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Thomism
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Inabroadsense,Thomismisthenamegiventothesystemwhichfollowstheteachingof
St.ThomasAquinasinphilosophicalandtheologicalquestions.Inarestrictedsensethe
termisappliedtoagroupofopinionsheldbyaschoolcalledThomistic,composed
principally,butnotexclusively,ofmembersoftheOrderofSt.Dominic,thesesame
opinionsbeingattackedbyotherphilosophersortheologians,manyofwhomprofesstobe
followersofSt.Thomas.
ToThomisminthefirstsenseareopposed,e.g.,theScotists,whodenythat
satisfactionisapartoftheproximatematter(materiaproxima)oftheSacramentof
Penance.AntiThomists,inthissenseoftheword,rejectopinionsadmittedlytaught
bySt.Thomas.
ToThomisminthesecondsenseareopposed,e.g.theMolinists,aswellasallwho
defendthemoralinstrumentalcausalityofthesacramentsinproducinggraceagainst
thesystemofphysicalinstrumentalcausality,thelatterbeingadoctrineofthe
ThomisticSchool.
AntiThomisminsuchcasesdoesnotnecessarilyimplyoppositiontoSt.Thomas:It
meansoppositiontotenetsoftheThomisticSchool.CardinalBillot,forinstance,would
notadmitthatheopposedSt.ThomasbyrejectingtheThomistictheoryonthecausality
ofthesacraments.IntheThomisticSchool,also,wedonotalwaysfindabsolute
unanimity.BaezandBilluartdonotalwaysagreewithCajetan,thoughallbelongtothe
ThomisticSchool.Itdoesnotcomewithinthescopeofthisarticletodeterminewhohave
thebestrighttobeconsideredthetrueexponentsofSt.Thomas.
Thesubjectmaybetreatedunderthefollowingheadings:
I.Thomismingeneral,fromthethirteenthcenturydowntothenineteenth
II.TheThomisticSchool
III.NeoThomismandtherevivalofScholasticism.
IV.EminentThomists
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Thedoctrineingeneral
Earlyoppositionovercome

AlthoughSt.Thomas(d.1274)washighlyesteemedbyallclasses,hisopinionsdidnotat
oncegaintheascendancyandinfluencewhichtheyacquiredduringthefirsthalfofthe
fourteenthcenturyandwhichtheyhavesincemaintained.Strangeasitmayappear,the
firstseriousoppositioncamefromParis,ofwhichhewassuchanornament,andfrom
someofhisownmonasticbrethren.Intheyear1277StephenTempier,BishopofParis,
censuredcertainphilosophicalpropositions,embodyingdoctrinestaughtbySt.Thomas,
relatingespeciallytotheprincipleofindividuationandtothepossibilityofcreating
severalangelsofthesamespecies.InthesameyearRobertKilwardby,aDominican,
ArchbishopofCanterbury,inconjunctionwithsomedoctorsofOxford,condemnedthose
samepropositionsandmoreoverattackedSt.Thomas'sdoctrineoftheunityofthe
substantialforminman.Kilwardbyandhisassociatespretendedtoseeinthecondemned
propositionssomethingofAverroisticAristoteleanism,whilsttheseculardoctorsofParis
hadnotfullyforgivenonewhohadtriumphedovertheminthecontroversyastothe
rightsofthemendicantfriars.Thestormexcitedbythesecondemnationswasofshort
duration.BlessedAlbertusMagnus,inhisoldage,hastenedtoParistodefendhisbeloved
disciple.TheDominicanOrder,assembledingeneralchapteratMilanin1278andat
Parisin1279,adoptedseveremeasuresagainstthememberswhohadspokeninjuriously
ofthevenerableBrotherThomas.WhenWilliamdelaMare,O.S.F.,wrotea
"CorreptoriumfratrisThom",anEnglishDominican,RichardClapwell(orClapole),
repliedinatreatise"ContracorruptoriumfratrisThomae".Aboutthesametimethere
appearedawork,whichwasafterwardsprintedatVenice(1516)underthetitle,
"CorrectoriumcorruptoriiS.Thomae",attributedbysometogidiusRomanus,byothers
toClapwell,byotherstoFatherJohnofParis.St.Thomaswassolemnlyvindicatedwhen
theCouncilofVienna(131112)defined,againstPeterJohnOlivi,thattherationalsoulis
thesubstantialformofthehumanbody(onthisdefinitionseeZigliara,"DementeConc.
Vicnn.",Rome,1878).ThecanonizationofSt.ThomasbyJohnXXII,in1323,wasa
deathblowtohisdetractors.In1324StephendeBourret,BishopofParis,revokedthe
censurepronouncedbyhispredecessor,declaringthat"thatblessedconfessorand
excellentdoctor,ThomasAquinas,hadneverbelieved,taught,orwrittenanything
contrarytotheFaithorgoodmorals".ItisdoubtfulwhetherTempierandhisassociates
actedinthenameoftheUniversityofParis,whichhadalwaysbeenloyaltoSt.Thomas.
Whenthisuniversity,in1378,wrotealettercondemningtheerrorsofJohndeMontesono,
itwasexplicitlydeclaredthatthecondemnationwasnotaimedatSt.Thomas:"Wehave
saidathousandtimes,andyet,itwouldseem,notoftenenough,thatwebynomeans
includethedoctrineofSt.Thomasinourcondemnation."Anaccountoftheseattacksand
defenceswillbefoundinthefollowingworks:Echard,"Script.ord.prad.",I,279(Paris,
1719)DeRubeis,"Diss.crit.",Diss.xxv,xxvi,I,p.cclxviiiLeonineedit.WorksofSt.
ThomasDenifle,"Chart.univ.Paris"(Paris,189091),I,543,558,566II,6,280
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Duplessisd'Argentr,"Collectiojudiciorumdenoviserroribus"(3vols.,Paris,173336),
1,175sqq.DuBoulay,"Hist.univ.Par.",IV,205,436,618,622,627Jourdain,"Laphil.
deS.Thomasd'Aquin"(Paris,1858),II,iDouais,"Essaisurl'organizationdestudes
dansl'ordredesff.prcheurs"(ParisandToulouse,1884),87sqq.Mortier,"Hist.des
matresgn.del'ordredesff.prch.",II,115142,571"Actacap.gen.ord.praed.",ed.
Reichert(9vols.,Rome,18931904,IITurner,"Hist.ofPhil."(Boston,1903),xxxix.
ProgressofThomism

