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Notes
Department of Geology, Shideler Hall, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA, and Faculty of Earth Sciences, China University
of Geosciences at Wuhan, Wuhan 430074, Hubei Province, China
2
Department of Earth Science & Centre for Geobiology, University of Bergen, Bergen 5007, Norway
ABSTRACT
Ophiolites, and discussions on their origin
and significance in Earths history, have been
instrumental in the formulation, testing, and
establishment of hypotheses and theories in
earth sciences. The definition, tectonic origin, and emplacement mechanisms of ophiolites have been the subject of a dynamic and
continually evolving concept since the nineteenth century. Here, we present a review
of these ideas as well as a new classification
of ophiolites, incorporating the diversity in
their structural architecture and geochemical signatures that results from variations
in petrological, geochemical, and tectonic
processes during formation in different geodynamic settings. We define ophiolites as
suites of temporally and spatially associated
ultramafic to felsic rocks related to separate
melting episodes and processes of magmatic
differentiation in particular tectonic environments. Their geochemical characteristics, internal structure, and thickness vary
with spreading rate, proximity to plumes or
trenches, mantle temperature, mantle fertility,
and the availability of fluids. Subductionrelated ophiolites include suprasubductionzone and volcanic-arc types, the evolution of
which is governed by slab dehydration and
accompanying metasomatism of the mantle,
melting of the subducting sediments, and
repeated episodes of partial melting of metasomatized peridotites. Subduction-unrelated
ophiolites include continental-margin, midocean-ridge (plume-proximal, plume-distal,
and trench-distal), and plume-type (plumeproximal ridge and oceanic plateau) ophio
E-mail: dileky@muohio.edu.
GSA Bulletin; March/April 2011; v. 123; no. 3/4; p. 387411; doi: 10.1130/B30446.1; 12 figures; 2 tables, Data Repository item 2011131.
387
mid-ocean-ridge
75
15W
165E
75E
Sunda Tren
ch
Figure 1. Global distribution of major Phanerozoic orogenic belts and ophiolite age clusters on a north polar projection. Significant examples of
different ophiolite types with characteristic geochemistries are marked with symbols used in Figure 2. Modern mid-ocean ridges and subduction
zones (marked by trenches) where contemporary oceanic lithosphere has been produced are also depicted. The two major arc-trench rollback
systems, Izu-Bonin-Mariana and Tonga-Kermadec, are the sites of ophiolite and volcanic-arc generation, which undergo tectonic extension and
trenchward-migrating magmatic construction. The collision zone between the NW Australian passive margin and the Sunda arc-trench system
where the island of Timor has been emerging during the last ~5 m.y. represents the best modern analogue for ophiolite emplacement.
388
389
390
ways by subduction, are part of the current assembly of a new supercontinent that has been
taking place since the Paleogene.
Paleozoic ophiolites in the AppalachianCaledonian orogenic belts (Fig. 1) developed
in the Iapetus Ocean and its seaways between
North America and Baltica-Avalonia (van Staal
et al., 2009, and references therein). Ophiolites in
Iberia, central Europe, and northwestern Africa
evolved in the Rheic Ocean between BalticaAvalonia and Gondwana continental masses
(Nance et al., 2010; Murphy et al., 2010, and
references therein). The Paleozoic ophiolites
in the Uralides and the Altaids in central Asia
are the remnants of the Pleionic Ocean, which
evolved between the BalticaEastern Europe and
Kazakhstan-Siberian continental masses (Brown
et al., 2006; Windley et al., 2002; Xiao et al.,
2004). The JurassicCretaceous ophiolites of the
Tethyan Ocean systems extend from the BeticRif and Pyrenees in the west through the AlpineHimalayan orogenic belts in the center to the
Indonesian region in the east (Fig. 1; Hall, 1997;
Pubellier et al., 2004; Bortolotti and Principi,
2005). The Phanerozoic ophiolites in these collisional orogenic belts (i.e., Appalachian, Caledonides, Uralides, and Altaids in central Asia,
Betic-Rif and Pyrenees, Alpine-Himalayan) commonly show mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB) to
island-arc tholeiite (IAT) and boninitic geochemical affinities (Varfalvy et al., 1997; Bdard et al.,
1998; Spadea and DAntonio, 2006; Pag
et al., 2009). The ophiolites in the accretionarytype Western Pacific and Cordilleran orogenic
belts are slivers of abyssal peridotites and volcanic
ocean islands, seamounts, and mid-ocean-ridge
crust scraped off from downgoing plates, and
they are commonly associated with accretionary
mlanges and high-pressure metamorphic rocks
(Cloos, 1982; Wakabayashi, 1999; Ernst, 2005;
Ring, 2008; Hall, 2009; Cawood et al., 2009;
Xiao et al., 2010).
