The Complete Guide To Nootropics

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Note: The information provided in this guide was thoroughly researched and referenced. That being said,
we are NOT doctors and you should not take any of this advice or anything we say in the ebook as medical
advice. It is best to consult with your physician prior to taking any supplement.
Copyright 2014 SupplementCritique.com
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I. Introduction to Nootropics
A. What are nootropics?
B. Giurgea's criteria
C. Skondia's criteria
D.Who takes nootropics?
II.
Types of Nootropics
A. The -racetam family
B. Eugeroic stimulants
C. Vitamins and supplements
D.Choline derivatives
III.
Benefits of Nootropics
A. The -racetam and -racetam derived compounds

i. Piracetam
a) Effects on senile dementia AD patients
b) Results in sufferers of chronic schizophrenia
c) Recovering from aphasic stroke
d) Treatment of alcohol organic mental disorder
e) Enhancement of normal mental functioning
ii. Aniracetam
a) Effects on senile dementia AD patients
b) Cognitive improvement in healthy volunteers
iii.
Phenylpiracetam
iv.
Levetiracetam
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v. Pramiracetam
vi.
Noopept
B. Cholinergics
i. Choline
a) Choline deficiency
b) Benefits of choline
ii. Huperzine A
C. Vitamins and Supplements
i. B-Complex Vitamins
a) Vitamin B deficiency
b) Using B vitamins
ii. Bacopa (Brahmi)
a) Results for older healthy volunteers
b) Brahmi's anxiolytic effects
iii.
IV.
Supplements Worth Nothing (not nootropics)
How Nootropics are Thought to Work

A. Glutamate receptors
B. Cholinergic receptors
C. Summary
D.Brief discussion of aniracetam
V. Nootropics Compared to Prescription Medications

A. -Racetams vs. Anti-depressants (MAOIs, SSRIs)
B. Aniracetam vs. Benzodiazepines (alprazolam, diazepam, lorazepam,
clonazepam)
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C. Modafinil vs. Amphetamine Salts

VI.
Stacking Nootropics
A. Caffeine + L-Theanine
B. -Racetam + Choline Source
C. Piracetam + Vasodilator Drug (in this case, cinnarizine)
D.-Racetams (and/or Modafinil) + Essential Vitamins
E. Choline Source + Huperzine A
VII.
Common Questions About Nootropics
VIII.
How to Choose the Right Nootropic
My Top Choice For Nootropic Supplements

I have personally tested dozens of nootropic
supplements, and I think that Mind Boost is the
most effective in terms of results. It takes a few
days to kick in, but when it does the effect is
huge.
Check Out My Official Mind Boost Review Here
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Chapter I: Introduction to Nootropics

Living in the age of electronically distributed mass media definitely has both its
perks and its downfalls. An obvious perk is that we are constantly deluged in
easily accessible information about a wide variety of topics. On the other hand,
this is also one of the chief downfalls, as it all too often results in a persistent,
widespread sense of information overload. However, there is hope! Thanks to the
Internet, the public has become more aware of the existence and benefits of a
possible remedy to some of these informational ills of modern life: nootropics.
What are nootropics?

Also known as smart drugs, these substances are claimed to improve attention,
motivation, intelligence, memory, and mood. Equally importantly, these
substances are reportedly very safe. Within the community of nootropics
researchers and enthusiasts, there is considerable debate over just which drugs,
supplements, and nutraceuticals fall into this coveted category.
Remember the drugs depicted in the 2011 thriller Limitless? The main character
Eddie is given a mysterious nootropic drug. In some ways, the comparison is fair;
after all, nootropics have been shown to enhance attention, concentration,
memory, and more Eddie experienced quite a bit of financial success as a result
of this in the film. At the same time, the mental and physical effects the main
character undergoes are over-exaggerated if the directors has piracetam or
aniracetam in mind. It's not likely that the average individual taking a nootropic
will find him- or herself suddenly involved in disturbing situation after the next.
Take note: going off the deep end is not a common consequence of taking
nootropics as far as the information shows (and we encourage you to check out
the studies referenced for yourself).
The term nootropic was coined by the Romanian chemist and psychologist Dr.
Corneliu Giurgea in 1972 to describe the effects of piracetam, a compound that
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he discovered in 1964 while working for the Belgian pharmaceutical company

UCB. The term itself means mind-turning due to the observed positive effects of
piracetam and related compounds on the brain and on mental function in both
non-human animals and humans. Piracetam is, thus, the prototypical nootropic
compound.
In addition to having discovered and developed piracetam, Dr. Giurgea is among
those responsible for the dissemination of information on it. In turn, this has led
to the research, discovery, and popularization of many other racetams and other
kinds of nootropics. In order to clarify research on and discussion of the racetam
compounds, Dr. Giurgea came up with a set of criteria that any given substance
must meet in order for it to be classified as a nootropic.
Giurgea's Nootropic Criteria

According to Giurgea, a nootropic substance:
1. should enhance memory and learning
2. should enhance resistance of learned behaviors/memories to conditions
which tend to disrupt them (e.g. electroconvulsive shock, hypoxia)
3. should protect the brain against various physical/chemical injuries (e.g.
barbiturates, scopolamine)
4. should increase the efficacy of tonic cortical/subcortical control mechanisms
5. should lack the usual pharmacology of other psychotropic drugs (e.g.
sedation, motor stimulation), and possess very few side effects and
extremely low toxicity (Giurgea C., 1972, p. 108).
The issue of what qualifies as a nootropic, however, wasnt so simply settled. As is
usually the case in science, once the field was established other learned
commentators weighed in with their own observations and proposals. In addition
to Giurgea's efforts to sum up his thoughts on the matter, the pharmacologist V.
Skondia was responsible for coming up with an even more detailed set of criteria,
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which he published in 1979. Skondia chose to look in more detail at the metabolic
effects of these compounds.
Skondia's Criteria
According to Skondia's criteria for nootropics, a nootropic should display:
1.
2.
3.
4.
No direct vasoactivity
(a)
No vasodilation
(b)
No vasoconstriction
No change in basic EEG rhythm

(a)
Quantitative EEG: increased power spectrum (beta 2 and alpha)
(b)
Qualitative EEG: decreased delta waves and cerebral suffering
Must pass blood-brain barrier

(a)
Under normal conditions
(b)
Under pathological conditions
Must show metabolic activity in:

(a)
Animal brain metabolism

i. Molecular
ii.
(b)
Physiopathological
Human brain metabolism

i. A-V differences
ii.
A.
Increased extraction quotients of O2
B.
Increased extraction quotients of glucose
C.
Reduced lactate pyruvate ratio
Regional cerebral metabolic rates (rCMR)
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iii.
A.
Increased ICMR of O2
B.
Increased rCMR of glucose
Regional cerebral blood flow: normalization
5.
Minimal side effects
6.
Clinical trials must be conducted with several rating scales designed to
objectify metabolic cerebral improvement. (Skondia V., 1979)

As you can readily see, Skondia's requirements are more extensive and go much
more in-depth than Giurgea's. One point that was agreed upon by both
researchers was that nootropics should have a well-established safety profile and
display little to no toxicity. Putting this information together, we can see that
some of the essential aspects of the definition of a nootropic are: that (a) a given
chemical is (b) a drug with (c) little to no side effects that (d) enhances cognition.
It is apt that nootropics are often referred to in the media as smart drugs. They
are smart drugs not only in the sense of enhancing various aspects of
intellectual performance (a la, for example, stimulant medications such as the
amphetamines, which are commonly used in the treatment of ADD/ADHD), they
are also smart drugs in the sense of being healthy choices for the enhancement
of intellectual performance (quite unlike the amphetamines).
Who takes nootropics?