ThegeneralchapteroftheDominicanOrder,heldatCarcassonnein1342,declaredthat
thedoctrineofSt.Thomashadbeenreceivedassoundandsolidthroughouttheworld
(Douais,op.cit.,106).Hisworkswereconsultedfromthetimetheybecameknown,and
bythemiddleofthefourteenthcenturyhis"SummaTheologica"hadsupplantedthe
"Libriquatuorsententiarum",ofPeterLombardasthetextbookoftheologyinthe
Dominicanschools.Withthegrowthoftheorderandthewideningofitsinfluence
ThomismspreadthroughouttheworldSt.Thomasbecamethegreatmasterinthe
universitiesandinthestudiaofthereligiousorders(seeEncyc."AeterniPatris"ofLeo
XIII).ThefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiessawThomisminatriumphalmarchwhichled
tothecrowningofSt.ThomasasthePrinceofTheologians,whenhis"Summawaslaid
besidetheSacredScripturesattheCouncilofTrent,andSt.PiusV,in1567,proclaimed
himaDoctoroftheUniversalChurch.Thepublicationofthe"Piana"editionofhisworks,
in1570,andthemultiplicationofeditionsofthe"Operaomnia"andofthe"Summa"
duringtheseventeenthcenturyandpartoftheeighteenthshowthatThomismflourished
duringthatperiod.Infactitwasduringthatperiodthatsomeofthegreatcommentators
(forexample,FranciscoSurez,Sylvius,andBilluart)adaptedhisworkstotheneedsof
thetimes.
DeclineofScholasticismandofThomism

Gradually,however,duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,therecameadecline
inthestudyoftheworksofthegreatScholastics.Scholarsbelievedthattherewasneedof
anewsystemofstudies,and,insteadofbuildinguponandaroundScholasticism,they
driftedawayfromit.Thechiefcauseswhichbroughtaboutthechangewere
Protestantism,Humanism,thestudyofnature,andtheFrenchRevolution.Positive
theologywasconsideredmorenecessaryindiscussionswiththeProtestantsthan
Scholasticdefinitionsanddivisions.EleganceofdictionwassoughtbytheHumanistsin
theGreekandLatinclassics,ratherthanintheworksoftheScholastics,manyofwhom
werefarfrombeingmastersofstyle.ThediscoveriesofCopernicus(d.1543),Kepler(d.
1631),Galileo(d.1642),andNewton(d.1727)werenotfavourablyreceivedbythe
Scholastics.TheexperimentalscienceswereinhonourtheScholasticsincludingSt.
Thomas,wereneglected(cf.Turner,opcit.,433).Finally,theFrenchRevolution
disorganizedallecclesiasticalstudies,dealingtoThomisnablowfromwhichitdidnot
fullyrecoveruntilthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury.AtthetimewhenBilluart(d.
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1757)publishedhis"SummaSanctiThomahodiernisacademiarummoribusaccomodata"
Thomismstillheldanimportantplaceinalltheologicaldiscussion.Thetremendous
upheavalwhichdisturbedEuropefrom1798to1815affectedtheChurchaswellasthe
State.TheUniversityofLouvain,whichhadbeenlargelyThomistic,wascompelledto
closeitsdoors,andotherimportantinstitutionsoflearningwereeitherclosedorseriously
hamperedintheirwork.TheDominicanOrder,whichnaturallyhadsuppliedthemost
ardentThomists,wascrushedinFrance,Germany,Switzerland,andBelgium.The
provinceofHollandwasalmostdestroyed,whilsttheprovincesofAustriaandItalywere
lefttostrugglefortheirveryexistence.TheUniversityofManila(1645)continuedto
teachthedoctrinesofSt.ThomasandinduetimegavetotheworldCardinalZephyrinus
Gonzlez,O.P.,whocontributedinnosmalldegreetotherevivalofThomismunderLeo
XIII.
DistinctivedoctrinesofThomismingeneral