The principal ophiolite pulses during the last
250 m.y. coincide with the emplacement of
plume-related large igneous provinces (LIPs)
and giant dike swarms (Ernst et al., 1995; Yale
and Carpenter, 1998; Coffin and Eldholm, 2001)
and collectively mark supermagmatic events
in Earth history (Fig. 2). The enhanced large
igneous province formation and ophiolite generation in the Late Jurassic and Cretaceous are
particularly noteworthy (Vaughan and Scarrow,
2003). The evolution of the Tethyan and Caribbean ophiolites overlapped with the Cretaceous
superplume event (12080 Ma), which was
responsible for the formation of oceanic plateaus
in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, high global sea
levels, and increased rates of seafloor spreading
(Larson, 1991). The JurassicCretaceous periCaribbean ophiolites (Fig. 1) include remnants
Age (Ma)
Ng
Pg
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Mesozoic
Carb.
Devonian
Sil.
Ord.
Camb.
Paleozoic
Age (Ma)
Figure 2. Ophiolite pulses and the distribution of major orogenic belts with ophiolite occurrences during the Phanerozoic. A. Ophiolite
pulses and the geographic distribution of Phanerozoic ophiolites through time. B. Distribution of representative examples of major ophiolite types through time. C. Approximate time intervals for the lifespan of major supercontinents and their breakup, significant orogenic
events, and supermagmatic events represented by the emplacement of giant dike swarms and large igneous provinces (LIPs). The main
pulses of ophiolite generation coincide with plate movements leading to the closure of ocean basins and continental collisions, large magmatic events (with the production of large igneous provinces and giant dike swarms), and the breakup of supercontinents. Major orogenic
events are (from youngest to oldest): Ar-EuArabia-Eurasia collision, In-EuIndia-Eurasia collision, Al-UrAltaid-Uralian orogenies of
Central Asia, Ap-HyAppalachian-Hercynian orogenies, CldCaledonian orogeny, FmtFamatinian orogeny, P-Af-BrPan-African
Brasiliano orogenies. NgNeogene; PgPaleogene. For a list of different ophiolite types, see Table 1.
391
A NEW CLASSIFICATION
OF OPHIOLITES
The main ophiolite pulses appear to be temporally and spatially linked to some first-order
global tectonic and magmatic events. These
global events and related mantle processes con-
20
200
310
320
410
3
4
5
Mid-ocean-ridge type
1A
1B
Ust-Belaya 1
Ust-Belaya 2
Nurali
NE Russia
NE Russia
S Urals, Russia
Macquarie Isl.
