CERAMICS

A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid comprising

metal, nonmetal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic
and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials
ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, and often
completely amorphous (e.g., glasses). Varying crystallinity
and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds
cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and
electrical insulators and extensively researched in ceramic
engineering. Nevertheless, with such a large range of
possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic
(e.g. nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of bonding,
and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is
vast, and identifiable attributes (e.g. hardness, toughness,
electrical conductivity, etc.) are hard to specify for the group
as a whole.

Properties

However, generalities such as high melting temperature,

high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity,
chemical resistance and low ductility are the norm, [1] with
known exceptions to each of these rules (e.g. piezoelectric
ceramics, glass transition temp,superconductive ceramics,
etc...). Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon
fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not
considered to be part of the ceramic family.
The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word
(keramikos), "of pottery" or "for pottery", from
(keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery". The word "ceramic"
may be used as an adjective to describe a material,
product or process; or it may be used as a noun, either
singular, or more commonly, as the plural noun "ceramics".
The
earliest
ceramics
made
by
humans
were pottery objects, including 27,000 year old figurines,
made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other
materials like silica, hardened, sintered, in fire. Later
ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored
surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy,
amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline
ceramic substrates. Ceramics now include domestic,
industrial and building products, as well as a wide range
of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new ceramic
materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic
engineering; for example (e.g. semiconductors).

These materials are insulator of heat and

electricity and more resistance to high
temperature.
These materials are stronger than that of
metals because of their covalent and ionic
bonding.
These materials are less density it means
they are lighter than metals.
The inability of slip of ceramic materials can
cause more difficult in the processing and
performance.
Some oxide of ceramic show magnetic
behaviors such as Fe3O4.
Low toughness and ductility
They are brittle materials.
hard,
wear-resistant,
refractory,
nonmagnetic,
oxidation resistant,
prone to thermal shock, and
Chemically stable.

Ceramics used for engineering applications, can be

divided into two groups:

Traditional ceramic materials

Advanced ceramic materials

Traditional Ceramics

Made from three basic components: clay, silica

(flint), and feldspar.

The clay in traditional ceramics provides

workability of the material before firing hardens it
and constitutes the major body material.

The silica has a high melting temperature and is

the refractory component of traditional ceramics.

Potash feldspar, has a low melting temperature

and makes a glass when the ceramic mix is fired.
It bonds the refractory components together.

Ceramic Crystal Structure

Advanced Ceramics

Advanced ceramics are ideally suited for

industrial applications that provide a physical
interface between different components due to
their ability to withstand high temperatures,
vibration and mechanical shock.
A type of ceramic exhibiting a high degree of
industrial efficiency.
A type of ceramic used in specialized, recently
developed applications.
Advanced ceramics often have simple chemical
compositions, but they are difficult to
manufacture.

History of Ceramics
Archeologists have uncovered human-made ceramics that
date back to at least 24,000 BC. These ceramics were
found in Czechoslovakia and were in the form of animal
and human figurines, slabs, and balls. These ceramics
were made of animal fat and bone mixed with bone ash
and a fine claylike material. After forming, the ceramics
were fired at temperatures between 500-800C in domed
and horseshoe shaped kilns partially dug into the ground
with loess walls. While it is not clear what these ceramics
were used for, it is not thought to have been a utilitarian
one. The first use of functional pottery vessels is thought to
be in 9,000 BC. These vessels were most likely used to
hold and store grain and other foods.
It is thought that ancient glass manufacture is closely
related to pottery making, which flourished in Upper Egypt
about 8,000 BC. While firing pottery, the presence of
calcium oxide (CaO) containing sand combined with soda
and the overheating of the pottery kiln may have resulted in
a colored glaze on the ceramic pot. Experts believe that it
was not until 1,500 BC that glass was produced
independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate
items.
Since these ancient times, the technology and applications
of ceramics (including glass) has steadily increased. We
often take for granted the major role that ceramics have
played in the progress of humankind.

Broader range on chemical composition than

metals with more complicated structures

contains at least 2 and often 3 or more atoms

usually compounds between metallic ions (e.g.

