COMPRESSION RATIOS

In a reciprocating engine the piston travels through two extremes

namely the Top Dead Center (TDC) and the Bottom Dead Center
(BDC).
TDC The piston is at the top of its travel
BDC The piston is at the bottom of its travel

Operation of Engine:
- The air enters the cylinder during the suction (intake) stroke
at the start of the compression stroke (BDC)
- The volume in the chamber is at a maximum, which is a
combination of the swept volume (Vs), and clearance volume
(Vc).
- Swept volume is the volume swept through by the piston
during a single stroke

- Clearance volume is the volume between the piston crown

and the cylinder head at TDC.
- At the end of the compression stroke (TDC), the volume is at
a relatively small volume, which equals Vc.

The compression ratio by definition is the ratio of the maximum

and minimum volumes of the compression stroke.
max volume

r
r

min volume
V s Vc
Vc

The swept volume is a function of the cylinder area as well as the

length the piston has to travel.
Bore (cylinder diameter)
Stroke (Length the distance the piston travels)
Swept volume now becomes:
Vs Area of bore x Length of stroke

d 2

xL
4

Example 1
A petrol engine has a cylinder bore of 95 mm and a stroke of 120
mm. If the compression ratio is 8 to 1, calculate, in cubic
centimeters, the clearance volume.
Example 2
An engine cylinder has a swept volume of 98 cm3, a bore of 50
mm, and a compression ratio of 10. How much must the cylinderhead be raised, using a distance piece which matches the bore, to
lower the compression ratio to 8.4?

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR

SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSION
Consists of a piston that reciprocates (moves) in a cylinder.
Purpose is to raise the pressure of air
OPERATION:
Figure 1 shows the piston
moving down the cylinder. Any
residual compressed air will
expand and reach the pressure
slightly

below

the

intake

pressure of the induction stroke.

Fresh air will be taken into the
compressor.
Figure 2 shows the piston
moving

upwards.

At

the

beginning of the upward stroke

a slight pressure increase in the
cylinder will close the inlet
valve. Both the delivery and
inlet valves are closed at this
point, and the pressure of the air

will rise rapidly as the piston continues to move upwards.

Eventually a pressure will be reached which is slightly higher than
the pressure on the other side of the delivery valve, causing the
valve to open. The compressed air is delivered.
IDEAL INDICATOR DIAGRAMS (P-V DIAGRAMS)
Neglecting clearance:

4.1

Volume of air V1 into compressor at pressure P1 and

temperature T1

1.2

Air is compressed according to the law PVn = c from pressure

P1 to P2. The volume decreases from V1 to V2. The
temperature increases from T1 to T2.

2.3

Compressed air of volume V2 and at pressure P2 with

temperature T2 delivered from compressor.

NB: During the compression, air will transfer some heat to the
surroundings thus the index n is less than .
The work done is equivalent to the area under the graph:
p V p 2V2
W p1V1 1 1
p 2V2
n 1
p V p 2V2
p1V1 p 2V2 1 1
n 1

1
p1V1 p 2V2 1

n 1

n
( p1V1 p 2V2 )
n 1

p V
n
p1V1 1 2 2
n 1
p1V1

1
P P
1 2 1 n
P1 P 2

n
p1V1
n 1

1

P P2 n
n

p1V1 1 2

n 1
P1 P1

n 1

n
P2
n

p1V1 1

n 1
P1

n 1

P2 n

W poly
p1V1
1
n 1
P1

Including clearance:

Cylinder is full of intake air, the volume is V1, and the

1-2

piston is about to commence its compression stroke

Air is compressed polytropically according to the law

2
2-3
3

pVn = C to a delivery pressure P2 and volume V2

The delivery valve theoretically opens
Compressed air is delivered from the cylinder
Piston has reached the end of the inward stroke. V 3 is the

3-4

clearance volume
Expansion of residual compressed air according to the law
pVn = C NB: V1 V4 is referred to as the effective swept
volume

The work done is equivalent to the area under the graph:

n
W
p1V1

n 1

n 1
n

P2

P1

p 4V4

n 1

n 1
n

P3

P
4

Since
T2 T3

and

T1 T4

also

P4 P1

and

P3 P2

We see that

n
W
p1V1

n 1

P2

P1

p1V4

n 1

n 1
n

P2

P1

n 1
n

W poly

p1 V1 V4

n 1

P2

P
1

n 1
n

ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY
The comparison between the actual work done during compression
and the ideal isothermal work done.