Taitao
SW Pacific
S Chile
Khoy
Iran
4
Masirah
5
Horo Kanai
6
Kuyul 1
7
Kuyul 2
8
Kuyul 3
9
Nurali
Plume type
1A
Loma de Hiero
1B
Bolivar
2
Nicoya
3
Peri-Caribbean 1
4
Peri-Caribbean 2
5
Duarte
6
Loma La Monja
7
Mino-Tamba 1
8
Mino-Tamba 2
Suprasubduction-zone type
1
Zambales
2
Antique
3A
Troodos
3B
Semail
W Indian Ocean
Central Hokkaido, Japan
NE Russia
NE Russia
NE Russia
S Urals
3C
10
10
98-103
150
165180
190
200
210
405
Venezuela
SW Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba, Puerto Rica, Hispaniola
Cuba, Puerto Rica, Hispaniola
Hispaniola
Hispaniola
SW Japan
SW Japan
80
80
8995
105
125
140
155
185
200
Philippines
Panay, Philippines
Cyprus
Oman
4044
7580
9294
9295
Kizildag
Turkey
9294
4
5
6A
Xigaze
Sabah
Mirdita
Tibet, China
Northern Borneo
Albania
120126
135140
160
6B
7
8
Pindos
Cape Povorotny
Yakuno
Greece
Far East Asia
SW Japan
160
230250
270280
392
tending, embryonic backarc to forearc environments (BA-FA), forearc settings (FA), and both
oceanic and continental backarc basins (OBA
and CBA, respectively; Table 2). The Rocas
Verdes ophiolites in southern Chile are the best
examples of suprasubduction-zone continental
backarc basin ophiolites (Saunders et al., 1979;
Stern and de Wit, 2003). Suprasubduction-zone
ophiolites commonly have a Penrose-type structural architecture and may show a MORBIAT
boninitic geochemical sequence of igneous
activity. Suprasubduction-zone forearc ophiolites result from oceanic crust generation during the closure of ocean basins and mark major
subduction initiation events (Casey and Dewey,
1984; Dilek and Furnes, 2010; Pearce and Robinson, 2010). The age range among their various ophiolitic subunits is commonly less than
10 m.y. (Dilek and Furnes, 2009). They correspond to the class I ophiolites of Miyashiro
393
TABLE 2. OPHIOLITE/OCEANIC CRUST TYPES, THEIR LOCATIONS, AND REFERENCES TO DATA SOURCES, AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT AND THE FIGURES
No.
No.
No.
No.
anal.
anal.
anal.
anal.
Ophiolite/oceanic crust type
Abbreviations
Location
Bowen
Multi
V/Ti
Th-Yb-Nb
Reference to data sources
Continental margin
CM
Internal Ligurides,Italy
27
2
Ottonello et al. (1984), Rampone et al. (1998)
External Ligurides, Italy
26
11
26
19
Vannucci et al. (1993), Montanini et al. (2008)
North Apennine, Italy
39
39
Ferrara et al. (1976)
Corsica
13
13
Beccaluva et al. (1977)
Mid-ocean ridge
MOR
Plume-proximal mid-ocean ridge
MOR PP
Iceland
119
37
67
39
Sigvaldason (1974), Hemond et al. (1993)
Plume-distal mid-ocean ridge
MOR PD
Macquarie Island
12
12
12
12
Kamentsky et al. (2000)
Trench-proximal mid-ocean ridge
MOR TP
Taitao Peninsula, S. Chile
31
31
31
9
Le Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999)
Normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
NMORB
Depleted (in the incompatible elements)
DMORB
mid-ocean-ridge basalt
Enriched (in the incompatible elements)
EMORB
mid-ocean-ridge basalt
Crustally contaminated mid-ocean-ridge basalt
CMORB
Transitional mid-ocean-ridge basalt
TMORB
Plume
P
Gorgona Island, Colombia
10
10
Kerr et al. (1996a)
Western Colombia
85
19
84
23
Kerr et al. (1997a)
Jamaica
17
17
17
17
Hastie et al. (2008)
Curacao, Caribbean Sea