(1)InPhilosophy
Theangelsandhumansoulsarewithoutmatter,buteverymaterialcompositebeing
(compositum)hastwoparts,primematterandsubstantialform.Inacompositebeing
whichhassubstantialunityandisnotmerelyanaggregateofdistinctunits,therecan
bebutonesubstantialform.Thesubstantialformofmanishissoul(anima
rationalis)totheexclusionofanyothersoulandofanyothersubstantialform.The
principleofindividuation,formaterialcomposites,ismatterwithitsdimensions:
withoutthistherecanbenomerelynumericalmultiplication:distinctionintheform
makesspecificdistinction:hencetherecannotbetwoangelsofthesamespecies.
TheessencesofthingsdonotdependonthefreewillofGod,butonHisintellect,
andultimatelyonHisessence,whichisimmutable.Thenaturallaw,beingderived
fromtheeternallaw,dependsonthemindofGod,ultimatelyontheessenceofGod
henceitisintrinsicallyimmutable.SomeactionsareforbiddenbyGodbecausethey
arebad:theyarenotbadsimplybecauseHeforbidsthem[seeZigliara,"Sum.phil."
(3vols.,Paris,1889),ccx,xi,II,M.23,24,25].
Thewillmovestheintellectquoadexercitium,i.e.initsactualoperation:theintellect
movesthewillquoadspecificationem,i.e.bypresentingobjectstoit:nilvolitumnisi
praecognitum.Thebeginningofallouractsistheapprehensionanddesireofgoodin
general(bonumincommuni).Wedesirehappiness(bonumincommuni)naturally
andnecessarily,notbyafreedeliberateact.Particulargoods(bonaparticularia)we
choosefreelyandthewillisablindfaculty,alwaysfollowingthelastpractical
judgmentoftheintellect(Zigliara,51).
Thesensesandtheintellectarepassive,i.e.recipient,facultiestheydonotcreate,
butreceive(i.e.perceive)theirobjects(St.Thomas,I,Q.lxxviii,a.3Q.lxxix,a.2
Zigliara,26,27).IfthisprincipleisborneinmindthereisnoreasonforKant's
"CritiqueofPureReason".Ontheotherhandthosefacultiesarenotlikewax,orthe
sensitiveplateusedbyphotographers,inthesensethattheyareinertandreceive
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impressionsunconsciously.Thewillcontrolstheexerciseofthefaculties,andthe
processofacquiringknowledgeisavitalprocess:themovingcauseisalwayswithin
thelivingagent.
ThePeripateticaxiom:"Nihilestinintellectuquodnonpriusinsensu"(Nothingisin
theintellectthatwasnotfirstinthesenses),isadmittedbutSt.Thomasmodifiesit
bysaying:first,that,oncethesenseobjectshavebeenperceived,theintellect
ascendstotheknowledgeofhigherthings,evenofGodand,secondly,thatthesoul
knowsitsownexistencebyitself(i.e.byitsownact),althoughitknowsitsown
natureonlybyreflectiononitsacts.Knowledgebeginsbysenseperception,butthe
rangeoftheintellectisfarbeyondthatofthesenses.Inthesoulassoonasitbegins
toactarefoundthefirstprinciples(primaprincipia)ofallknowledge,notinthe
formofanobjectiveillumination,butintheformofasubjectiveinclinationtoadmit
themonaccountoftheirevidence.Assoonastheyareproposedweseethattheyare
truethereisnomorereasonfordoubtingthemthanthereisfordenyingthe
existenceofthesunwhenweseeitshining(seeZigliara,op.cit.,pp.3242).
Thedirectandprimaryobjectoftheintellectistheuniversal,whichispreparedand
presentedtothepassiveintellect(intellectuspossibilis)bytheactiveintellect
(intellectusagens)whichilluminatesthephantasmata,ormentalimages,received
throughthesenses,anddiveststhemofallindividuatingconditions.Thisiscalled
abstractingtheuniversalideafromthephantasmata,butthetermmustnotbetakenin
amaterialisticsense.Abstractionisnotatransferringofsomethingfromoneplaceto
anothertheilluminationcausesallmaterialandindividuatingconditionsto
disappear,thentheuniversalaloneshinesoutandisperceivedbythevitalactionof
theintellect(Q.lxxxiv,a.4Q.lxxxv,a.1,adlum,3um,4um).Theprocess
throughoutissovital,andsofarelevatedabovematerialconditionsandmodesof
action,thatthenatureoftheactsandoftheobjectsapprehendedprovesthesoultobe
immaterialandspiritual.
Thesoul,byitsverynature,isimmortal.NotonlyisittruethatGodwillnot
annihilatethesoul,butfromitsverynatureitwillalwayscontinuetoexist,there
beinginitnoprincipleofdisintegration(Zigliara,p.9).Hencehumanreasoncan
provetheincorruptibility(i.e.immortality)ofthesoul.
TheexistenceofGodisnotknownbyaninnateidea,itcannotbeprovedby
argumentsaprioriorasimultaneobutitcanbedemonstratedbyaposteriori
arguments.OntologismwasnevertaughtbySt.ThomasorbyThomists(seeLepidi,
"Exam.phil.theol.deontologismo",Louvain,1874,c.19Zigliara,ThesesI,VIII).
Therearenohuman(i.e.deliberate)actsindifferentinindividuo.
(2)InTheology
Faithandscience,i.e.knowledgebydemonstration,cannotcoexistinthesame
subjectwithregardtothesameobject(Zigliara,O,32,VII)andthesameistrueof
knowledgeandopinion.
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ThemetaphysicalessenceofGodconsists,accordingtosomeThomists,inthe
intelligereactualissimum,i.e.fulnessofpureintellection,accordingtoothersinthe