Not only do nootropics help the elderly and those suffering from brain trauma, but
they also provide beneficial results to the young and healthy. Nootropics
enthusiasts love to use them for studying and learning. Russian cosmonauts use
them to sharpen their physical and mental skills in space (Malykh & Sadaie, 2010,
p. 290).
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Chapter II: Types of Nootropics

The -racetam Family (piracetam, aniracetam, nefiracetam, levetiracetam,
pramiracetam, oxiracetam, phenylpiracetam, and noopept)
As was mentioned above, piracetam (trade name Nootropil, among others) was
the first nootropic, in that its discovery led to the term being coined in the first
place (Giurgea 1972). Since piracetam was discovered, various modifications of
its chemical structure have yielded numerous other racetams; among other
distinguishing features, these have the advantage over piracetam of being more
potent by weightpiracetam doses often go into the tens of grams.
The Russian-developed (and approved) nootropic Noopept (itself a trade name; in
chemical nomenclature, Noopept is referred to as GVS-111), for example, is
active in doses of 10-20 milligrams orally. Quite an improvement! These
compounds have found a variety of medical uses in different countries. In Europe,
for instance, piracetam has a long history of use as a cognition-enhancing agent
in the treatment of impaired intellectual function due to a variety of causes.
The only -racetam that is approved for medical use in the United States is
levetiracetam (trade name Keppra), which is an anticonvulsant used in the control
of epileptic seizures. In contrast to the majority of other -racetams, levetiracetam
has some serious safety issues (Malykh & Sadaie 2010).
Eugeroic Stimulants (modafinil, adrafinil, and armodafinil)
In contrast to traditional/conventional stimulant medications such as Adderall
(mixed amphetamine salts), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine) and Ritalin
(methylphenidate, a compound structurally related to amphetamine), eugeroic
(from Greek roots for good arousal) agents such as modafinil (trade name
Provigil) do not tend to produce significant elevations in heart rate or blood
pressure, do not tend to produce euphoria, and do not seem to display a high
abuse liability.
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It is extremely unlikely that people will end up on street corners selling their
parents TVs for their next hit of modafinil. Adrafinil (trade name Olmifon) is the
parent compound of the group, and was discovered/developed in France in the
1970s. It is somewhat less potent than its derivatives, and also has unfortunate
liver side-effects in some users that appear to have been eliminated in its
successors. These are fascinating compounds, but an in-depth discussion of them
is, unfortunately, not within the scope of this book.
Vitamins and Supplements (B and D vitamins and Omega-3 fatty acids)
While a great deal of quackery abounds in the alternative health field, there is
solid evidence for the beneficial psychological effects (in terms of mood,
motivation, alertness, and etc.) of some vitamins and supplements. Vitamins,
minerals and other nutrients are often overlooked as possible pathways to
personal enhancement, but the debilitating effects of bad diet should not be
underestimated. On the other hand, some people seem to assume that because
many supplements are all natural, the substances contained in these
supplements are not harmful. This line of thinking is both erroneous and
extremely dangerous. Some of these supplements, including members of the B
vitamin family as well as vitamin D, can cause physiological toxicity (including but
not limited to neurotoxicity).
If you are a regular consumer of fish or of extracted fish oil as a source of
Omega-3 fatty acids, it is important that you verify that the material you are
consuming is not contaminated with mercury. Due to the detrimental effects on
cognitive functioning that result from mercury poisoning, it would be accurate to
think of mercury as an anti-nootropic.
Cholinergics (Lecithin, Choline, DMAE, Alpha-GPC, CDP-Choline,
Galantamine, Donepezil, and Huperzine-A)
Cholinergic substances can be defined in multiple ways. In one sense, a
cholinergic is a precursor to acetylcholine, one of the most important
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neurotransmitters for, among other things, memory function. Choline, AlphaGPC, and CDP choline (also known as citicoline) are cholinergics in this sense.
Lecithin is not technically a cholinergic precursor itself, but instead contains
phosphatidylcholine, a cholinergic precursor. DMAEs role as a choline precursor is
debatable, and is consequently debated.
In a second sense, a cholinergic is a substance which affects acetylcholine
receptors in a similar manner to acetylcholine itself. (Acetylcholine is an agonist
at its receptors, which means that it activates them.) While DMAEs mode of
action remains unclear, it may well be that DMAE is a cholinergic agonist in its
own right. As an aside, nicotine is itself a cholinergic agonist, and, specifically,
agonizes nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Nicotine displays various cognition
enhancing effects, but because of its detrimental effects on cardiovascular
function, its dependence potential and its relatively low margin of safety, nicotine
cannot be considered a nootropic.
In a third sense, a cholinergic is a substance that inhibits acetylcholinesterase,
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine. Galantamine, huperzine A and
donepezil are all examples of cholinergics in this sense, and there is some reason
to think that DMAE may be a cholinergic in this sense as well. Incidentally, some
of the more potent members of this last class of cholinergics have seen battlefield
use as chemical warfare agents!

huge.
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Chapter III: The Benefits of Nootropics for

Users
The body of evidence for the benefits of using nootropics is rather substantial
there have been a wide variety of scientific studies conducted on multiple
continents over the past half century. There are numerous animal studies that
have established how nootropics positively affect the functioning of rats, guinea
pigs, and monkeys. What you're likely more to be interested in, however, are the
studies that employ humans as test subjects. Fortunately, there are a significant
number of these as well.
-racetams:
Piracetam
Piracetam, the prototype, is one of the most commonly studied of all the
nootropics. Structurally, piracetam is related to the inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA, though it has no appreciable affinity for GABA receptors. Originally
approved for use in humans in Europe during the 1970s, piracetam has been used
in the treatment of conditions such as vertigo and age-related disorders, among
others. The adverse effects of piracetam are mild and short-lasting and consist
mainly of anxiety, drowsiness, insomnia, and agitation (Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p.
94). As is the case with all supplements that fit Dr. Corneliu E. Giurgea's criteria
for being nootropics, piracetam has few side effects and a very low toxicity
(Giurgea C., 1972, p.108).
Effects on senile dementia AD patients
Piracetam appears to have an overall positive effect on patients in patients with
senile dementia. Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, compared to those elderly
who do not have it, frequently display a lower hydrocarbon core fluidity. In vitro
administration of piracetam brought the AD patients' aforementioned fluidity up
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to the same level as the non-demented elderly. On top of that, it enhanced the
fluidity of the latter groups' hydrocarbon core.
For both groups, piracetam was shown to decrease age-related alterations of
membrane fluidity (this result has also been demonstrated in animals). This could
result in increased energy metabolism, as well as enhanced signal transduction
disruptions of each of which are common problems among AD patients (Eckert et
al., 1999, pp. 757-758).
This single study on piracetam is reflective of 19 different double-blind studies
done on the effectiveness of the drug in age-related cognitive impairment. In an
analysis of this research, individuals treated with piracetam showed a 60.9%
improvement vs. a 32.5% improvement for those treated with placebo (Malykh &
Sadaie, 2010, p. 294).
Results in sufferers of chronic schizophrenia
A 1979 controlled double-blind crossover study set out to establish whether or not
piracetam could improve processes of transmission between the left and right
hemispheres of the brains in chronic schizophrenics. Traditionally,
interhemispheric transmission is exceptionally difficult for these individuals.
The Facts
The patients selected for this research were all inpatients, ranging from
ages 38 to 63 years old.
Of the patients, 13 were male and 11 were female.
The subjects of this study were those who had achieved few positive results
with conventional medication or social rehabilitation.
Two 800 mg doses of piracetam were given three times daily for a total of
4.8 g daily.
The placebo, which looked identical to the piracetam, was given just as
often to the other half of the test subjects (the control group).
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Testing in this study consisted of four separate sessions:

