonder, 2007). Naidoo and Lindsay (2010) evaluated
hygiene of surfaces that come into direct contact with an RTE dried
meat product, biltong, and highlighted the importance of such surfaces
as potential sites contributing to cross-contamination of the nal product
at the point of sale. With the aid of molecular DNA sequencing methods
the study demonstrated that bacterial strains isolated from biltong and,
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documented issue for human health (Headrick et al., 1998; LeJeune &
Rajala-Schultz, 2009). However, increasing number of consumers demand raw milk and/or products made from raw milk and other unprocessed products. According to epidemiological data, it is necessary to
consider not only the risk of raw milk consumption, but also the likely
episodes of recontamination and cross-contamination that can take
place at the industry or home kitchens if milk is not pasteurized or
heat-treated. However, pasteurized milk has also been involved in salmonellosis infections and outbreaks, as reported by Olsen et al.
(2004). According to these authors, pasteurization was adequate.
Nevertheless, microbial testing demonstrated that coliform counts
were higher (>100 cfu/mL) than those recommended by Pasteurized
Milk Ordinance (10 cfu/mL). Cross-contamination episodes were not
identied though they should not be ruled out.
Cheese has been characterized as one of the safest food products by
some experts (Johnson, Nelson, & Johnson, 1990); however, since
cheese is considered an RTE food product and does not undergo any further treatment before consumption, contamination episodes should be
considered. Contaminated raw milk as well as cross-contamination
with pathogens such as Salmonella, can be introduced into dairy processing plants and represents a human health risk if unpasteurized milk is
used for cheese production (Kousta, Mataragas, Skandamis, & Drosinos,
2010). Cross-contamination of cheese may be originated from starter
culture, brine, oor, packaging material, cheese vat, cheese cloth, curd
cutting knife, cold room, and production room air (Temelli, Anar, Sen,
& Akyuva, 2006). Domnguez et al. (2009) reported a Salmonella outbreak caused by raw-milk cheese containing low contamination levels
which had not been detected. Despite there are not reported outbreaks
where cheeses cross-contamination is linked to salmonellosis outbreaks,
these data suggests that contamination and cross-contamination of
cheese may occur, and if ignored or underestimated, the risk of salmonellosis could increase.
3.7. Seafood
Seafood is responsible for a signicant amount of foodborne diseases and represents a great concern from a public health perspective.
Salmonella is not a component of the normal ora of sea animals, thus
contamination of seafood is a result of fecal contamination through
polluted water, infected food handlers or cross-contamination during
production or transport (Lunestad & Borlaug, 2009). High prevalence
is frequently attributed to poor hygienic practices during handling
and transportation from landing centers to sh markets. Shrimp is
one of the most reported seafoods associated with salmonellosis
(Wan Norhana et al., 2010). Certain aspects of cooked shrimp production like cooking procedures aboard shing vessels, chilling with seawater, and intensive handling and transportation make them
susceptible to be contaminated.
Data gathered from studies involving Salmonella contamination in
prawns (Hatha, Maqbool, & Kumar, 2003; Heinitz, Ruble, Wagner, &
Tatini, 2000; Reilly & Twiddy, 1992) have suggested the likelihood of
cross-contamination between raw and cooked products. Wan Norhana,
Poole, Deeth, and Dykes (2010) reported various physical control
measures, including cooking, refrigeration, irradiation, modied atmosphere packaging (MAP), high-pressure processing (HPP) and highpressure carbon dioxide.
4. Cross-contamination in food-handling scenarios and retail points
Salmonella can remain viable on food contact surfaces for signicant
periods, increasing the risk of cross-contamination events between food
handlers, food products, and food contact surfaces (De Cesare, Sheldon,
Smith, & Jaykus, 2003; Humphrey, Martin, & Whitehead, 1994). The role
of food workers in foodborne outbreaks have been clearly demonstrated by several authors (Todd, Greig, Bartleson, & Michaels, 2009). Thus,
the transmission and survival of enteric pathogens such as Salmonella
Tennant, and Peters (2001) declared that chicken and chicken packaging is a potential vehicle for the introduction of pathogens in retail
and domestic kitchens and, in particular, for the cross-contamination
of Salmonella and Campylobacter. The study highlighted that food industry and consumers should be concerned about the potential risk of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis from contamination of both the
external and internal packaging surfaces in addition to the chicken
itself. It should also be noted that, once contaminated, bags are frequently assigned to purposes others than carrying groceries, and then,
the risk of cross-contamination increases. The study also revealed that
consumers rarely wash reusable bags, and bacteria were able to grow
when stored in the car trunks. This suggests that it is necessary to make
recommendations targeted at consumers in order to reduce the risk of
cross-contamination by using reusable shopping bags.