perfectionofaseitas,i.e.independentexistence(Zigliara,Th.VIII,IX).
Thehappinessofheaven,formallyandintheultimateanalysis,consistsinthevision,
notinthefruition,ofGod.
TheDivineattributesaredistinguishedfromtheDivinenatureandfromeachother
byavirtualdistinction,i.e.byadistinctiorationiscumfundamentoaparterei.The
distinctioactualisformalisofScotusisrejected.
InattemptingtoexplainthemysteryoftheTrinityinasfarasmancanconceiveit
therelationsmustbeconsideredperfectionessimplicitersimplices,i.e.excluding
allimperfection.TheHolyGhostwouldnotbedistinctfromtheSonifHedidnot
proceedfromtheSonaswellasfromtheFather.
Theangels,beingpurespirits,arenot,properlyspeaking,inanyplacetheyaresaid
tobeintheplace,orintheplaces,wheretheyexercisetheiractivity(Summa,I,Q.
lii,a.1).Strictlyspeaking,thereisnosuchthingasanangelpassingfromplaceto
placebutifanangelwishestoexerciseitsactivityfirstinJapanandafterwardsin
America,itcandosointwoinstants(ofangelictime),andneednotpassthroughthe
interveningspace(Q.liii).St.Thomasdoesnotdiscussthequestion"Howmany
angelscandanceonthepointofaneedle?"Heremindsusthatwemustnotthinkof
angelsasiftheywerecorporeal,andthat,foranangel,itmakesnodifference
whetherthesphereofhisactivitybethepointofaneedleoracontinent(Q.lii,a.2).
Manyangelscannotbesaidtobeinthesameplaceatthesametime,forthiswould
meanthatwhilstoneangelisproducinganeffectotherscouldbeproducingthesame
effectatthesametime.Therecanbebutoneangelinthesameplaceatthesametime
(Q.lii,a.3).Theknowledgeoftheangelscomesthroughideas(species)infusedby
God(QQ.lv,a.2,lvii,a.2,lviii,a.7).Theydonotnaturallyknowfuturecontingents,
thesecretsofsouls,orthemysteriesofgrace(Q.lvii,aa.3,45).Theangelschoose
eithergoodorevilinstantly,andwithfullknowledgehencetheirjudgmentis
naturallyfinalandirrevocable(Q.lxiv,a.2).
Manwascreatedinthestateofsanctifyinggrace.Gracewasnotduetohisnature,
butGodgrantedittohimfromthebeginning(I,Q.xcv,a.1).Sogreatwasthe
perfectionofmaninthestateoforiginaljustice,andsoperfectthesubjectionofhis
lowerfacultiestothehigher,thathisfirstsincouldnothavebeenavenialsin(I
II:89:3).
ItismoreprobablethattheIncarnationwouldnothavetakenplacehadmannot
sinned(III,Q.i,a.3).InChristtherewerethreekindsofknowledge:thescientia
beata,i.e.theknowledgeofthingsintheDivineEssencethescientiainfusa,i.e.the
knowledgeofthingsthroughinfusedideas(species),andthescientiaacquisita,i.e.
acquiredorexperimentalknowledge,whichwasnothingmorethantheactual
experienceofthingswhichhealreadyknew.OnthislastpointSt.Thomas,inthe
"Summa"(Q.ix,a.4),explicitlyretractsanopinionwhichhehadonceheld(III
Sent.,d.14,Q.iii,a.3).
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AllsacramentsoftheNewLaw,includingconfirmationandextremeunction,were
institutedimmediatelybyChrist.CircumcisionwasasacramentoftheOldLawand
conferredgracewhichremovedthestainoforiginalsin.ThechildrenofJewsorof
otherunbelieversmaynotbebaptizedwithouttheconsentoftheirparents(III,Q.
lxviii,a.10IIII,Q.x,a.12DenzingerBannwart,n.1481).Contrition,confession,
andsatisfactionaretheproximatematter(materiaproxima)oftheSacramentof
Penance.Thomistshold,againsttheScotists,thatwhenTransubstantiationtakes
placeintheMasstheBodyofChristisnotmadepresentpermodumadduclionis,i.e.
isnotbroughttothealtar,buttheydonotagreeinselectingthetermwhichshouldbe
usedtoexpressthisaction(cf.Billuart,"DeEuchar.",Diss.i,a.7).CardinalBillot
holds("Deeccl.sacr.",Rome,1900,Th.XI,"Deeuchar.",p.379)thatthebest,and
theonlypossible,explanationistheonegivenbySt.Thomashimself:Christ
becomespresentbytransubstantiation,i.e.bytheconversionofthesubstanceof
breadintothesubstanceofHisbody(III,Q.lxxv,a.4Sent.,d.XI,Q.i,a.1,q.1).
Aftertheconsecrationtheaccidents(accidentia)ofthebreadandwinearepreserved
byAlmightyGodwithoutasubject(Q.lxxxvii,a.1).Itwasonthisquestionthatthe
doctorsofParissoughtenlightenmentfromSt.Thomas(seeVaughan,"Lifeand
LaboursofSt.Thomas",London,1872,II,p.544).TheearlierThomists,following
St.Thomas(Suppl.,Q.xxxvii,a.2),taughtthatthesubdiaconateandthefourminor
orderswerepartialsacraments.SomerecentThomistse.g.,Billot(op.cit.,p.282)
andTanquerey(Deordine,n.16)defendthisopinionasmoreprobableandmore
inconformitywiththedefinitionsofthecouncils.Thegivingofthechalicewith
wineandofthepatenwithbreadThomistsgenerallyheldtobeanessentialpartof
ordinationtothepriesthood.Some,however,taughtthattheimpositionofhandswas
atleastnecessary.OnthequestionofdivorceundertheMosaicLawthedisciplesof
St.Thomas,likethesainthimself(Suppl.,Q.lxvii,a.3),wavered,someholdingthat
adispensationwasgranted,othersteachingthatdivorcewasmerelytoleratedinorder
toavoidgreaterevils.