84
11
19
19
Klaver (1987), Kerr et al. (1996b)
Ocean-island basalt
OIB
Suprasubduction zone
SSZ
Backarc to forearc
SSZ BA-FA
Albania
113
46
102
45
Dilek et al. (2008)
Cyprus
56
Rautenschlein et al. (1985), Auclair and Ludden (1987),
Taylor (1990)
Turkey
61
40
61
25
Dilek and Thy (1998, 2009)
Oman
134
15
113
57
Lippard et al. (1986), Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003)
Forearc
SSZ FA
Newfoundland
47
22
47
23
Bedard (1999)
Oceanic backarc
SSZ OBA
Western Norway
802
802
Furnes et al. (2006, and references therein)
Continental backarc
SSZ CBA
Southern Chile
67
Elthon (1979), Saunders et al. (1979), Stern and Elthon (1979),
Stern (1980)
Volcanic arc
VA
Luzon, Philippines
53
39
Evans et al. (1991), Yumul et al. (2000)
North Cascades,
6
6
6
Metzger et al. (2002)
Washington, USA
93
22
93
40
Harper (1984), Harper et al. (1988, 2003a, 2003b)
Northwestern California,
USA
Sierra Nevada, California,
4
Dilek et al. (1991)
USA
Total number of analyses
1902
283
1581
336
394
the suprasubduction-zone backarc- to forearctype ophiolites, whereas the suprasubductionzone forearc-type ophiolites show invariably
low TiO2 (Fig. 3B). The largest spread in
MgO is exhibited by the subduction-unrelated
plume-type ophiolites (Fig. 3A). In MORBnormalized multi-element diagrams, the continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and plume
ophiolites display flat patterns between V and
Zr, and an increase toward the most incompatible elements (i.e., Ba, Rb, Cs; Fig. 4A). In the
same multi-element diagrams, the patterns of
the suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc
ophiolites display much larger variability; they
are generally enriched in the most incompatible, nonconservative elements (Cs, Rb, Th) and
show generally negative Ta and Nb and positive
Pb and Sr anomalies (Fig. 4B).
In a Ti-V discrimination diagram (Shervais,
1982), the continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge,
and plume ophiolites straddle the field defined
by the ratios between 20 and 50, typical of
mid-ocean-ridge basalts (Fig. 5A), whereas the
suprasubduction-zone and volcanic-arc ophiolites show a wider scatter of Ti/V ratios between
<10 and >50 (Fig. 5B). However, the subtypes
of both the subduction-related and subductionunrelated ophiolites demonstrate pronounced
differences in their Ti-V distributions. For the
subduction-unrelated types, the Ti-V data of the
lavas and dikes for the plume subtype hardly
overlap with those of the continental margin
and mid-ocean-ridge trench-proximal subtypes
(Fig. 5A). Similarly, for the subduction-related
ophiolite types, the mafic lavas and dikes of
the suprasubduction-zone forearc subtype exclusively plot in the boninite field and do not
overlap with those of the suprasubduction-zone
oceanic backarc basin subtype (Fig. 5B). By far,
the suprasubduction-zone backarc to forearc
subtype shows the largest range in the Ti-V diagram (Fig. 5B). This dispersion of Ti/V ratios
is a result of a large geochemical range from
boninite and island-arc tholeiite to MORB magmas that occur in subduction-influenced igneous systems (Shervais, 1982; Dilek et al., 2007;
Dilek and Furnes, 2009).
