Logic

ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
LECTURE # 03
Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal
Review of Last Lecture
Todays Lecture
Review of last lecture
Reasoning
Types of Reasoning
Logic
Reasoning
Reasoning is the process of deriving logical conclusions
from given facts.

Durkin defines reasoning as the process of working with
knowledge, facts and problem solving strategies to draw

conclusions.
Throughout this section, you will notice how representing
knowledge in a particular way is useful for a particular

kind of reasoning.
Deductive reasoning
As the name implies, is based on deducing new
information from logically related known information.

A deductive argument offers assertions that lead
automatically to a conclusion, e.g.

If there is dry wood, oxygen and a spark, there will be a
fire
Given: There is dry wood, oxygen and a spark
We can deduce: There will be a fire.
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man.
We can deduce: Socrates is mortal
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is based on forming, or inducing a
generalization from a limited set of observations, e.g.

Observation: All the crows that I have seen in my life are
black.
Conclusion: All crows are black
Comparison of deductive and inductive

reasoning
The inductive reasoning is as follows: By experience,
every time I have let a ball go, it falls downwards.

Therefore, I conclude that the next time I let a ball go, it
will also come down.
The deductive reasoning is as follows: I know Newton's
Laws. So I conclude that if I let a ball go, it will certainly

fall downwards.
Thus the essential difference is that inductive reasoning is
based on experience,
while deductive reasoning is based on rules, hence the
latter will always be correct.

Analogical Reasoning
Analogical reasoning works by drawing analogies
between two situations, looking for similarities and

differences, e.g.
when you say driving a truck is just like driving a car, by
analogy you know that there are some similarities in the

driving mechanism,
But you also know that there are certain other distinct
characteristics of each.
Common-sense Reasoning
Common-sense reasoning is an informal form of
reasoning that uses rules gained through experience or

what we call rules-of-thumb.
It operates on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.
Non-Monotonic Reasoning
Non-Monotonic reasoning is used when the facts of the
case are likely to change after some time, e.g.

Rule:
IF the wind blows
THEN the curtains sway

When the wind stops blowing, the curtains should sway
no longer.
However, if we use monotonic reasoning, this would not
happen. The fact that the curtains are swaying would be

retained even after the wind stopped blowing.
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Logic
Algebra is a type of formal logic deals with number
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
PREDICATE CALCULUS/LOGIC
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Proposition
A proposition (p, q, r, ) is simply a statement (i.e., a
declarative sentence) with a definite meaning, having a truth

value thats either true (T) or false (F)
Normally, a proposition is named e.g. P, Q, R etc.

Propositional Logic is the logic of compound statements built
from simpler statements using Boolean connectives.
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Proposition
A proposition is a statement about the world that may be either true
or false.
Examples of propositions (properly formed statements):
Alis car is blue.

Seven plus six equals twelve. (7 + 6 = 12)
Amjad is Alis uncle.
Each of the sentences is a proposition - not to be broken
down into its constituent parts. i. e., we simply assign true,

say, to Amjad is Alis uncle.
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Examples of non- propositions

Alis uncle
Seven plus four
Whos there? (interrogative, question)

Just do it! (imperative, command)
1 + 2 (expression with a non-true/false value)
Because we cannot assign truth value to them.
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Propositional Symbols
Propositions are denoted by propositional symbols such
as: P, Q, R, S,.
Truth symbols are: true (or T), false (or F).
Single propositions by themselves are not very
interesting.
We need to express complex propositions/compound
propositions:
The book is on the table or it is on the chair.
If Socrates is a man then he is mortal.
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Propositional Symbols
We can use logical connecters such as:
...and
...or
...implies
..is equivalent
...not
[conjunction]
[disjunction]
[implication / conditional]
[biconditional]
[negation]
Sentences in the propositional calculus are formed from these atomic
symbols according to the syntax rules.
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Operators / Connectives
An operator or connective combines one or more operand
expressions into a larger expression. (E.g., + in numeric

exprs.)
Unary operators take 1 operand (e.g., -3);