TheThomisticschool
Thechiefdoctrinesdistinctiveofthisschool,composedprincipallyofDominicanwriters,
arethefollowing:
Inphilosophy

1. Theunityofsubstantialformincompositebeings,appliedtoman,requiresthatthe
soulbethesubstantialformoftheman,soastoexcludeeventheforma
corporeitatis,admittedbyHenryofGhent,Scotus,andothers(cf.Zigliara,P.13
DenzingerBannwart,innoteton.1655).
2. Increatedbeingsthereisarealdistinctionbetweentheessentia(essence)andthe
existentia(existence)betweentheessentiaandthesubsistentiabetweenthereal
relationanditsfoundationbetweenthesoulanditsfacultiesbetweentheseveral
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faculties.Therecanbenomediumbetweenadistinctiorealisandadistinctio
rationis,orconceptualdistinctionhencethedistinctioformalisapartereiofScotus
cannotbeadmitted.ForThomisticdoctrinesonfreewill,God'sknowledge,etc.,see
below.
Intheology

1. InthebeatificvisionGod'sessencetakestheplacenotonlyofthespeciesimpressa,
butalsoofthespeciesexpressa.
2. Allmoralvirtues,theacquiredaswellastheinfused,intheirperfectstate,are
interconnected.
3. AccordingtoBilluart(Depecc.,diss.vii,a.6),ithasbeenamatterofcontroversy
betweenThomistswhetherthemaliceofamortalsinisabsolutelyinfinite.
4. InchoosingamediumbetweenRigorismandLaxism,theThomisticschoolhasbeen
AntiprobabilisticandgenerallyhasadoptedProbabiliorism.Somedefended
Equiprobabilism,orProbabilismcumcompensatione.MedinaandSt.Antoninusare
claimedbytheProbabilists.
5. Thomistictheologiansgenerally,whilsttheydefendedtheinfallibilityoftheRoman
pontiff,deniedthatthepopehadthepowertodissolveamatrimoniumratumorto
dispensefromasolemnvowmadetoGod.Whenitwasurgedthatsomepopeshad
grantedsuchfavours,theycitedotherpontiffswhodeclaredthattheycouldnotgrant
them(cf.Billuart,"Dematrim.",Diss.v,a.2),andsaid,withDominicSoto,"Factum
pontificiumnonfacitarticulumfidei"(Theactionofapopedoesnotconstitutean
articleoffaith,in4dist.,27,Q.i,a.4).Thomistsoftodayareofadifferentmind,
owingtothepracticeoftheChurch.
6. Thehypostaticunion,withoutanyadditionalgrace,renderedChristimpeccable.The
WordwashypostaticallyunitedtothebloodofChristandremainedunitedtoit,even
duringtheintervalbetweenHisdeathandresurrection(DenzingerBannwart,n.718).
DuringthatsameintervaltheBodyofChristhadatransitoryform,calledforma
cadaverica(Zigliara,P.16,17,IV).
7. ThesacramentsoftheNewLawcausegracenotonlyasinstrumentalmoralcauses,
butbyamodeofcausalitywhichshouldbecalledinstrumentalandphysical.Inthe
attritionrequiredintheSacramentofPenancethereshouldbeatleastabeginningof
theloveofGodsorrowforsinspringingsolelyfromthefearofhellwillnotsuffice.
8. ManytheologiansoftheThomisticSchool,especiallybeforetheCouncilofTrent,
opposedthedoctrineofMary'sImmaculateConception,claimingthatinthisthey
werefollowingSt.Thomas.This,however,hasnotbeentheopinioneitherofthe
entireschooloroftheDominicanOrderasabody.FatherRouarddeCard,inhis
book"L'ordredesfreresprecheursetl'ImmaculeConception"(Brussels,1864),
calledattentiontothefactthattenthousandprofessorsoftheorderdefendedMary's
greatprivilege.AttheCouncilofTrenttwentyfiveDominicanbishopssigneda
petitionforthedefinitionofthedogma.ThousandsofDominicans,intakingdegrees
attheUniversityofParis,solemnlypledgedthemselvestodefendtheImmaculate
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Conception.
9. TheThomisticSchoolisdistinguishedfromotherschoolsoftheologychieflybyits
doctrinesonthedifficultquestionsrelatingtoGod'sactiononthefreewillofman,
God'sforeknowledge,grace,andpredestination.Inthearticlesonthesesubjectswill