Isothermal Efficiency

Isothermal Work
Polytropic Work

where

Wiso p1V1 ln

P2
P1

neglecting clearance
and

Wiso p1 (V1 V4 ) ln

P2
P1

including clearance

Example worked
A single-acting, single-cylinder air compressor has cylinder
dimensions of 200mm bore and 300mm stroke. The speed is
250rpm. The pressure and temperature of the air at the end of the
suction stroke is 96.5kPa and 29.5oC, and the pressure after
compression is 620kPa. The value of the polytropic index n=1.25.
Neglecting clearance, determine:
(a)

the polytropic power

(b)

the isothermal power

(c)

the isothermal efficiency

For air take R = 287J/kg.K

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
The actual work input to a compressor is larger than the indicated
(polytropic) work due to the work having to overcome losses due
to friction.
mech

Polytropic Work
Work

Input

Indicated

Power

Shaft Power

Example Worked
A single-cylinder, double-acting air compressor is required to
deliver 14m3 of air per minute measured at 101.3kPa and 15 oC.
The delivery pressure is 700kPa and the speed 300rpm. Take the
clearance volume as 5% of the swept volume. For the compression
and expansion, n =1.3. Calculate:
(a)

The swept volume of the cylinder and hence the cylinder

bore and stroke, given that the stroke to bore ratio is 1.5:1

(b)

The delivery temperature

(c)

The indicated power

(d)

The power of the motor required to drive the compressor if

the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 85%

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
After delivery, the high pressure air left in the clearance volume of
the compressor has to expand to the intake pressure before any

new air can be sucked in. This reduces the induced volume to a
value less than that of the swept volume.
Volumetric Efficiency

Volume Of Free Air Delivered

Swept Volume

Free air is the volume of air delivered measured at the conditions

of pressure and temperature just outside the inlet valve.
vol

V1 V4 as

freeair

Vs

Example worked
A single acting air compressor takes in air at a pressure of 96kPa
and 32oC. the air is compressed to a pressure of 725kPa and
delivered to a receiver. The clearance volume of the compressor is
5% of the swept volume and both compression and expansion
processes may be of the form pV1.3 = constant. Determine the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor if the free air conditions
are 101.3kPa and 19oC.
MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION
When air is to be compressed to a very high pressure it is
customary to build the compressor with a low-pressure cylinder,
followed by one or several high-pressure cylinders. As the air
passes from one cylinder of one stage to that of the next, it flows
through an intercooler where it is cooled at constant pressure to the
initial suction temperature. Such staging reduces the work required

for compression and the cost of the mechanical construction,

especially in larger units.
For two-stage compression, the following holds true:
Total work required = Wstage 1 + Wstage 2

n 1

P4
P3 n
n
n

W
p1V1
1
p2V2
1
P1
n 1
P2

n 1

But p2V2 p1V1 (since T2 T1 ), also, P4 P2

n 1
n

n
W
p1V1

n 1

P2

P1

P
n

p1V1 2
P1
n 1

n 1
n

n 1
n

n
1
pV
n 1 1 1

n 1

P3 n

P
2

P3

P2

n 1
n

The intermediate pressure P2 is the only variation, so for the work

to be a minimum, we differentiate with respect to P2 and equate it
to zero:

P
2n
W
p1V1 2
P1
n 1

n 1
n

Or, in terms of the pressure ratio:

2n
W
p1V1

n 1

P3

P
1

n 1
2n

Energy balance for a 2-stage compressor with intercooler

Example
A two-stage single-acting reciprocating compressor takes in air at
the rate of 0.2 m3/s. Intake pressure and temperature are 0.1 MPa
and 16C. The air is compressed to a final pressure of 0.7 MPa.
The intermediate pressure is ideal and intercooling is perfect. The
index of compression is 1.3 and the compressor runs at 600 rpm.
Neglecting clearance, determine:
(a) The intermediate pressure
(b)The total volume of each cylinder
(c) The cycle power

Example
A two-stage single acting compressor delivers air at 4.53m 3/min
measured under free air conditions of 15.5C and 101.3 kPa. The
suction pressure is 19.5 kPa and the delivery pressure is 1.65 MPa.
The temperature at the beginning in each stage is 26C and
compression in both cylinders are according to pV 1.3 = C. The
compressor runs at 130 rpm. Neglecting clearance and assuming
that the intercooler pressure is chosen so that the theoretical work
is shared equally between the two cylinders, Determine
(a) The power theoretically required to drive the compressor if the
mechanical efficiency is 85%.
(b) The dimensions of the low pressure cylinder if the bore is equal
to the stroke.
(c) The %saving in work by using a 2-stage intercooled
compressor instead of using a single-stage compressor.
(d) The heat transfer per second in the intercooler (take R = 0.287
kJ/kg.K and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K).