Binary operators take 2 operands (eg 3 4).
Propositional or Boolean operators operate on propositions or
truth values instead of on numbers.
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The Negation Operator

The unary negation operator (NOT) transforms a prop. into
its logical negation.
E.g. If p = I have brown hair.
then p = I do not have brown hair.
Truth table for NOT:
p p
T F
F T
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The Conjunction Operator

The binary conjunction operator (AND) combines two
propositions to form their logical conjunction.
E.g. If p=I will have salad for lunch. and q=I will have steak
for dinner., then pq=I will have salad for lunch and I will
have steak for dinner.
Conjunction Truth Table
p
F
F
T
T
q
F
T
F
T
pq
F
F
F
T
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The Disjunction Operator

The binary disjunction operator (OR) combines two
propositions to form their logical disjunction.
Example:
p=That car has a bad engine.
q=That car has a bad carburetor.
pq=Either that car has a bad engine, or
that car has a bad carburetor.
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The Disjunction Operator

Note that pq means that p is true, or q is true, or both are
true!
So this operation is also called inclusive or, because it includes
the possibility that both p and q are true.
Disjunction Truth Table
p
F
F
T
T
q
F
T
F
T
pq
F
T
T
T
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Examples
Example: BCS AI Class
P = Ali is the teacher
Q = Saira is the student
R= AI is a course teaching in BS
P ^ Q = Ali is the teacher and Saira is the student.

Q ^ R= Saira is the student and tought AI in BS
The book is on the table or it is on the chair.

If Socrates is a man then he is mortal.
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A Simple Exercise
Let p=It rained last night,
q=The sprinklers came on last night,
r=The lawn was wet this morning.
Translate each of the following into English:
p
q ^ r
r p
rpq
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The Exclusive Or Operator

The binary exclusive-or operator (XOR) combines two
propositions to form their logical exclusive or.
p = I will earn an A in this course,

q = I will drop this course,
p q = I will either earn an A for this course, or I will drop it
(but not both!)
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Exclusive-Or Truth Table

Note that pq means that p is true, or q is true, but not both!
This operation is called exclusive or, because it excludes the
possibility that both p and q are true.
p
F
F
T
T
q pq
F F
T T
F T
T F
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The Implication Operator

The implication p q states that p implies q.
It is FALSE only in the case that p is TRUE but q is FALSE.

E.g., p=I am elected.
q=I will lower taxes.

p q = If I am elected, then I will lower taxes
Its premise or antecedent is p and its conclusion or consequent
is q
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Implication Truth Table

p q is false only when
p is true but q is not true.
Examples:
p
F
F
T
T
q pq
F
T
T T
F
F
T T
If 1+1=2, then I am richer than Bill Gates. True or False?
If the moon is made of green cheese, then I am richer than Bill
Gates. True or False?
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The Biconditional Operator

The biconditional p q states that p is true if and only if (IFF)
q is true.
It is TRUE when both p q and q p are TRUE.
p = It is raining.
q = The home team wins.
p q = If and only if it is raining, the home team wins.
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Biconditional Truth Table
p q means that p and q
have the same truth value.
Note this truth table is the
exact opposite of s!
p q means (p q)
p q does not imply

p and q are true, or cause each other.
p
F
F
T
T
q pq
F T
T F
F F
T T
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Truth Table
p q p q p
p q p q p q
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Precedence of Logical Operators
31
Precedence of Logical Operators

Operator
Precedence
32
Some Alternative Notations

Name:
Propositional logic:
Boolean algebra:
C/C++/Java (wordwise):
C/C++/Java (bitwise):
not and or

p pq +
! && ||
~ & |
xor implies
!=
^
iff
==
Logic gates:
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Propositional Calculus Sentences (Syntax)

Every propositional symbol and truth symbol is a sentence.
e. g., true, P, R.
The negation of a sentence is a sentence.
e. g., ~P, ~false
The conjunction of two sentences is a sentence.
e. g., P Q, P Q
The disjunction of two sentences is a sentence.
e. g., Q R
The implication of one sentence for another is a sentence.
e. g., P Q
The equivalence of two sentences is a sentence
e. g., P Q = R
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Exercise
Fact 1: Saira likes cakes. = P
Fact 2: Saira eats cakes. = Q