pre-trial (baseline, the day before the piracetam or placebo was
taken)
during the first four week period
during 2-week cross-over gap (the break period)
during the last four week period (when the placebo and piracetam
group had switched)
Disappointingly, in this study piracetam did not appear to facilitate the transfer
condition; on the positive side, however, the researchers found that the drug did
reduce the amount of incorrect responses in tasks that measured the
intrahemispheric (that is, between hemispheres) process of transmission. This is
not to say that piracetam increased the number of correct answers from the
subjects, but rather that they responded less over time. Piracetam was also
shown to be more effective than placebo in facilitating the performance of specific
tasks that resulted in a heavier mental workload.
The study brought up the question of whether piracetam could be especially
effective at higher levels of cognitive function. The mental improvement in certain
areas helped to highlight similarities between patients of chronic schizophrenia
and senile dementia (Dimond et al., 1979, pp. 342-343).
Recovering from aphasic stroke
Piracetam was chosen for a double-blind placebo-controlled study of stroke
patients with aphasia. Aphasics are usually deficient in memory, alertness,
peripheral vasculature, and microcirculation in the central nervous system (CNS).
Because piracetam has been shown to help reduce these symptoms in patients
with other conditions, researchers gave 4.8 g daily doses of it to 24 aphasic
patients. Twenty-six patients were given placebo.
The Facts
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There were a total of 50 experimental subjects, all of whom were patients

who had been experiencing aphasia for periods ranging between four weeks
and 36 months.
In both the placebo and piracetam groups, the type and severity of
symptoms were similar.
No patients suffering from mild aphasia were included in this study; further,
all of the included patients had been healthy prior to experiencing ischemic
stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, or brain trauma/surgery.
In addition to treatment with piracetam or placebo, the subjects underwent

intensive language therapy in the form of ten 60 minute sessions, half of
which were conducted individually and the other half of which were
conducted in a group setting.
Piracetam had a significant positive effect on the Written Language subtest.
On the Communicative Ability scale, the piracetam group's scores in

spontaneous speech improved.
Furthermore, there were no adverse effects reported in the piracetam

group.
While the above results are interesting, this was only one trial and can hardly be
considered definitive. However, this was not the only study performed on the
subject. Another study confirmed piracetam's ability to facilitate improvement of
written language skills, as well as a reduction of the overall severity of the
subject's aphasia (measured by the Token Test) (Poeck K).
Treatment of alcohol organic mental disorder
In 1990, a group of Austrian researchers decided to test piracetam for possible
therapeutic utility in the treatment of alcohol organic mental disorder. The best
known example of an alcoholic organic mental disorder is Wernicke-Korsakoffs
syndrome, but alcohol can negatively affect cognitive ability in multiple ways.
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Deficient cognitive functioning subsequent to alcohol abuse is a serious public

health problem.
Published in Psychopharmacology with C. Barnas listed as the lead author, the
resulting paper was titled High versus low-dose piracetam in alcoholic organic
mental disorder: a placebo controlled study. Barnas and his co-authors compared
the effectiveness of the daily administration for six weeks of placebo, 6 grams of
piracetam, or 24 grams of piracetam in alleviating alcohol-induced cognitive
deficits.
The Facts
There were a total of 60 (52 male, 8 female) experimental subjects, all of
whom were DSM III-R confirmed alcoholics who had cognitive impairment
that was verified on day 0 by psychological tests. Subjects were again
evaluated for cognitive impairment on days 7, 14, 28, and 42.
Subjects mean duration of alcohol consumption was 17.5 years.
The study was conducted in double-blind fashion, with subjects randomly
assigned to the three groups.
Psychological tests administered to assess cognition included a test to
measure attention and concentration over a period of 4.5 minutes (the d-2
test), a test to do the same over a period of 15 minutes (the Pauli test), a
test to measure short-term memory (the Syndrom Kurz Test, or SKT), and a
vocabulary test to correct the SKT score (the Verbal Comprehension Test).
D-2 test results for all groups improved after 14 days relative to baseline
(day 0), which were below normal. The Pauli test results were below normal
on day 0, but group 3 (the high dose group) experienced significant
improvement by day 14, whereas similar improvement was not observed in
the other two groups until day 28.
SKT testing on day 0 showed more severe cognitive impairment in group 3
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than in the placebo group at baseline. By the measures of the SKT, group
one (the placebo group) improved 5%, while groups 2 and 3 only improved
by 1%.
The SKT power factor of group 3 showed what the authors referred to as
significant amelioration after 42 days, while the SKT power factor for
groups 1 and 2 had barely changed. Using d-2 test results as matching
variables, it was found that the SKT scores for group 3 were the only ones
that displayed significant amelioration of the pre-existing deficit.
The SKT speed factor improved by 5% for group 1, and by 1% for groups 2
and 3.
Based on the degree of improvement seen in all of the experimental groups,
the authors noted that organic mental disorder appears to display a marked
tendency towards spontaneous remission over short periods of time.
The SKT results displayed improvement for all groups in speed, but only the
high-dose piracetam group showed a significant increase in power-related
variables.
This fact lead the authors to wonder if therapeutic use of high dose piracetam
could result in better insight and a higher motivation for alcohol abstinence.
Twenty-three years later, this question has still not been properly addressed.
According to the SKT results, duration of alcohol use influenced the degree of
improvement (as evaluated by power factor), while the quantity of alcohol
consumed in the three months prior to the trial showed no relevance. The authors
concluded that chronic, long-term ingestions of CNS-toxic substances implicates
a worse prognosis than a subchronic intoxication with high doses.
Enhancement of normal mental functioning
In 1976, two researchers at University College in Cardiff, Wales performed a small
study on the effects of piracetam in normal subjects. The results of this study
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were summarized in the seminal (and tantalizingly titled) paper Increase in the
Power of Human Memory in Normal Man through the Use of Drugs. As shown
below, the results were promising.
The Facts
There were 16 subjects (12 male, 4 female), all healthy 2nd or 3rd year
students in the Psychology Course.
The study was double-blind. Placebo capsules were of the same appearance
as those containing the active drug.
Subjects were tasked with learning series of words presented as stimuli on

a memory drum.
No effects were observed after 7 days, but verbal learning had increased
after 14 days.
Three tests were administered: a pre-test before drug administration

began, a test one week after drug administration was initiated, and a test
two weeks after drug administratration was initiated.
The initial procedure included: a verbal memory task, a dichotic listening