befoundanexpositionofthedifferenttheoriesadvancedbythedifferentschoolsin
theirefforttoexplainthesemysteries,forsuchtheyareinreality.Astothevalueof
thesetheoriesthefollowingpointsshouldbeborneinmind:
Notheoryhasasyetbeenproposedwhichavoidsalldifficultiesandsolvesall
doubts
onthemainandmostdifficultofthesequestionssomewhoareattimeslistedas
MolinistsnotablyBellarmine,FranciscoSurez,FrancisdeLugo,and,inour
owndays,CardinalBillot("Dedeounoettrino",Rome,1902,Th.XXXII)
agreewiththeThomistsindefendingpredestinationantepraevisamerita.
Bossuet,afteralongstudyofthequestionofphysicalpremotion,adaptedthe
Thomisticopinion("Dulibrearbitre",c.viii).
Thomistsdonotclaimtobeabletoexplain,exceptbyageneralreferenceto
God'somnipotence,howmanremainsfreeundertheactionofGod,whichthey
considernecessaryinordertopreserveandexplaintheuniversalityofGod's
causalityandtheindependentcertaintyofHisforeknowledge.Nomancan
explain,exceptbyareferencetoGod'sinfinitepower,howtheworldwas
createdoutofnothing,yetwedonotonthisaccountdenycreation,forweknow
thatitmustbeadmitted.InlikemannerthemainquestionputtoThomistsin
thiscontroversyshouldbenot"Howwillyouexplainman'sliberty?"but"What
areyourreasonsforclaimingsomuchforGod'saction?"Ifthereasonsassigned
areinsufficient,thenonegreatdifficultyisremoved,butthereremainstobe
solvedtheproblemofGod'sforeknowledgeofman'sfreeacts.Iftheyarevalid,
thenwemustacceptthemwiththeirnecessaryconsequencesandhumbly
confessourinabilityfullytoexplainhowwisdom"reacheth...fromendtoend
mightily,andorderethallthingssweetly"(Wisdom8:1).
Mostimportantofall,itmustbeclearlyunderstoodandrememberedthatthe
Thomisticsystemonpredestinationneithersavesfewernorsendstoperdition
moresoulsthananyothersystemheldbyCatholictheologians.Inregardtothe
numberoftheelectthereisnounanimityoneithersidethisisnotthequestion
indisputebetweentheMolinistsandtheThomists.Thediscussions,toooften
animatedandneedlesslysharp,turnedonthispoint:Howdoesithappenthat,
althoughGodsincerelydesiresthesalvationofallmen,somearetobesaved,
andmustthankGodforwhatevermeritstheymayhaveamassed,whilstothers
willbelost,andwillknowthattheythemselves,andnotGod,aretobeblamed?
ThefactsinthecaseareadmittedbyallCatholictheologians.TheThomists,
appealingtotheauthorityofSt.AugustineandSt.Thomas,defendasystem
whichfollowstheadmittedfactstotheirlogicalconclusions.Theelectaresaved
bythegraceofGod,whichoperatesontheirwillsefficaciouslyandinfallibly
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withoutdetrimenttotheirlibertyandsinceGodsincerelydesiresthesalvation
ofallmen,Heispreparedtograntthatsamegracetoothers,iftheydonot,bya
freeact,renderthemselvesunworthyofit.Thefacultyofplacingobstaclesto
Divinegraceistheunhappyfacultyofsinningandtheexistenceofmoralevil
intheworldisaproblemtobesolvedbyall,notbytheThomistsalone.The
fundamentaldifficultiesinthismysteriousquestionaretheexistenceofeviland
thenonsalvationofsome,betheyfeworbetheymany,undertheruleofan
omnipotent,allwise,andallmercifulGod,andtheymissthepointofthe
controversywhosupposethatthesedifficultiesexistonlyfortheThomists.The
truthisknowntoliesomewherebetweenCalvinismandJansenismontheone
hand,andSemipelagianismontheother.Theeffortsmadebytheologiansand
thevariousexplanationsofferedbyAugustinians,Thomists,Molinists,and
Congruistsshowhowdifficultofsolutionarethequestionsinvolved.Perhaps
weshallneverknow,inthisworld,howajustandmercifulGodprovidesin
somespecialmannerfortheelectandyetsincerelylovesallmen.The
celebratedCongregatiodeAuxiliisdidnotforeverputanendtothe
controversies,andthequestionisnotyetsettled.