In the Nb/Yb versus Th/Yb diagram (Pearce,
2008), the lavas and dikes of the continental
margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and plume ophiolites
plot within the mantle array (Fig. 6A), whereas
those of the suprasubduction-zone and volcanicarc ophiolites show a significant shift away from
this mantle array, toward the subduction-related
Mariana arc field (Fig. 6B). These five elements
(Ti, V, Th, Yb, Nb), which we have used in discriminating possible tectonic settings of ophiolitic magma generation, are most immobile
during metamorphism and alteration; therefore,
they are most reliable as proxies to differentiate
395
TiO2(wt. %)
SiO2 (wt. %)
TiO2 (wt. %)
SiO2 (wt. %)
396
Pearce and Robinson, 2010), in a forearc setting (e.g., Betts Cove, CanadaBdard, 1999),
and as a volcanic arc (e.g., Smartville, CaliforniaDilek et al., 1991) display the most pronounced variations in geochemical patterns. On
the other hand, trench-distal backarc ophiolites
that formed in oceanic or continental settings,
Cont. margin
Plume
MOR (PP)
MOR (PD)
MOR (TP)
A. Subduction-unrelated
Rock/MORB
10
0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta Nb K
La Ce Pb Pr Sr
P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Ti Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Sc Co Cr Ni
100
SSZ (BA-FA)
SSZ (FA)
SSZ (OBA)
Volc. arc (MORB-like)
Volc. arc (IAT-bon)
Rock/MORB
B. Subduction-related
10
0.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U Ta Nb K
La Ce Pb Pr Sr
P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Gd Ti Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Sc Co Cr Ni
Figure 4. Mid-ocean-ridge-basalt (MORB)normalized multi-element diagrams, showing average values for subduction-unrelated (A) and
subduction-related (B) ophiolites. IATisland-arc tholeiite; bonboninite. Different types and subtypes of ophiolites are explained in
Figure 3. Normalizing values (in ppm) are: Cs (0.007), Rb (0.56), Ba (6.3), Th (0.12), U (0.047), Ta (0.13), Nb (2.33), K (1079), La (2.5), Ce
(7.5), Pb (0.3), Pr (1.32), Sr (90), P (314), Nd (7.3), Zr (74), Hf (2.05), Sm (2.63), Eu (1.02), Gd (3.68), Ti (7614), Tb (0.67), Dy (4.55), Y (28),
Ho (1.01), Er (2.97), Tm (0.456), Yb (3.05), Lu (0.455), V (300), Sc (40), Co (40), Cr (275), and Ni (100). The elements have been placed in
order of their relative incompatibility with spinel-lherzolite mantle (after Pearce and Parkinson, 1993). Data sources (listed in the GSA Data
Repository [see text footnote 1]): Continental margin typeMontanini et al. (2008); plume typeKerr et al. (1996b, 1997), Hastie et al.
(2008); mid-ocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal subtypeHemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtypeKamenetsky et al. (2000);
trench-proximal subtypeLe Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanic-arc typeHarper (2003b); suprasubduction-zone types,
including BA-FA subtypeDilek et al. (2008), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal observation, 1998); FA subtypeBdard (1999);
and oceanic backarc basin subtypeH. Furnes (personal observation, 1997).
PETROGENESIS OF OPHIOLITE
TYPES IN DIFFERENT TECTONIC
SETTINGS
Figure 7 depicts the petrogenesis of subduction-related and subduction-unrelated types of
ophiolites in different tectonic settings. The petrogenesis of a subduction-unrelated continental
margin ophiolite involves slow exhumation and
397
A. Subduction-unrelated
600
20
10
30
400
50
Cont. marg.
Plume
MOR (PP)
MOR (PD)
MOR (TP)
Boninite
200
0
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
Ti (ppm)
B. Subduction-related
600
400
SSZ (BA-FA)
SSZ (FA)
SSZ (OBA)
Volc. arc
Boninite
200
0
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
Ti (ppm)
Figure 5. Geochemical data from the subduction-unrelated (A) and subduction-related (B)
ophiolite types and their subtypes (see Fig. 3 for explanation) plotted in Ti-V discrimination diagrams (after Shervais, 1982). Data sources (listed in the GSA Data Repository
[see text footnote 1]): Continental margin typeVannucci et al. (1993), Ferrara et al.
(1976), Montanini et al. (2008), Beccaluva et al. (1977); plume typeKerr et al. (1996a,
1996b, 1997), Hastie et al. (2008); mid-ocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal subtypeSigvaldason (1974), Hemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtypeKamenetsky et al.