Fe, NI, Al) -called cations - and non-metallic ions
(e.g. O, N, Cl) -called anions

Bonding will usually have some covalent

character but is usually mostly ionic

Processing of Ceramics
The figure shows general process flow diagram for
ceramic products manufacturing.
The basic steps include raw material procurement,
beneficiation, mixing, forming, green machining,
drying, presinter thermal processing, glazing, firing,
final processing, and packaging.
1.

Raw Material Procurement -

To begin the process, raw materials are transported

and stored at the manufacturing facility. The raw
materials used in the manufacture of ceramics range
from relatively impure clay materials mined from
natural deposits to ultrahigh purity powders prepared
by chemical synthesis. Naturally occurring raw
materials used to manufacture ceramics include silica,
sand, quartz, flint, silicates, and aluminosilicates.

Raw Materials

Clay Minerals

Talc and Related Minerals

Silica, Sand and Silicate Minerals

Feldspars and related minerals.

Important Characteristics of Clays in Ceramic

Bodies
Clays have the ability to form clay-water
composition and to maintain their shape
and strength during drying and firing

 They fuse over a temperature range

depending on their composition in such a
way as to become dense and strong
without losing their shape
Talc and Related Minerals

Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate

which has a layer structure similar to that
of the clay minerals.
It is an important ceramic raw material for
the manufacture of electrical and
electronic components
Silica and Silicate Minerals

Silica is a major ingredient in glass,

glazes, enamels, refractories, abrasives,
and whiteware compositions.

It is widely used because it is

inexpensive, hard, chemically stable

Feldspars and Related Minerals

Feldspar are anhydrous aluminosilicates
containing K+, Na+, and Ca2.; they are
present in virtually all igneous rocks.
Most production comes from pegmatites
which are coarsely crystalline rock
formed in the later stages of
crystallization of a magma

2.

Beneficiation -

The next step in the process is beneficiation. Although

chemically synthesized ceramic powders also require
some beneficiation, the focus of this discussion is on
the processes for beneficiating naturally occurring raw
materials. The basic beneficiation processes include
comminution, purification, sizing, classification,
calcining, liquid dispersion, and granulation. Naturally
occurring raw materials often undergo some
beneficiation at the mining site or at an intermediate
processing facility prior to being transported to the
ceramic manufacturing facility.

Comminution- entails reducing the particle size of

the raw material by crushing, grinding, and milling or
fine grinding. The purpose of comminution is to
liberate impurities, break up aggregates, modify
particle morphology and size distribution, facilitate
mixing and forming, and produce a more reactive
material for firing.
Primary crushing generally reduces material up to 0.3
meter (m) (1 foot [ft]) in diameter down to 1 centimeter
(cm) (0.40 inch [in.]) in diameter. Secondary crushing
reduces particle size down to approximately 1
millimeter (mm) (0.04 in.) in diameter. Fine grinding or
milling reduces the particle size down to as low as 1.0
micrometer (m) (4 x 10-5 in.) in diameter. Ball mills
are the most commonly used piece of equipment for
milling. However, vibratory mills, attrition mills, and
fluid energy mills also are used. Crushing and grinding
typically are dry processes; milling may be a wet or
dry process. In wet milling, water or alcohol commonly
is used as the milling liquid.
Purification- Several procedures are used to purify
the ceramic material. Water soluble impurities can be
removed by washing with deionized or distilled water
and filtering, and organic solvents may be used for
removing water-insoluble impurities. Acid leaching
sometimes is employed to remove metal
contaminants. Magnetic separation is used to extract
magnetic impurities from either dry powders or wet
slurries. Froth flotation also is used to separate
undesirable materials.
Sizing and classification separate the material into
size ranges. Sizing is most often accomplished using
fixed or vibrating screens. Dry screening can be used
to sizes down to 44 m(0.0017 in., 325 mesh). Dry
forced-air sieving and sonic sizing can be used to size
dry powders down to 37 m (0.0015 in., 400 mesh),
and wet sieving can be used for particles down to 25
m (0.00098 in., 500 mesh). Air classifiers generally
are effective in the range of 420 m to 37 m (0.017 to
0.0015 in., 40 to 400 mesh). However, special air
classifiers are available for isolating particles down to
10 m (0.00039 in.).
Calcining- consists of heating a ceramic material to a
temperature well below its melting point to liberate
undesirable gases or other material and to bring about
structural transformation to produce the desired

composition and phase product. Calcining typically is

carried out in rotary calciners,heated fluidized beds, or
by heating a static bed of ceramic powder in a
refractory crucible.