NeoThomismandtherevivalofScholasticism
Whentheworldinthefirstpartofthenineteenthcenturybegantoenjoyaperiodofpeace
andrestafterthedisturbancescausedbytheFrenchRevolutionandtheNapoleonicWars,
closerattentionwasgiventoecclesiasticalstudiesandScholasticismwasrevived.This
movementeventuallycausedarevivalofThomism,becausethegreatmasterandmodel
proposedbyLeoXIIIintheencyclical"AeterniPatris"(4Aug.,1879)wasSt.Thomas
Aquinas....TheThomisticdoctrinehadreceivedstrongsupportfromtheolder
universities.AmongthesetheEncyclical"AeterniPatris"mentionsParis,Salamanca,
AlcalDouai,Toulouse,Louvain,Padua,Bologna,Naples,andCoimbraas"thehomesof
humanwisdomwhereThomasreignedsupreme,andthemindsofall,teachersaswellas
taught,restedinwonderfulharmonyundertheshieldandauthorityoftheAngelic
Doctor".IntheuniversitiesestablishedbytheDominicansatLima(1551)andManila
(1645)St.Thomasalwaysheldsway.ThesameistrueoftheMinervaschoolatRome
(1255),whichrankedasauniversityfromtheyear1580,andisnowtheinternational
CollegioAngelico.ComingdowntoourowntimesandtheresultsoftheEncyclical,
whichgaveanewimpetustothestudyofSt.Thomas'sworks,themostimportantcentres
ofactivityareRome,Louvain,Fribourg(Switzerland),andWashington.AtLouvainthe
chairofThomisticphilosophy,establishedin1880,became,in188990,the"Institut
suprieurdephilosophie"or"EcoleSt.Thomasd'Aquin,"whereProfessorMercier,now
CardinalArchbishopofMechlin,ablyandwiselydirectedthenewThomisticmovement
(seeDeWulf,"ScholasticismOldandNew",tr.Coffey,NewYork,1907,append.,p.261
"IrishEcel.Record",Jan.1906).ThetheologicaldepartmentoftheUniversityof
Fribourg,Switzerland,establishedin1889,hasbeenentrustedtotheDominicans.Bythe
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publicationofthe"Revuethomiste"theprofessorsofthatuniversityhavecontributed
greatlytoanewknowledgeandappreciationofSt.Thomas.TheConstitutionofthe
CatholicUniversityofAmericaatWashingtonenjoinsspecialvenerationforSt.Thomas
theSchoolofSacredSciencesmustfollowhisleadership("Const.Cath.Univ.Amer.",
Rome,1889,pp.38,43).TheUniversityofOttawaandLavalUniversityarethecentresof
ThomisminCanada.TheappreciationofSt.Thomasinourdays,inEuropeandin
America,iswellsetforthinPerrier'sexcellent"RevivalofScholasticPhilosophyinthe
NineteenthCentury"(NewYork,1909).

EminentThomists
Afterthemiddleofthefourteenthcenturythevastmajorityofphilosophicaland
theologicalwriterseitherwrotecommentariesontheworksofSt.Thomasorbasedtheir
teachingsonhiswritings.Itisimpossible,therefore,togivehereacompletelistofthe
Thomists:onlythemoreimportantnamescanbegiven.Unlessotherwisenoted,the
authorsbelongedtotheOrderofSt.Dominic.Thosemarked(*)weredevotedto
Thomismingeneral,butwerenotoftheThomisticSchool.Amorecompletelistwillbe
foundintheworkscitedattheendofthisarticle.
Thirteenthcentury

ThomasdeCantimpr(1270)HughofSt.Cher(1263)VincentofBauvais(1264)St.
RaymonddePennafort(1275)PeterofTarentaise(PopeInnocentV1276)Gilesde
Lassines(1278)ReginalddePiperno(1279)WilliamdeMoerbeka(1286)Raymond
Marti(1286)BernarddeTrilia(1292)BernardofHotun,BishopofDublin(1298)
TheodoricofApoldia(1299)ThomasSutton(1300).
Fourteenthcentury

PeterofAuvergne(1301)NicholasBoccasini,BenedictXI(1304)GodfreyofFontaines
(1304)WalterofWinterburn(1305)gidiusColonna(AigidiusRomanus),O.S.A
(12431316)WilliamofParis(1314)GerardofBologna,Carmelite(1317)four
biographers,vizPeterCalo(1310)WilliamdeTocco(1324)BartolommeoofLucca
(1327)BernardGuidonis*(1331)Dante(1321)NatalisHervieus(1323)Petrusde
Palude(Paludanusi1342)ThomasBradwardin,ArchbishopofCanterbury(1349)
RobertHolkott(1349)JohnTauler(1361)Bl.HenrySuso(1365)ThomasofStrasburg,
O.S.A.(1357)JacobusPassavante(1357)NicholasRoselli(1362)DurandusofAurillac
(1382),sometimescalledDurandulus,becausehewroteagainstDurandusaS.Portiano*,
whowasfirstaThomist,afterwardsanindependentwriter,attackingmanyofSt.
Thomas'sdoctrinesJohnBromyard(1390)NicholasEymeric(1399).
Fifteenthcentury
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ManuelCalecas(1410)St.VincentFerrer(1415)Bl.JohnDominici(1419)John
Gerson*,chancelloroftheUniversityofParis(1429)LuisofValladolid(1436)
RaymondSabunde(1437)JohnNieder(1437)Capreolus(1444),calledthe"Princeof
Thomists"JohndeMontenegro(1445)FraAngelico(1455)St.Antoninus(1459)
NicholasofCusa*,oftheBrothersoftheCommonLife(1464)JohnofTorquemada(de
Turrecrematai,1468)Bessarion,Basilian(1472)AlanusdeRupe(1475)JohnFaber
(1477)PetrusNiger(1471)PeterofBergamo(1482)JeromeSavonarola(1498).
Sixteenthcentury