task, a pursuit rotor task, an intermanual transfer task, and a level of
handedness performance evaluation measured by the Handedness
Questionnaire, with the subjects age and sex taken into account.
After the completion of the initial procedure, subjects were then matched
with the closest scoring other subject. One of each pair was given
piracetam, while the other was given placebo. Because the study was
double-blind, neither the researchers nor the subjects knew which subject
in each pair was receiving the active drug.
The authors found clear evidence for enhancement in verbal learning due to
piracetam administration, but the evidence was less positive for
enhancement on the pursuit rotor non-verbal learning test.
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In this study, piracetam was found to act specifically and selectively, which
led the authors to ponder whether human brain power can be selectively
increased (Dimond & Brouwers, 1976).
We could literally go on for days discussing the extensive scientific data collected
from piracetam trials, but then we'd miss out on all the other great nootropics out
there. Piracetam, being the supplement responsible for the term nootropic itself,
has been researched extensively; however, it is not the only substance of its type
that enhances memory, attention, and learning. Let's get right to the point, and
discuss the potential of other nootropics.
Aniracetam
Aniracetam, just like its sister compound piracetam, shows itself to be effective
in selective and specific areas. Although aniracetam has fallen out of favor in
clinical studies in the US, perhaps due to its short half-life, scientists have been
looking into developing new compounds based on its structure. In three different
animal studies, researchers found aniracetam to have anxiolytic properties.
Effects on senile dementia of AD patients
A double-blind multi-center study was conducted throughout western Europe to
establish whether aniracetam would prove beneficial to people aged 68 to 80
who displayed mild to moderate cognitive impairment and fulfilled the criteria for
likely having senile dementia of Alzheimer's type (also called probable SDAT).
The Facts
This study gave one group of patients 1500 mg of aniracetam, another

group 2400 mg of piracetam, and the last group placebo.
Each group took their doses daily for a six month period of time.
Throughout the trial, the placebo group's mental health continued to

deteriorate.
The aniracetam group experienced few side effects, and the ones that
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were present were so mild and transitory that no subject had to cease
treatment as a result.
Aniracetam proved to be even more effective than piracetam in this trial,

as established by a battery of psycho-behavioral tests (Lee & Benfield,
1994, pp. 96-97).
In other words, for patients who likely have senile dementia of Alzheimer's type,
aniracetam could prove to be a useful adjuvant therapy (as in, therapy that
strengthens your primary form of therapy or medication that works with your
primary form of medication to give the most effective results).
Cognitive improvement in healthy volunteers
In a study aimed at healthy volunteers, single oral doses of 500-2000 mg of
aniracetam were given to subjects experiencing hypoxic hypoxidosis. The
aniracetam was able to reduce the electroencephalogram changes (EEC) that
resulted from the induced hypoxidosis. In fact, in this trial, 1000 mg of
aniracetam was found to be more active than 2000 mg of piracetam. A similar
study was performed using 1500 mg of aniracetam on young, healthy
volunteers. This 1500 mg was given after the subjects were exposed to
scopolamine. Aniracetam reduced these individuals' cognitive impairment from
scopolamine, and this dose was more active than 2400 mg of piracetam (Senin et
al., pp.96-97).
Phenylpiracetam
Phenylpiracetam, marketed under the brand name Phenotropil, is a nootropic
developed in Russia. It has been approved there for correcting cerebrovascular
deficiency, focusing attention, ameliorating apathy, and slowing memory decline
since 2003. Cosmonauts are even prescribe phenylpiracetam to sharpen both
their physical and mental abilities while they're in space (Malykh & Sadaie, 2010,
p. 290). As you can see, Russia has been giving this nootropic to people with jobs
that require astute mental focus and high intelligence.
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Improving mood and cognition after brain trauma

Phenylpiracetam is especially worth noting because it is fast-acting and absorbs
well orally. For individuals with cognitive impairment and/or depression following
encephalopathy and brain injuries (acute lesions, gliomas surgery, and brain
traumas), phenylpiracetam improved cognition scores for every group.
Phenylpiracetam did even better than piracetam because it worked much more
quickly to ameliorate the impairment, as well as ridding the patients of
headaches. Scores of those given phenylpiracetam improved in all cognition
tests.
Levetiracetam
Levetiracetam, trade name Keppra, is a nootropic that has been approved for
use in the United Status since 1999. It is the only -racetam that is registered as a
medication there.(290) It is used as an adjunctive (additional) therapy for those
four years and older who experience partial onset seizures. In a controlled study
of patients with refractory partial seizures, levetiracetam improved memory and
cognition. In an open-label study, levetiracetam helped with language
dysfunction present in children who suffered from benign sporadic seizures
(Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 299).
Pramiracetam
Pramiracetam has been shown to improve cognitive deficits that are usually
associated with or result from brain trauma (Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 288).
When compared to placebo, Italian researchers found that pramiracetam was
50% more effective than placebo in reducing amnesia-related effects caused by
scopolamine intoxication (at hours 1 and 3 following injection). In addition,
pramiracetam is even more potent than piracetam and Ukrainian studies found it
better at restoring memory loss in patients suffering from mild craniocerebral
trauma (298-299).
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Noopept
Noopept is a -racetam derivative that is 1000 times more potent than piracetam
and is prescribed to patients in Russia. Animal studies have shown this nootropic
to be easily absorbed, neuroprotective, and memory enhancing. Moreover,
noopept penetrates the blood-brain barrier efficiently. Noopept's animal studies
look promising, similar to piracetam's animal studies before it was tested
extensively in humans.
Cholinergics:
Choline
Choline and its derivatives are not vitamins per se, but in 1998 the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) recognized them as essential nutrients. The reasoning underlying
this decision was that choline is necessary in a variety of ways for the
maintenance of human health. According to Oregon State University's Linus
Pauling Institute, choline is: used in the synthesis of structural components
needed to maintain cell membrane integrity, a precursor to the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (which is involved in muscle control and memory), and able to keep
both fat and cholesterol from collecting in the liver.
Choline deficiency
The Linus Pauling Institute also warns individuals to make sure they are not
deficient in choline. Among other problems it can cause, choline deficiency can
lead to a condition called fatty liver. In a study of 57 individuals given a choline
deficient diet, 80% of the postmenopausal women, 44% of the premenopausal
women, and 77% of the men had liver damage, fatty liver, or muscle damage of
some sort. Estrogen levels in the premenopausal women may be responsible for
their resistance since estrogen endogenously induces choline synthesis through a
couple of different enzymes. Adding choline to the subjects' diets fixed the
problem rather quickly.
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Benefits of choline
Jane Higdon, PhD. at the Linus Pauling Institute, has wondered whether choline
can be used in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer in humans
since it has shown promise in this capacity in rats. Another tantalizing line of
speculation is based on the fact that higher intake of choline on a daily basis by
young rats has been shown to lessen later memory deficits due to age. Scientists
are currently looking into whether choline or related substances could prove
useful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
Huperzine A
Huperzia serrata, a plant which contains the alkaloid Huperzine A, is another
medicament that, for whatever reason(s), all too often gets swept under the rug
and is not given nearly enough of the attention it deserves. WebMd has a great
section on Huperzine A's uses in the treatment of age-related memory problems
and Alzheimer's disease. This supplement shows promise in improving memory,
learning, and energy levels.
As we discussed in the introductory section on cholinergics, huperzine A belongs
to a group of cholinergics known as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs). By
inhibiting the activity of the enzyme responsible for metabolizing acetylcholine
(acetylcholinesterase), AChEIs increase both the amount of acetylcholine present
in the synaptic cleft and its duration of action. Huperzine A also has other
neuropharmacological effects; for instance, it is an NMDA antagonist like the
prescription drugs memantine and ketamine.
Vitamins and Supplements:

B-Complex Vitamins
It's especially important to consider supplementation with B-complex vitamins
because many of us don't get nearly enough of them in our diets. The highest
amounts of B vitamins are found in whole unprocessed foods, which can often
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prove difficult to find in local grocery stores. Pay special attention to your diet to
make sure you're regularly getting enough B vitamins. B vitamins include: B1,
B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12.
Vitamin B deficiency
A dietary deficiency in the consumption of any one of the B vitamins will result in
negative consequences; for example, a severe, persistent thiamine (B1) deficiency
can cause limb pain, irregular heartbeat, edema, and even death. In addition,
thiamine deficiency can result in various sorts of neurological dysfunctions that
affect memory, coordination, and vision. Smokers, alcoholics, coffee drinkers, and
people who eat large amounts of certain kinds of fish (among others) are all at
risk for the development of thiamine deficiency.
As another example, folic acid (B9) deficiency is worrisome in pregnant women
because it can result in birth defects for their children. In addition, folic acid
deficiency can also result in a number of other disorders, including impaired
mental functioning. Some studies suggest that folic acid supplementation may be
effective in reducing symptoms of depression, and this in turn suggests that low
folic acid intake may be a contributing factor to depression.
Unfortunately, space limitations prevent us from going into every one of the
possible adverse effects of each and every member of the B vitamin complex. It is
our hope that the two examples given were sufficient to illustrate the importance
of these vitamins in regulating both physiological and psychological health. We
also hope that the all too brief discussion here will inspire you to do further
research of your own, not just in relation to the B vitamins, but to many or most
desirably all of the integral components of a healthy diet.
Using B vitamins
Because the B-complex represents an entire group of vitamins, there are quite a
few purposes for which one may find it suitable to supplement with individual
members of it, either alone or in combination. Pyridoxine (B6), for instance,
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plays an important role in the metabolism of various amino acids. For instance, it
is crucial in the creation of histamine, serotonin, and dopamine from their amino
acid precursors. Pyridoxine supplementation relieves depression, memory
problems and peripheral neuropathies that have been caused by dietary
deficiencies. It has also been shown to reduce women's chance of developing
macular degeneration, and is being examined for possible utility in ameliorating
PMS symptoms in premenopausal women (Ehrlich 2011).
It should be noted that some anti-depressants like the irreversible monoamine
oxidase inhibitors (or MAOIs) reduce pyridoxine levels. Recreational abusers of
nitrous oxide and medical professionals who are frequently exposed to it are also
both at risk for the development of pyridoxine deficiency, as are tobacco smokers
and alcoholics. Adequate intake of pyridoxine at therapeutic levels is vital for all
of these groups.
Biotin (B7) is another vitamin that plays a significant role in metabolism,
particularly in relation to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Biotin is necessary
for the production of glucose and amino acids. Biotin deficiency is relatively
uncommon in the modern world, but if you regularly eat large quantities of egg
whites, you may be at risk of it due to the presence in egg whites of a protein
called avidin.
Biotin deficiency can lead to worrisome problems such as: vomiting, anorexia,
dermatitis and neurological symptoms including lethargy, hallucinations and
peripheral neuropathy. Good dietary sources of biotin include: liver, egg yolks,
kidney, and nuts. If for whatever reason you don't have access to these food
items, try cereal or biotin supplements (Schnepp 2002).
While we dont have space to go into much more detail in this section, one B
vitamin that is especially relevant to mention in relation to nootropics is
pantothenic acid (B5). Among other of its myriad biological functions,
pantothenic acid is a co-factor in the conversion of choline to acetylcholine.
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Supplementation with lecithin, choline, alpha-GPC, CDP choline, and possibly

DMAE should be enhanced by concurrent supplementation with pantothenic
acid.
Finally, a notable B vitamin analogue with apparent nootropic properties is known
as sulbutiamine (trade name Arcalon, among others). Sulbutiamine is related to
thiamine (B1), but has a greater ability to cross the blood-brain barrier than its
parent compound. Sulbutiamine has shown promise in the treatment of asthenia
as well as the treatment of memory impairment, and we anxiously await the
results of future trials evaluating its effectiveness in treating cognitive and other
forms of mental dysfunction in both active and abstinent alcoholics.
Bacopa (Brahmi)
Bacopa monierri, also known as Brahmi, is a plant native to India that has been
traditionally used in Ayurvedic medicine for a whole host of problems, but
especially those of anxiety and intellect. In rat studies, Brahmi improved
memory retention and reduced amnesia caused by electroconvulsive shock,
scopolamine intoxication, and/or immobilization (Roodenrys et al., 2002, p. 279).
Results for older healthy volunteers
Bacopa's effect on humans was put to the test in a double-blind, randomized
study with a placebo control group. All of the volunteers were healthy and
between the ages 40 and 65.
The Facts
Each group was given a capsule (whether Bacopa or placebo) of either 300
mg if the individual weighed less than 90 kg or 450 mg if he or she weighed
more than 90 kg.
Seventy-six subjects completed the trial four from each group left, only
one of whom left due to gastrointestinal difficulties with Bacopa.
Three tests (lasting approximately an hour) were given to each patient,
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including:
baseline (first) test (before medication is administered)
six to eight weeks into the trial to check-in (no test)
second test approximately three months later, then patient ceases taking
capsules
post-trial (third) test approximately six weeks later
A testing session consists of completing various tasks that measure a

multitude of memory-related abilities, as well as psychological state
(Roodenrys et al., 2002, p. 280).
Now, in this particular study, Brahmi did not have a significant effect on subjects'
short term memory. It did, however, improve their scores on recalling unrelated
word pairs. It is possible that the Bacopa slowed down memory loss (Roodenrys
et al., 2002, p. 281).
Brahmi's anxiolytic effects
Another double-blind, placebo-controlled study found that B. monniera extract
improved processing speed of visual information in healthy volunteers (Stough et
al., 2001, p. 481). Test scores showed significant improvement in the Bacopa
group for learning rate and memory consolidation, along with a decrease in
overall state of anxiety and rate of forgetting when compared to the placebo
group. Researchers are positing that Brahmi's demonstrated modulation of brain
serotonin levels in animals may be related to its anxiolytic effect in humans
(Stough et al., 2001, p. 483). More in-depth research on humans is necessary to
determine whether this is the case for us as well.
Supplements Worth Noting (not nootropics):

Yerba Mate
Yerba Mate is both a plant (Ilex paraguariensis) and a traditional South American
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drink prepared from that plant that is typically served out of a gourd. The dried
leaves are mixed with hot, but not boiling, water. The result is a tea-like beverage
that contains three xanthine alkaloids. These are: caffeine, theobromine, and
theophylline. Yerba Mate is highest in caffeine, as are its extracts. In the United
States, Mate is also made using tea bags.
In the Journal of Food Sciences November 2007 issue, there was an article by
two researchers (Heck and Mejia) from the University of Illinois on the research to
date about Mate. Yerba Mate Tea (Ilex paraguariensis): a comprehensive review
on chemistry, health implications, and technological considerations came to a
few conclusions about Mate's efficacy. Lets look at those now.
In the review, the authors discuss (among other benefits) Mate's abilities to
protect the liver from damage, lower cholesterol levels, and reduce cardiovascular
problems. Primarily due to the presence of the aforementioned xanthine alkaloids
(particularly caffeine), Mate consumption results in central nervous system
stimulation; this means that Mate has potential in combating obesity as well as
in facilitating general performance enhancement. Due in part to its caffeine and
theobromine content, Mate also displays powerful antioxidant properties.
However, its not all good news. There are also some grounds for concern in
relation to regular use of Mate. Caffeine and theobromine have both been
reported to act as pro-oxidants in certain conditions. Beyond this, there is
evidence that long-term antioxidant supplementation may lead to serious health
complications. Finally, there is a positive correlation between Mate use and the
development of some kinds of cancer.
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Chapter IV: How Nootropics are Thought to