3.

Forming - In the forming step, dry powders,

plastic bodies, pastes, or slurries are
consolidated and molded to produce a cohesive
body of the desired shape and size.

Liquid dispersion of ceramic powders sometimes is

used to make slurries. Slurry processing facilitates
mixing and minimizes particle agglomeration. The
primary disadvantage of slurry processing is that the
liquid must be removed prior to firing the ceramic.

Dry forming consists of the simultaneous compacting

and shaping of dry ceramic powders in a rigid die or
flexible mold. Dry forming can be accomplished by dry
pressing, isostatic compaction, and vibratory
compaction.

Granulation- Dry powders often are granulated to

improve flow, handling, packing, and compaction.
Granulation is accomplished by direct mixing, which
consists of introducing a binder solution during powder
mixing, or by spray drying. Spray dryers generally are
gas-fired and operate at temperatures of 110 to
130C (230 to 270F).

Plastic molding is accomplished by extrusion,

jiggering, or powder injection molding.

Mixing - The purpose of mixing or blunging is to

combine the constituents of a ceramic powder to
produce a more chemically and physically
homogenous material for forming. Pug mills often are
used for mixing ceramic materials. Several processing
aids may be added to the ceramic mix during the
mixing stage. Binders and plasticizers are used in dry
powder and plastic forming; in slurry processing,
deflocculants, surfactants, and antifoaming agents are
added to improve processing. Liquids also are added
in plastic and slurry processing.
Binders are polymers or colloids that are used to
impart strength to green or unfired ceramic bodies.
For dry forming and extrusion, binders amount to 3
percent by weight of the ceramic mixture.
Plasticizers and lubricants are used with some types
of binders. Plasticizers increase the flexibility of the
ceramic mix. Lubricants lower frictional forces
between particles and reduce wear on equipment.
Water is the most commonly used liquid in plastic and
slurry processing. Organic liquids such as alcohols
may also be used in some cases. Deflocculants also
are used in slurry processing to improvedispersion
and dispersion stability. Surfactants are used in slurry
processing to aid dispersion, and antifoams are used
to remove trapped gas bubbles from the slurry.

Extrusion is used in manufacturing

structural clay products and some
refractory products.
Jiggering is widely used in the
manufacture of small, simple, axially
symmetrical whiteware ceramic such
as cookware, fine china, and electrical
porcelain.
Powder injection molding is used for
making small complex shapes.
Paste forming consists of applying a
thick film of ceramic paste on a
substrate. Ceramic pastes are used for
decorating ceramic tableware, and
forming capacitors and dielectric layers
on rigid substrates for microelectronics.
Ingredients of Ceramic Paste for
Shaping

- Clay (hydrous aluminum silicates) usually the main ingredient because of

ideal forming characteristics when mixed
with water
- Water creates clay-water mixture with
suitable plasticity for shaping
- Non-plastic raw materials, such as
alumina and silica - reduce shrinkage in
drying and firing but also reduce plasticity
of the mixture during forming
- Other ingredients, such as fluxes that
melt (vitrify) during firing and promote
sintering, and wetting agents to improve
mixing of ingredients

Slip Casting

This is where slip, liquid clay, is poured into

a plaster mould. The water in the slip is drawn
out of the slip, leaving an inside layer of solid
clay.

When this is thick enough, the excess slip can be

removed from the mould. When dry, the solid clay
can then also be removed.

The slip used in slip casting is often liquified with

a substance that reduces the need for additional
water to soften the slip; this prevents excessive
shrinkage which occurs when a piece containing
a lot of water dries.