FelixFaber(1502)VincentBandelli(1506)JohnTetzel(1519)DiegodeDeza(1523)
SylvesterMazzolini(1523)FrancescoSilvestrodiFerrara(1528)ThomasdeVio
Cajetan(1534)(commentariesbythesetwoarepublishedintheLeonineeditionofthe
worksofSt.Thomas)ConradKoellin(1536)ChrysostomJavelli(1538)SantesPagnino
(1541)FranciscodeVitoria(1546)Franc.Romseus(1552)AmbrosiusCatherinus*
(LancelotPoliti,1553)St.IgnatiusofLoyola(1556)enjoineddevotiontoSt.Thomas
MatthewOry(1557)DominicSoto(1560)MelchiorCano(1560)AmbrosePelargus
(1561)PeterSoto(1563)SixtusofSiena(1569)JohnFaber(1570)St.PiusV(1572)
BartholomewMedina(1581)VincentJustiniani(1582)Maldonatus*(JuanMaldonado,
1583)St.CharlesBorromeo*(1584)Salmern*(1585)Ven.LouisofGranada(1588)
BartholomewofBraga(1590)Toletus*(1596)Bl.PeterCanisius*(1597)Thomas
Stapleton*,DoctorofLouvain(1598)Fonseca(1599)Molina*(1600).
Seventeenthcentury

Valentia*(1603)DomingoBaez(1604)Vsquez*(1604)Bart.Ledesma(1604)
Snchez*(1610)Baronius*(1607)CapponiaPorrecta(1614)Aur.Menochio*(1615)
Petr.Ledesma(1616)FranciscoSurez*(1617)DuPerron,aconvertedCalvinist,
cardinal(1618)Bellarmine*(1621)St.FrancisdeSales*(1622)HieronymusMedices
(1622)Lessius*(1623)Becanus*(1624)Malvenda(1628)ThomasdeLemos(1629)
AlvarezLaymann*(1635)Joann.Wiggers*,doctorofLouvain(1639)Gravina(1643)
JohnofSt.Thomas(1644)Serra(1647)Ripalda*,S.J.*(1648)Sylvius(DuBois),
doctorofDouai(1649)Petavius*(1652)Goar(1625)Steph.Menochio,S.J.*(1655)
Franc.Pignatelli*(1656)DeLugo*(1660)Bollandus*(1665)Jammy(1665)
Vallgornera(1665)Labbe*(1667)Pallavicini*(1667)Busenbaum*(1668)Nicolni*
(1673)Contenson(1674)Jac.Pignatelli*(1675)Passerini*(1677)Gonet(1681)
Bancel(1685)Thomassin*(1695)Goudin(1695)Sfrondati*(1696)Quetif(1698)
Rocaberti(1699)Casanate(1700).TothisperiodbelongtheCarmeliteSalmanticenses,
authorsofthe"Cursustheologicus"(163172).
Eighteenthcentury

Guerinois(1703)Bossuet,BishopofMeauxNorisins,O.S.A.(1704)Diana(1705)
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ThyrsusGonzlez*(1705)Massouli(1706)Duhamel*(1706)Wigandt(1708)Piny
(1709)Lacroix*(1714)Carrires*(1717)NatalisAlexander(1724)Echard(1724)
Tourney*,doctoroftheSorbonne(1729)LivariusdeMeyer*(1730)BenedictXIII*
(1730)Graveson(1733)Th.duJardin(1733)HyacinthaSerry(1738)Duplessis
d'Argentr*(1740)Gotti(1742)Drouin*(1742)Antoine*(1743)Lallemant*(1748)
Milante*(1749)Preingue(1752)Concina(1759)Billuart(1757)BenedictXIV*
(1758)Cuiliati(1759)Orsi(1761)Charlevoix*(1761)Reuter*(1762)Baumgartner*
(1764)Berti*(1766)Patuzzi(1769)DeRubeis(1775)Touron(1775)Thomasde
Burgo(1776)Gener*(1781)Roselli(1783)St.AlphonsusLiguori(1787)Mamachi
(1792)Richard(1794).
Nineteenthcentury

Inthiscenturytherearefewnamestoberecordedoutsideofthosewhowereconnected
withtheThomisticrevivaleitherastheforerunners,thepromoters,orthewritersofthe
NeoScholasticperiod.

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APAcitation.Kennedy,D.(1912).Thomism.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:
RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14698b.htm
MLAcitation.Kennedy,Daniel."Thomism."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.14.New
York:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14698b.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyKevinCawley.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.July1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
webmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatly
appreciateyourfeedbackespeciallynotificationsabouttypographicalerrorsand
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