(2000); trench-proximal subtypeLe Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanicarc typeEvans et al. (1991), Metzger et al. (2002), Harper (1984), Harper (2003a, 2003b),
Harper et al. (1988); suprasubduction-zone types, including BA-FA subtypeDilek et al.
(2008), Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal
observation, 1998); FA subtypeBdard (1999); oceanic backarc basin-subtypeFurnes
et al. (2006, and references therein). Typical Ti/V ratios in C1 and C2 are: 1020 for island
arc; 2050 for MORB; 2030 for mixed mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB) and island arc,
and 150 for backarc basins. The boninite field is drawn on the basis of the geochemical
data from Crawford (1989).
398
A. Subduction-unrelated
Cont. crust
Mariana
arc-basin
Th/Yb
Cont. marg.
Plume
MOR (PP)
MOR (PD)
MOR (TP)
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Nb/Yb
10
B. Subduction-related
Cont. crust
OIB
Th/Yb
Mariana
arc-basin
E-MORB
0.1
SSZ (BA-FA)
SSZ (FA)
SSZ (OBA)
N-MORB
Volc. arc
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Nb/Yb
Figure 6. Geochemical data from the subduction-unrelated (A) and subduction-related (B) ophiolite types and
their subtypes (see Fig. 3 for explanation) plotted in Nb/Yb-Th/Yb discrimination diagram (after Pearce, 2008).
OIBocean-island basalt; E- and N-MORBenriched and normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt. Data sources (listed
in the GSA Data Repository [see text footnote 1]): Continental margin typeVannucci et al. (1993), Rampone
et al. (1998), Montanini et al. (2008); plume typeKlaver (1987), Kerr et al. (1997), Hastie et al. (2008); midocean-ridge types, including plume-proximal subtypeHemond et al. (1993); plume-distal subtypeKamenetsky
et al. (2000); trench-proximal subtypeLe Moigne et al. (1996), Guivel et al. (1999); volcanic-arc type: Metzger
et al. (2002), Harper (2003a, 2003b); suprasubduction-zone types, including BA-FA subtypeDilek et al. (2008),
Einaudi et al. (2003), Godard et al. (2003), Dilek and Thy (1998), Y. Dilek (personal observation, 1998); FA subtypeBdard (1999); oceanic backarc basin subtypeH. Furnes (personal observation, 1997)
399
400
ophiolites thus consist of an older oceanic lithospheric foundation overlain by a mature arc
suite, complete with gabbroic plutons and massive diabase in the mafic lower crust, dioritic to
tonalitic middle crust, and andesitic to rhyolitic
lavas, dike intrusions, and pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks in the upper crust (Fig. 7B2).
The construction of a volcanic arc is a result of
prolonged subduction (~2040 m.y.) not terminated by colliding continental blocks, as is the
case in the evolutionary history of suprasubduction-zone ophiolites (Dilek and Flower, 2003).
Sheeted dikes (Figs. 8I8J) are tabular intrusions of magma flowing laterally and vertically
along fractures produced by spreading-related
tensile stresses, and they form along a narrow
axial zone beneath central rifts along ocean
ridges and above subduction zones. The existence of sheeted dikes in ophiolites is conventionally interpreted as strong evidence for the
origin of ancient oceanic crust now exposed on
land by seafloor spreading (Gass, 1990; Moores
and Vine, 1971) and is generally regarded as an
essential component of an ophiolite. However,
the generation of a sheeted dike complex requires a delicate balance between the rates of
spreading and magma supply for a sustained
period such that sufficient melt is produced to
keep pace with extension in the rift zone (Robinson et al., 2008). In the upper plates of subduction zones, the extension is a consequence
of the rate of slab rollback exceeding the rate
of plate convergence, whereas the magma supply is related to the temperature profile and the
abundance and nature of fluids in the mantle
wedge, the age and lithological makeup of the
subducting slab, and the history and extent of
melting in the mantle source (Kincaid and Hall,
2003; Robinson et al., 2008). It is rare for the
balance between spreading and magma supply
rates to be maintained in a suprasubductionzone setting of oceanic crust formation. In the
absence of this balance, a sheeted dike complex will not form fully, or even at all, and may
instead be replaced by magmatic inflation and
the emplacement of plutons, underplating the
extrusive sequence (where the rate of magma
supply exceeds the spreading rate), or by
amagmatic tectonic attenuation of the oceanic
crust (where the spreading rate exceeds the
rate of magma supply). This phenomenon may
explain the scarcity of sheeted dike complexes
in nearly 90% of the world ophiolites (Robinson et al., 2008), and should be considered in
interpretations of the architecture of putative
ancient oceanic crust, particularly in Archean
greenstone belts.