4.

5.

6.

Green Machining- After forming, the ceramic

shape often is machined to eliminate rough
surfaces and seams or to modify the shape. The
methods used to machine green ceramics
include surface grinding to smooth surfaces,
blanking and punching to cut the shape and
create holes or cavities, and laminating for
multilayer ceramics.
Drying - After forming, ceramics must be dried.
Drying must be carefully controlled to strike a
balance between minimizing drying time and
avoiding differential shrinkage, warping, and
distortion. The most commonly used method of
drying ceramics is by convection, in which heated
air is circulated around the ceramics. Air drying
often is performed in tunnel kilns, which typically
use heat recovered from the cooling zone of the
kiln. Periodic kilns or dryers operating in batch
mode also are used. Convection drying also is
carried out in divided tunnel dryers, which include
separate sections with independent temperature
and humidity controls. An alternative to air drying
is radiation drying in which microwave or infrared
radiation is used to enhance drying.
Presinter Thermal Processing - Prior to firing,
ceramics often are heat-treated at temperatures
well below firing temperatures. The purpose of
this thermal processing is to provide additional
drying, to vaporize or decompose organic

7.

additives and other impurities, and to remove

residual, crystalline, and chemically bound water.
Presinter thermal processing can be applied as a
separate step, which is referred to as bisque
firing, or by gradually raising and holding the
temperature in several stages.
Glazing- For traditional ceramics, glaze coatings
often are applied to dried or bisque-fired ceramic
ware prior to sintering. Glazes consist primarily of
oxides and can be classified as raw glazes or frit
glazes. Application of a ceramic surface coating
to make the piece more impervious to water and
enhance its appearance.
The application of glassy coatings on ceramic
wares to give them decorative finishes and to
make them impervious to moisture. Glazes
mature at temperatures of 600 to 1500C (1110
to 2730F).

8. Firing - Firing is the process by which ceramics

are thermally consolidated into a dense, cohesive
body comprised of fine, uniform grains. This
process also is referred to as sintering or
densification.
Parameters that affect firing include firing
temperature, time, pressure, and atmosphere.

A short firing time results in a product that is

porous and has a low density;
A short to intermediate firing time results in
fine-grained (i. e., having particles not larger
than 0.2 millimeters), high-strength
products;
And long firing times result in a coarsegrained products that are more creep
resistant.

Applying pressure decreases firing time and

makes it possible to fire materials that are difficult
to fire using conventional methods. Oxidizing or
inert atmospheres are used to fire oxide ceramics
to avoid reducing transition metals and degrading
the finish of the product.
In addition to conventional firing, other methods
used include pressure firing, hot forging, plasma

firing, microwave firing, and infrared firing. The

following paragraphs describe conventional and
pressure firing, which are the methods used
often.

Factors Affecting the Ceramic Process

Tunnel kilns generally have separate zones for

cooling, firing, and preheating or drying. The
most commonly used tunnel kiln design is the
roller hearth (roller) kiln. In conventional firing,
tunnel kilns generally are fired with gas, oil, coal,
or wood. Following firing and cooling, ceramics
are sometimes refired after the application of
decals, paint, or ink.
Advanced ceramics often are fired in electric
resistance-heated furnaces with controlled
atmospheres. For some products, separate
furnaces may be needed to eliminate organic
lubricants and binders prior to firing.

Application of Traditional Ceramics

Final Processing - Following firing, some

ceramic products are processed further to
enhance their characteristics or to meet
dimensional tolerances. Ceramics can be
machined by abrasive grinding, chemical
polishing, electrical discharge machining, or laser
machining. Annealing at high temperature,
followed by gradual cooling can relieve internal
stresses within the ceramic and surface stresses
due to machining. In addition, surface coatings
are applied to many fired ceramics. Surface
coatings are applied to traditional clay ceramics
to create a stronger, impermeable surface and for
decoration.
Coatings also may be applied to improve
strength, and resistance to abrasion and
corrosion. Coatings can be applied dry, as
slurries, by spraying, or by vapor deposition.