Work
In this section, we will be going over what is known about the mechanisms of
action of some of the best known members of the quintessential nootropic family.
We are speaking, of course, of the stars among the racetams and racetam
derived compounds. As an initial caveat, we should note that while there has
been some research into the mechanisms by which the racetams exert their
effects, our understanding of how they work is still woefully incomplete.
That said, piracetam and its derivatives have been reported to affect the
functioning and density of multiple neurotransmitter receptor types and subtypes.
They also have a broad range of other known and suspected beneficial actions on
membrane fluidity, cerebral blood circulation and other parameters implicated in
the development and maintenance of cognitive functionality. Lets take a closer
look at some of the more important members of this group.
Glutamate receptors
Piracetam and aniracetam have both been reported to activate the AMPA sub-type
of glutamate receptor 1,2; this effect was first noticed with aniracetam, and its
observation and exploration has led to the development of a new series of smart
drugs known as ampakines. In at least two rodent studies, chronic piracetam
administration has been reported to significantly increase the density of the
NMDA sub-type of glutamate receptors in different areas of the brains of aged
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22940587
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rats. 3,4 (A similar result has been reported for phenylpiracetam.) There is also
evidence that suggests that piracetam works, in part, by activating NMDA
receptors. 5 To our knowledge, there is no evidence that piracetam interacts in any
way with the kainate subtype of glutamate receptor.
Cholinergic receptors
In addition, there are by now several decades worth of converging lines of data
suggestive of a significant involvement of piracetam and its derivatives with
cholinergic functioning in the CNS. Cholinergic functioning is the result of the
activity of acetylcholine and its associated receptors, which fall into two subtypes: nicotinic receptors, which are also bound to by nicotine, and muscarinic
receptors, which are also bound to by muscarine. Why is it thought that
racetams exert their effects via cholinergic mechanisms?
To begin with, it has long been known that piracetam and other racetam
compounds afford significant protection against the detrimental mental effects of
scopolamine, 6 an anticholinergic drug that is, a drug which antagonizes the
action of acetylcholine, in this case at muscarinic receptors. Research and
anecdotal reports also both indicate that the desired central effects of piracetam
and its derivatives are enhanced by the use of cholinergic agents such as choline
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and DMAE. 7 This evidence, while suggestive, is indirect.

More directly, one study of piracetam administration in aged rats reported
increases in muscarinic cholinergic receptor density in the hippocampi, striata and
frontal cortices of the treated animals. 8 In vitro data on pramiracetam indicate
that it increases the rate of sodium-sensitive choline uptake in rat synaptosomes
(Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 291). Finally, there is also evidence for interactions of
both phenylpiracetam and nefiracetam with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
(ibid).
Summary
There are a number of other possible general modes of action of piracetam and
its derivatives, some of which we have already touched on in previous sections,
including alterations of membrane fluidity in cells, and others that we can only
mention in passing, such as evidence for enhanced oxygen utilization in
piracetam-treated animals. While researchers are still getting to the bottom of
just how racetam supplements work in the brain and body, what is known to
date can help in the formulation of effective nootropic regimens. For instance,
combining the known neuropharmacological features of racetams with the
extant data and user anecdotes on nootropic stacking makes a clear case for
the combination of racetams with cholinergics such as choline and DMAE.
In 2010, co-authors Malykh and Sadaie neatly summarized the broadly known
facts regarding racetam modes of action as follows: [t]hese compounds interact
with target receptors in brain and modulate excitatory and/or inhibitory processes
of neurotransmitters, neurohormones, and/or post-synaptic signals. (291). To
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narrow our focus a bit, let us now consider aniracetam (trade name Draganon,
among others).
Brief discussion of aniracetam

As we previously noted, aniracetam facilitates activity at AMPA receptors.
However, it would be a mistake to think that the AMPA activity neatly explains the
effects profile of aniracetam. In addition, there is rodent evidence that
aniracetams anxiolytic or anxiety-relieving effects are mediated via
dopaminergic, cholinergic and serotonergic neuronal mechanisms.
This seems like a useful juncture to discuss some of the more interesting
properties of aniracetam. In addition to its nootropic activity and greater potency
by weight than piracetam, aniracetam has been reported to be an effective
anxiolytic in both humans and non-human animals. This means that there is
evidence for aniracetam being performance-enhancing in at least two different
ways: first, via a direct nootropic effect promoting more efficient data processing,
and, second, via the reduction of potentially performance-impairing anxiety.
Aniracetam has a fairly short half-life (~2 hours), which can be a detriment or a
benefit depending on your purposes. If you are looking for a long-acting smart
drug, aniracetam will not be the choice for you. On the other hand, if you want to
enhance your intellectual performance over shorter spans of time (for instance,
because you do not want to disrupt your sleep schedule), aniracetam will be of
great utility.
At this point, we will have to bring this section to a close. We went over some
basic points of the nootropic actions of other supplements in previous sections,
and the main focus of this e-book is the racetam nootropic compounds. We hope
9
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that this information has been of use to you.
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Chapter V: Nootropics Compared to

Prescription Medications
In Chapter III, we discussed the benefits of various nootropics when compared to
placebo and against one another. What happens when we match them up against
prescription medications?
-Racetams vs. Anti-depressants (MAOIs, SSRIs)
In Russia, phenylpiracetam is prescribed in the treatment of depression and
apathy (Malaykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 290). Piracetam has shown promise in
treating the depression of those suffering from chronic cerebrovascular disorders
(p. 297). Unlike MAOIs and SSRIs for depression, the -racetams can be stopped
without fear of discontinuation syndrome (withdrawal). Many users of SSRIs
remark on feeling zombified while under the influence of these substances,
which only slightly out perform placebo. While on MAOIs, users must maintain a
strict diet as foods high in tyramine (such as cured/dried meats, aged cheese,
spoiled foods, soy sauce, and more) cause a dangerous spike in blood pressure
(Hall-Flavin, Daniel, 2013). These dietary restrictions are not necessary with the racetams.
Aniracetam vs. Benzodiazepines (alprazolam, diazepam, lorazepam,
clonazepam)
In a study of mice in which one group was given aniracetam and another
diazepam, the former showed anxiolytic effects in four different anxiety models
compared to the latter's two (Nakamura & Kurasawa, 2001). Benzodiazepines are
great as quick treatments for panic attacks, but frequent and extended use of
them is not necessarily a good idea. Individuals habituated to benzodiazepines
may experience negative withdrawal symptoms upon cessation; if serious
enough, it can lead to seizures and even death. Aniracetam has no such
withdrawal symptoms.
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Modafinil vs. Amphetamine Salts