Continental margin, mid-ocean-ridge, and
plume ophiolites may show pronounced variations in trace-element abundances, particularly
for the most incompatible elements, which may
be related to both different degrees of melting and
mantle fertility, but which do not define any particular geochemical evolutionary trend (Fig. 7A3).
A1
B1
Depth (km)
Postrift
Synrift sediments
10
10
20
20
Subcontinental
30
100
50
40
km
100
50
120 km
30
Asthenosphere
40
20 km
nonconservative
Depth
V olcanic
Backarc
10
km
fluid flow
300C
Partial
melt.
zone
600C
900C
1200C
0
100
100
1000
Depth
(km)
1000
2000
2000
4000
4000
A2
B2
P type
MOR type
CM type
Serpt.
perd.
Serp. breccia/
ophicalcite
Chert
Fast
Interm.
SL
DF
dikes
Gb
0.5
km
A3
young
pluton
TZ
massive
lava
Gb
ultr. sill Undifferentiated
Ocean Crust
0.5 km
andesite
sheeted
dikes
Depleted mantle
Depleted mantle
0.5 km
Gb
0.3 km
15 km
Plume source
SL
MORB-like
And.
lava
Gran./ ton.
Depleted mantle
Basalt
lava
Gb
Di
Gb
Trndj
1 km
Rhy.
Bon.
B3
CM - MOR - P types
IAT
dacite
volcaniclastic/
pyroclastic rocks
DM
10 km
Strongly
depleted mantle
DM
SSZ - VA types
10 m.y.
Ol-gabbro
Subcontinental
mantle (Lhz)
picr. bas.
plw breccia
SL
Time
SL
Slow
Neovolc.
zone
VA type
SSZ type
Figure 7.
401
Lherzolite
Olv-gabbro
dikes
B
D1
Pillow lava
D2
D2
D1
Layered
gabbro
C
Gabbro
Dikes
Dike
Figure 8 (on this and following page). Field photos from continental margin and various suprasubduction-zone ophiolites, depicting their internal structure and the crosscutting relationships of different ophiolitic subunits. (A) Lherzolitic peridotites of the Jurassic In-Zecca ophiolite (continental margin type) in the Ligurian ophiolites (eastern Corsica) intruded by irregular olivine gabbro dikes and veins. (B) Pillow
lavas with normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt (N-MORB) geochemical affinities, resting directly on serpentinized peridotites of the In-Zecca
ophiolite. (C) Tectonically brecciated pillow lavas (in B), showing cataclastic shearing in and around the pillow-shaped flows. (D) Layered
gabbro rock in the 493 Ma Karmy ophiolite (suprasubduction-zone backarc to forearc [BA-FA] type) in western Norway intruded by basaltic dikes (D1) with MORB affinities that are in turn crosscut by boninitic dikes (D2). (E) Sheeted dikegabbro transition zone (Karmy
ophiolite), where leucocratic gabbros and basaltic dikes show mutually intrusive relationships in a Penrose-type crustal pseudostratigraphy. (F) Pillow lavas with island-arc tholeiite (IAT) geochemical affinities in the Karmy ophiolite crosscut by an island-arc tholeiite dike.