P Q, PQ, Q, P Q, P Q ????????
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Exercise
Fact 1: Saira likes cakes. = P
Fact 2: Saira eats cakes. = Q

P Q, PQ, Q, P Q, P Q ????????
PQ : Saira Likes cakes or eats cakes.
PQ : Saira likes cakes and eats cakes.
Q : Saira does not eat cakes.
PQ: If Saira likes cakes then he eats cakes.
PQ:Saira eats cakes if and only if he likes cakes.
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Limitations of Propositional logic

We Cant describe things in terms of their properties or
relationships (very limited expressive power)

Propositional logic is declarative
Propositional logic is compositional:
meaning of B1,1 P1,2 is derived from meaning of B1,1 and of
P1,2
We cant express rules or generalizations
If the train is late and there are no taxis, john is late for the meeting
If trains are late and there are no taxis, anyone traveling by trains is late
for the meeting
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Limitations
Propositions can only represent knowledge as complete sentences,
e.g.
a = the balls color is blue.
Cannot analyze the internal structure of the sentence.
No quantifiers are available, e.g. for-all, there-exists
Propositional logic provides no framework for proving statements
such as:
All humans are mortal
All women are humans
Therefore, all women are mortals
This is a limitation in its representational power.

38
References
Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for
Complex Problem Solving

Internet
39
End of Lecture
40
Puzzle Game
A farmer went to market and purchased a fox, a goose,
and a bag of beans. On his way home, the farmer came to

the bank of a river and hired a boat. But in crossing the
river by boat, the farmer could carry only himself and a
single one of his purchases - the fox, the goose, or the
bag of the beans.
If left alone, the fox would eat the goose, and the goose
would eat the beans.

The farmer's challenge was to carry himself and his
purchases to the far bank of the river, leaving each

purchase intact. How did he do it?
41

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ARTIFICIAL

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Review of Last Lecture

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

from given facts.

knowledge, facts and problem solving strategies to draw

Throughout this section, you will notice how representing

knowledge in a particular way is useful for a particular

information from logically related known information.

automatically to a conclusion, e.g.

generalization from a limited set of observations, e.g.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Comparison of deductive and inductive

every time I have let a ball go, it falls downwards.

Laws. So I conclude that if I let a ball go, it will certainly

latter will always be correct.

between two situations, looking for similarities and

when you say driving a truck is just like driving a car, by

analogy you know that there are some similarities in the

reasoning that uses rules gained through experience or

It operates on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

case are likely to change after some time, e.g.

THEN the curtains sway

happen. The fact that the curtains are swaying would be

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

declarative sentence) with a definite meaning, having a truth

Normally, a proposition is named e.g. P, Q, R etc.

from simpler statements using Boolean connectives.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Examples of propositions (properly formed statements):

Alis car is blue.

Each of the sentences is a proposition - not to be broken

down into its constituent parts. i. e., we simply assign true,

Examples of non- propositions

Seven plus four

Whos there? (interrogative, question)

1 + 2 (expression with a non-true/false value)

Because we cannot assign truth value to them.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Single propositions by themselves are not very

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

Sentences in the propositional calculus are formed from these atomic

symbols according to the syntax rules.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

expressions into a larger expression. (E.g., + in numeric

Unary operators take 1 operand (e.g., -3);

Propositional or Boolean operators operate on propositions or

truth values instead of on numbers.

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

The Negation Operator

its logical negation.

E.g. If p = I have brown hair.

then p = I do not have brown hair.

Truth table for NOT:

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

The Conjunction Operator

propositions to form their logical conjunction.

Conjunction Truth Table

Artificial Intelligence 2012 Lecture 03 Delivered By Zahid Iqbal

The Disjunction Operator

propositions to form their logical disjunction.

q=That car has a bad carburetor.