Modafinil is a smart drug that when taken allows the individual to sit down,
study for hours, and easily recall the information he or she has memorized. Mind
you, Modafinil is considered a nootropic by many and amphetamine is considered
one by a few, but both are actually prescription medications in the United States
at least. Adderall users with severe ADD and ADHD sometimes experiencing
difficulty using modafinil in place of their usual medication, but they report
positive results from lowering the former's dosage and adding the latter to their
regimen. Both of these drugs require prescriptions in the United States; however,
Modafinil is worth mentioning because it falls under the term nootropic.
As information currently stands, modafinil does not produce euphoria comparable
to traditional stimulants. This information, along with trials conducted, have led
scientists to conclude that modafinil may have abuse potential, but that it is much
lower than with amphetamine or methamphetamine.
Modafinil has been promoted as a wakefulness agent, at first being used to treat
narcolepsy in patients. Now, it has grown in popularity as a nootropic because it's
effective in increasing memory and focus. Peter Borden, a fan of acupuncture and
alternative health in general, had this to say about modafinil: My senses sort of
shifted to the visual, and my auditory sense went down. Sounds didnt even
register. It was like walking around on a winter day when it just snowed. It was
very easy to stay visually focused (Kolker 2013). On the other hand, if you're an
insomniac, neither of these medications is an especially good idea.
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Chapter VI: Stacking Nootropics

Now, it is usually not the best idea to take everything you hear/read on face
value. Don't get too excited to run out and purchase a cart full of supplements
until you've done further research. A few important questions to keep in mind
are:
What exactly do I want to take a supplement for? Do I want to increase my

focus or ability to concentrate for extended periods of time? Do I simply
want to relax?
What medications or supplements am I currently on? Are any of them

contraindicated to (as in, should not be used with) the nootropics I'm
interested in?
Is it necessary for me to take more than one nootropic at a time?
If you're new to the world of nootropics, don't be in a rush to take multiple types
at once. You'll want to find out how each affects you when used on its own before
you mix it with any other substances. Makes sense, right? This chapter is for
those well-versed in the uses of nootropics who want to find the perfect
combinations.
Caffeine + L-Theanine
In the strict sense of the term nootropic, caffeine doesn't really fit the criteria.
At the same time, caffeine's stimulant properties have been noted to be helpful in
increasing focus and energy. L-Theanine is used for treating anxiety, preventing
Alzheimer's disease, and potentiating cancer drugs (making them more effective)
according to its entry on WebMD. It may seem pointless to take a stimulant with
a supplement originally found in green tea that relaxes you; however, users on
the Smarter Nootropics website report that the two mix well. The normally
unpleasant side effects of caffeine such as anxiety and jitteriness are countered
by the l-theanine. You may experience alertness and lucidity without any
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unnecessary nervousness.
-Racetam + Choline Source
Many nootropics enthusiasts would likely not even call this kind of combination a
stack because they would consider it necessary. Various animal studies are out
concluding that the -racetam family paired with a source of choline produces
optimal results. One trial found that piracetam + choline led to enhanced memory
retention more than piracetam alone (Bartus et al., 1981). Choline has also been
noted to get the piracetam working more quickly. The cholinergic Huperzine A
functions similarly when combined with piracetam.
Aniracetam + CDP choline (citicoline) is a favored combination according to
the Best Nootropic review website due to aniracetam's anxiolytic effects and
citicoline's effectiveness. One such combined stack on the market today is
Nootrobrain, which uses the two aforementioned supplements along with Bacopa
leaf and vitamin B6 both of which we discuss in Chapter III.
Piracetam + Vasodilator Drug (in this case, cinnarizine)
In a study of multiple sclerosis patients, piracetam paired with cinnarizine, which
acts as a vasoldiator, improved mental abilities even more than piracetam alone.
Activity levels and mood increased in these patients who were assumed to still be
suffering from encephalopathy (Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 297).
-Racetams (and/or Modafinil and similar drugs) + Essential Vitamins
If you've noticed that you're not getting enough of certain vitamins in your diet,
try supplementing with them in addition to piracetam, aniracetam, etc. and/or
modafinil, adrafinil, etc. In Chapter III, we discuss the signs of certain B vitamin
deficiencies. Check with your doctor, and have him or her run tests to determine
how healthy your diet is. Since nootropics are rarely toxic, as long as you get
your dosage of vitamins correct and don't overdo it, this type of combination will
be beneficial. Nootrobrain, for example, combines vitamin B6 with aniracetam
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(plus citicoline and Bacopa leaf).

Choline Source + Huperzine A
In this combination, the choline (or choline derivative) boosts the effects of the
Huperzine, even further enhancing concentraction. Choline itself shows evidence
of being effective at slowing down age-related memory loss. One such product
that combines these, along yerba mate, caffeine, guarana, and ginkgo biloba is
AddieUp used for the purpose of promoting learning while increasing energy
(hence the yerba mate, caffeine, and guarana).

huge.
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Chapter IX: Common Questions about

Nootropics
Are nootropics safe?
Generally, yes, but it also depends on which nootropic you have in mind. Overall,
the -racetams (piracetam, aniracetam, phenylpiracetam, levetiracetam, and
noopept) have low toxicity, and side effects 1) are uncommon and 2) do not last
long. According to Dr. Giurgea who coined the term nootropic, low toxicity is a
requirement for supplements that fall into the aforementioned category. In
addition, nootropics are not addictive and do not cause sickness upon cessation of
treatment. In fact, the -racetams work better the more they build up in your
system.
There can be side effects though?
Yes, you would be hard-pressed to find a medicine that does not have at least one
possible side effect. It is possible to experience negative side effects from
nootropics, although as previously discussed, they are rare and transitory. They
include: anxiety, headache, confusion, and gastrointestinal upset. In the majority
of -racetam studies on humans, patients who experienced these side effects were
able to adjust without leaving the trials. Gastrointestinal problems led to the
withdrawal of one patient using Bacopa from a trial of 84 healthy subjects.
Is it safe to use a nootropic along with my prescribed medication?
Most of the time, yes, although you will want to check with your doctor to be
certain. In a study to test piracetam's effects on chronic schizophrenia patients,
the piracetam was safely given to the subjects while they continued to take their
psychotropic medications (Dimond et al., 1979, p. 343). Levetiracetam is
approved in the United States as an additional treatment to antiepileptic drugs
(Malykh & Sadaie, 2010, p. 302). If you have a serious condition, do not cease
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treatment with your prescribed medication without talking to your doctor first.
I'm happy and healthy. Do I really need nootropics?
The answer to that question is up to you. Throughout this book, we've mentioned
quite a few studies that were aimed at seeing how young, healthy people reacted
to nootropics remember Chapter III? From what research has established so far,
the -racetams appear to act selectively and perhaps even more specifically at
higher levels of cognition. They have demonstrated positive effects in different
groups of people, young and old alike. This, along with their generally low
toxicity, make for great supplements especially when compared to many
prescription medications.
If I stop taking nootropics, will I feel stupid?
If you decide to quit supplementing with nootropics, you may notice your
cognitive abilities returning to baseline. This does not mean that you will suddenly
forget everything you studied while on nootropics, just that different aspects of
your memory may be affected. For example, you could experience enhanced
memory recall while taking aniracetam and then notice it's returning back to
normal once you stop.
How long should I take the -racetams for?
Most of the human trials with piracetam noted significant effects at 12 or more
weeks in. Set yourself a trial period of three to four months with regularly
piracetam dosing, and make note of your results. Taking choline (or a choline
derivative) can speed up how quickly you see effects. Remember, the -racetams
are drugs that build up in your system, but they do not show any substantial
tolerance increase. The more you take them, the better they work. As discussed
in the aniracetam, phenylpiracetam, and Noopept sections in Chapter III, these
three supplements have demonstrated significant effects in areas of memory and
cognition much more quickly than piracetam by itself has.
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How much should I start with?