Kitchen surfaces also represent a signicant risk of crosscontamination and recontamination events (Redmond & Grifth,
2003). Domestic food contact surfaces appear to play an important
role in the transmission of foodborne agents such as Salmonella spp. Researchers currently debate which surface materials pose the greatest
risk to consumer health in terms of cross-contamination during food
preparation. Accordingly, some studies have underlined the essential
paradox of choosing food contact surfaces, i.e. those characteristics
that make a surface easy to clean may also more likely release foodborne pathogens during common food preparation practices (Moore,
Blair, & McDowell, 2007). For instance, cutting boards are commonly
perceived as signicant fomites in cross-contamination of foodstuffs
with foodborne agents. Wooden cutting boards and utensils have
been banned for a long time in production sites of meat and poultry
foods. Still today, opposition is present in respect to the use of wood instead of plastic during food processing despite the lack of evidence of
the presumed better sanitation properties of plastic utensils (Ak,
Cliver, & Kaspar, 1994; Carpentier, 1997). In contrast, to date, several
publications are in favor of wood, demonstrating that plastic is not empirically better (Boursillon & Riethmller, 2005; Prechter, Betz, Cerny,
Wegener, & Windeisen, 2002;). Nevertheless, it is generally recognized
that bacteria are able to penetrate the pores of wood where they are
then trapped. While plastic cutting boards can be cleaned in a dishwasher (as well as some specially treated wooden boards), this operation may distribute the pathogen onto other food contact surfaces; in
contrast, most small wooden boards can be sterilized in a microwave
oven. Cliver (2006) stated that epidemiological studies seem to show
that cutting board cleaning habits have a slight inuence on the incidence of salmonellosis. Therefore, the use of wooden cutting boards is
still controversial. Even though the choice of plastic might improve safety due to better cleaning properties of plastic cutting boards, they are
not as signicant as often stated.
Klontz et al. (1995) reported that 25% of their respondents reused
cutting boards after cutting raw meat or chicken without proper cleaning procedures. Redmond and Grifth (2003) observed that 81% of consumers used the same utensils and cutting boards for preparation of
both raw and RTE products. Deciencies in food preparation hygiene
such as inadequate cleaning of cutting boards after cutting raw meat
and poultry likely play a signicant role in contamination by pathogens
(De Boer & Hahne, 1990). Cross-contamination and transfer rates of Salmonella enterica from chicken to lettuce under three different foodhandling scenarios were evaluated by Ravishankar et al. (2010). Their
study revealed that Salmonella was easily transferred from cutting
boards and knives to lettuce if utensils were not carefully washed
with soap and hot water after cutting chicken and before cutting lettuce.
Furthermore, this study showed that merely washing contaminated
kitchens utensils was not enough to remove S. enterica. The transfer
rate obtained in the scenario 1 of this study was 45%, where cutting
board and knife were unwashed after cutting the chicken. Similar results were found by Moore, Sheldon, and Jaykus (2003) who found
transfer rates of 3666% for S. Typhimurium from stainless steel surfaces to lettuce. Although signicant amounts of Salmonella cells can
551
552
Nr TR=100 Nd
CFU LET
100%
CFU LET CFU SST
where CFULET is the number of colony forming units found in lettuce and
CFUSST is the number of colony forming units found in stainless steel
coupons.
Other authors (Kusumaningrum et al., 2003) have calculated TR
differently from Moore et al. (2003). As described above by PrezRodrguez et al. (2008), solving for TR in Eq. (1) we get:
% transf er rate Nf =Ns 100%
where Nf = CFU recovered from food; Ns = CFU on surfaces recovered by contact plate.
These authors calculated the TR for S. enteritidis, S. aureus and C. jejuni
from stainless steel surfaces to food (cucumber and chicken llet slices).
S. enteritidis TR data ranged from 10526% to 5018% in cucumber
where Cv is the level of contamination on salads; N is the level of microorganisms on contaminated chicken carcasses (CFU/cm2 carcass); and
TR1 and TR2 are as above.
The authors found that, for Salmonella, the TR1 mean was 1.6%,
while the TR2 mean was 34.8%. As their quantitative analysis was stochastic, the authors selected normal distributions to describe the logtransformed transfer rates from one surface to another.
Chen, Jackson, Chea, and Schaffner (2001) quantied bacterial
cross-contamination rates during common food service tasks; for
this, they used E. aerogenes as surrogate for Salmonella. They calculated TR in an appropriate manner depending on the task evaluated. For
instance, to evaluate cross-contamination from chicken to hand, they
calculated TR as:
Transf er Rate% CFU on the Hand=CFU on the Chicken 100 4
where CFU = colony forming units.
Then, with TR calculated for all replicate experiments of each task,
the authors adjusted probability distributions to TR data, nding others
than normal distribution as best t in accordance to the Kolmogorov
Smirnov test. For example, transfer data from chicken to hand, from cutting board to lettuce and hand washing (reduction rate) obeyed to Beta
distribution; Weibull distribution was more adequate for modeling
transfer from hand to lettuce and from hand to spigot; lastly, Gamma
distribution was the best model for describing the transfer from spigot
to clean hand.
Mller, Nauta, Christensen, Dalgaad, and Hansen (2011) presented a cross contamination model of Salmonella in pork processing
during a small-scale grinding process. After evaluating three models,
the goodness-of-t indices applied (Root Mean sum of Square Errors
and Akaike Information Criterion) as well as two validation factors
(bias and accuracy factors) indicated that the best model was that assuming two environments inside the grinder: in one of them, food matrix is relatively loosely attached and is responsible for the fast transfer
to the minced meat, while in the second matrix the transfer occurs at a
slower rate. Fig. 1 is a graphic representation of the model. In this way,
after passing ve contaminated pork slices (108 cfu/slice) through
the grinder, the subsequent non-contaminated slices were contaminated at a descending rate as they were being grinded, presenting a long
tail region, similar to the thermal inactivation process.
The developed model satisfactorily predicted the observed behavior of Salmonella during its cross-contamination in the grinding of up
to 110 pork slices. The proposed model is an important tool to examine the effect of cross-contamination in quantitative microbial risk assessment investigations and might also be applied to various other
food processes where cross-contamination is involved.
More research is needed in relation to cross-contamination modeling. Identication and measurement of different factors affecting
cross-contamination events are crucial. Different tasks and hygiene
practices during food serving operations should be described in detail
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