White Wares

Ceramic products also are manufactured by

pressure firing, which is similar to the forming
process of dry pressing except that the pressing
is conducted at the firing temperature. Because
of its higher costs, pressure firing is usually
reserved for manufacturing ceramics that are
difficult to fire to high density by conventional
firing.
9.

Oxidation
Decomposition Reactions
Phase Transformations
Trapped Gases
Non uniform Mixing
Over firing
Hot Pressing
Firing Shrinkage
Warping

Made from components of clay, silica, and

feldspar for which the composition is
controlled.
Example:

Electrical porcelain

Dinner china

Sanitary ware

Structural Clay Products

Made of natural clay, which contains all three

basic components.
Example:

Building brick

Sewer pipe

Drain tile

Roofing tile

Floor tile

Abrassives

is a material, often a mineral, that is used to

shape or finish a workpiece through rubbing

which leads to part of the workpiece being

worn away

- are solids in which ions are highly

mobile. These materials are important
in the area of solid-state ionics, and are
also known as solid electrolytes and
superionic conductors.

a material often means polishing it to gain a

smooth, reflective surface which can also
involve roughening as in satin, matte or
beaded finishes

- These materials are useful in batteries

and various sensors. Fast ion
conductors are used primarily in solid
oxide fuel cells.

Refractories 3

is one that retains its strength at

high temperature

Example:
o

kiln linings

gas fire radiants

glass making crucibles

- Piezoelectric ceramic materials are

categorized as functional ceramics.
- In sensors they make it possible to
convert forces, pressures and
accelerations into electrical signals,
and in sonic and ultrasonic transducers
and actuators they convert electric
voltages into vibrations or
deformations.

Application of Advanced Ceramics

Electroceramics

It is a class of ceramic materials used

primarily for their electrical properties.

Dielectric ceramics

- are capable of storing large amounts

of electrical charge in relatively small
volumes.
- Is an electrical insulator that can be
polarized by an applied electric field.

Fast ion conductor ceramics

Optical Ceramics
- Are polycrystalline materials produced
through controlled crystallization of
base glass.

Advance Structural Ceramics

Nuclear Ceramics
Ceramic materials employed in the
generation of nuclear power and in the
disposal of radioactive nuclear wastes.

Bioceramics
Ceramic products or components
employed in medical and dental
applications, mainly as implants
and replacements.

Tribological Ceramics

- Dielectric materials can be solids,

liquids, or gases.
- Solid dielectrics are perhaps the
most commonly used dielectrics in
electrical engineering, and many solids
are very good insulators.

Magnetic Ceramics
- Are made of ferrites, which are
crystalline minerals composed of iron
oxide in combination with some other
metal.

Further classified to:

Piezoelectric and ferroelectric ceramics

Also called wear-resistant ceramics,

ceramic materials that are resistant to
friction and wear. They are employed in
a variety of industrial and domestic
applications, including mineral
processing and metallurgy.

Automotive Ceramics
Advanced ceramic materials that are
made into components for automobiles.
Examples include spark plug
insulators, catalysts and catalyst
supports for emission control devices,
and sensors of various kinds.

2. Glass is known to be non-crystalline. Ceramics may be

crystalline or partly crystalline.

3. Glass is also transparent, which means light passes

through it. Ceramics may be opaque, which means it does
not allow light to pass through it.

4. The history of glass dates back to 3500 BC in

Mesopotamia. The term Glass was first developed during
the late Roman empire. Ceramics comes from Greek word

Glass is actually a type of

ceramic.
The word Ceramic can be used to
describe a number of materials,
including: glass, enamel, concrete,
cement, pottery, brick, porcelain, and
chinaware.
Glass is a special type of ceramic, in
that it has no crystalline structure, and
is classed as an amorphous solid,
meaning there is no long-range order
of the positioning of its molecules.

Summary

1. Glass can be called as a type of ceramic.

keramikos, which means pottery and keramos, which

means potters clay.

5. A glass kiln will have heating elements on the top

whereas a ceramic kiln will have heating elements on the
sides.

6. When comparing the two in terms of the price, ceramics

is a bit costlier than glass.