This depends on various factors. Your best bet is to peruse the Internet for
studies relevant to you are you healthy, young, old, suffering from brain
trauma, or what? Many of the studies we discuss in Chapter III state who the
patients in each trial were, so that should provide you with a jumping off point.
The Internet is particularly great in this instance too because it's incredibly easy
to read experience reports posted by people who have and are experimenting
with nootropics. A quick search of keywords (such as the nootropic you're
interested plus the term experiences or reports) will bring a wealth of
information directly to your screen (kind of like how this eBook is functioning as
we speak).
I suffer from narcolepsy. Would Modafinil be helpful?
Modafinil is prescribed for exactly this purpose in the United States and has been
approved by the FDA for it, along with sleep apnea. If you are experiencing these
problems, it would be worthwhile to talk to your doctor about getting a
prescription. The National Multiple Sclerosis Society warns users not take
Modafinil if they experience insomnia frequently as it is. Due to Modafinil's long
half-life (15 hours), you should be taking yours early in the morning.
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Chapter VIII: How to Choose the Right

Nootropic
Let's be honest, we've covered a significant amount of information in this book so
it's understandable to feel a bit frazzled by it all. Because the world of nootropics
is vast and continually expanding, it is particularly difficult to keep up with all of
the latest novel supplements. This is certainly possible when you have spent
years interested in the topic, but it is unrealistic when you are first learning about
enhancing your cognition. For this reason, we have compiled a list of questions to
ask yourself so that you can make a step in the right direction. Enjoy!
1. Are you having difficulty staying awake even during your favorite
activities, but especially during school or work? Ask your doctor about
Modafinil if you live in the United States. This medication is actually sold for
the specific purpose of treating narcolepsy.
2. Do you need a pick-me-up in the morning? Try yerba mate, guarana,
and/or caffeine (as found in the product AddieUp).
3. Are you looking to enhance your cognitive abilities, particularly
those of memory and concentration over an extended period of
time? Try one of the -racetams or Bacopa (check out Chapter III to note
the differences between all of them). Use choline or a choline derivative
with the -racetams to get significant effects more rapidly.
4. Have you experienced brain trauma of some sort and want to
improve learning scores as you recover? Piracetam and aniracetam in
particular are beneficial in this area, especially when it comes to
encephalopathy and brain surgeries.
5. Is your diet rich in vitamins and minerals? Have you seen your
doctor recently about your overall health? If you find that you are
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deficient in specific vitamins, supplementing with them can easily fix the
problem. Be sure to check whether the vitamins are fat or water soluble. If
they are the former, take them with a source of fat (like whole milk).
Vitamin deficiencies can cause all sorts of nasty problems, such as nausea,
weakness, lethargy, and dermatitis (and these are not even the serious
issues either).
6.

huge.
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References
Bartus R.T., Dean R.L. 3Rd, Sherman K.A., Friedman E., Beer B. (1981). Profound
effects of combining choline and piracetam on memory enhancement and
cholinergic function in aged rats. Neurobiology of Aging, 2(2), 105.
Dimond S.J. & Brouwers E.M. (1976). Increase in the power of human memory in
normal man through the use of drugs. Psychopharmacology, 49(3), 307-309.
Dimond S.J., Scammel R.E., Price I.G., Huws D., Gray C. (1979). Some Effects of
Piracetam (UCB 6215 Nootropyl) on Chronic Schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology,
64, 341-348.
Eckert G.P., Cairns N.J., Mueller W.E. 1999. Piracetam reverses hippocampal
membrane alterations in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission,
106, 757-761.
Ehrlich, S. (2011). Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine). University of Maryland Medical
Center. Retrieved from
http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/vitamin-b6-pyridoxine
Hall-Flavin, D. M.D. (2013). I just started taking MAOIs for depression. Do I really
need to follow a low-tyramine diet? Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/maois/HQ01575
Kolker, R. (31 March 2013). The Real Limitless Drug Isn't Just for Lifehackers
Anymore. New York Magazine. Retrieved from
http://nymag.com/news/intelligencer/modafinil-2013-4/
Lee C.R., & Benfield, P. (1994). Aniracetam. An overview of its pharmacodynamic

and pharmacokinetic properties, and a review of its therapeutic potential in senile
cognitive disorders. Drugs & Aging, 4(3), 257-273.
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Malykh A.G. & Sadaie M.R. (2010). Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from
basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders. Drugs, 70(3), 287312.
Nakamura K. & Kurasawa M. (2001). Anxiolytic effects of aniracetam in three
different mouse models of anxiety and the underlying mechanism. European
Journal of Pharmacology, 420(1), 34.
Ostrovskaia R.U., Gudasheva T.A., Voronina T.A., Seredenin S.B. (2002). The
original novel nootropic and neuroprotective agent noopept. Eksp Klin Farmakol,
65(5), 66-67.
Schnepp, Z. (2002). Biotin. School of Chemistry, University of Bristol. Retrieved
from http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/schnepp/biotin.html
Senin U., Parnetti L., Cucinotta D., Criscuolo D., Longo A., Marini G. (1993).
Clinical Experience with Aniracetam in the Treatment of Senile Dementia of the
Alzheimer's Type and Related Disorders. Drug Investigation, 5(Suppl. 1), 96-97.
Singh H.K. & Dhawan B.N. (1997). Neuropsychopharmacological effects of the
Ayurvedic nootropic Bacopa monniera Linn. (Brahmi). Symposium, 29(5), 59-365.
Stough C., Lloyd J., Clarke J., Downey L.A., Hutchison C.W., Rodgers, T., Nathan
P.J. (2001). Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 156(4), 481-484.
Poeck K. (1998). Piracetam Treatment in Post-Stroke Aphasia. CNS Drugs,
9(Suppl. 1), 51-56.
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The Complete Guide To Nootropics

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The Complete Guide To Nootropics

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1

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A. The -racetam and -racetam derived compounds

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Supplements Worth Nothing (not nootropics)

How Nootropics are Thought to Work

V. Nootropics Compared to Prescription Medications

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C. Modafinil vs. Amphetamine Salts

Common Questions About Nootropics

How to Choose the Right Nootropic

My Top Choice For Nootropic Supplements

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Chapter I: Introduction to Nootropics

What are nootropics?

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he discovered in 1964 while working for the Belgian pharmaceutical company

Giurgea's Nootropic Criteria

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No change in basic EEG rhythm

Quantitative EEG: increased power spectrum (beta 2 and alpha)

Qualitative EEG: decreased delta waves and cerebral suffering

Must pass blood-brain barrier

Under normal conditions

Under pathological conditions

Must show metabolic activity in:

Animal brain metabolism

Human brain metabolism

Increased extraction quotients of O2

Increased extraction quotients of glucose

Reduced lactate pyruvate ratio

Regional cerebral metabolic rates (rCMR)

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Increased rCMR of glucose

Regional cerebral blood flow: normalization

Minimal side effects

Clinical trials must be conducted with several rating scales designed to

objectify metabolic cerebral improvement. (Skondia V., 1979)

Who takes nootropics?

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Chapter II: Types of Nootropics

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My Top Choice For Nootropic Supplements

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Chapter III: The Benefits of Nootropics for

Testing in this study consisted of four separate sessions:

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There were a total of 50 experimental subjects, all of whom were patients

In addition to treatment with piracetam or placebo, the subjects underwent

Piracetam had a significant positive effect on the Written Language subtest.

On the Communicative Ability scale, the piracetam group's scores in

Furthermore, there were no adverse effects reported in the piracetam

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Deficient cognitive functioning subsequent to alcohol abuse is a serious public

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Subjects were tasked with learning series of words presented as stimuli on