402
D3
Boninitic
sill
D1
D2
Boninitic
lava
Figure 8 (continued). (G) Clinopyroxene porphyroclast-bearing harzburgite in the Middle Jurassic (165 Ma) Eastern Mirdita ophiolite of
Albania (suprasubduction-zone BA-FA type), crosscut by networks of orthopyroxenite dikes, dikelets, and veins. These intrusions represent boninitic melt channels that migrated upward into the refractory harzburgite (see Dilek and Morishita, 2009; Morishita et al., 2010).
(H) Plastically deformed layered gabbros in the 92 Ma Kizildag ophiolite in southern Turkey (suprasubduction-zone FA type), intruded by
a boninitic sill and a dikelet. (IJ) Sheeted dike swarms (moderately to vertically dipping) in the Kizildag ophiolite. (K) Basaltic andesite
dikes (D1) with an island-arc tholeiite affinity, intruded by plagiogranite dikes (D2), which are in turn crosscut by a late-stage boninitic dike
(D3). (L) Boninitic lavas (sakalavites) in the Kizildag ophiolite. See Dilek and Thy (2009) for details.
Cpx-Harzburgite
Orthopyroxenite
dikes & veins
Mylonitic gabbro
403
404
3
2.5
Garbenschiefer amphibolites
Undifferentiated amphibolites
Subduction-related
1.5
Subduction-unrelated
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
MgO (wt%)
20
25
30
35
3.5
3
2.5
Wawa greenstone
Subduction-unrelated
Plume
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
MgO (wt%)
20
25
30
35
3.5
TiO2 (wt%)
Jormua
2.5
Subduction-related
Subduction-unrelated
1.5
Cont. margin
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
MgO (wt%)
20
25
30
35
405
Undiff. amph.
Garbensch. amph.
100
Subduction-related (max)
Rock/MORB
Subduction-related (min)
10
0.1
0.01
Cs
Rb
Ba
Th
Ta
Nb
La
Ce
Pb
Pr
Sr
Nd
Zr
Hf
Sm Eu
Gd
Ti
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm Yb
Lu
Sc
Co
Cr
Ni
1000
Subduction-unrelated (max)
Subduction-unrelated (min)
Rock/MORB
100
10
0.1
0.01
Cs
Rb
Ba
Th
Ta
Nb
La
Ce
Pb
Pr
Sr
Nd
Zr
Hf
Sm Eu
Gd
Ti
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm Yb
Lu
Sc
Co
Cr
Ni
1000
Subduction-unrelated (max)
Subduction-unrelated (min)
Rock/MORB
100
10
0.1
0.01
Cs
Rb
Ba
Th
Ta
Nb
La
Ce
Pb
Pr
Sr
Nd
Zr
Hf
Sm
Eu
Gd
Ti
Tb
Dy
Figure 10.
406
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Sc
Co
Cr
Ni
600
10
30
400
Boninite
Subduction-related
Subduction-unrelated
Garbensch. amph.
Undiff. amph.
200
50
0
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
Ti (ppm)
600
400
200
Boninite
Subduction-related
Subduction-unrelated
Wawa
0
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
Ti (ppm)
600
400
Boninite
Subduction-related
Subduction-unrelated
Cont. margin
Jormua
200
0
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
Ti (ppm)
Figure 11. Geochemical data of mafic lavas and dikes from the Precambrian greenstone belts in Isua
(Greenland), Wawa (Canada), and Jormua (Finland) plotted in Ti-V discriminant diagrams. Data
sources for the enveloped fields for subduction-related and subduction-unrelated ophiolites are given
in Figure 5. Data sources: Isua, GreenlandPolat et al. (2002), Polat and Hofmann (2003), Furnes
et al. (2007, 2009); Wawa, CanadaPolat et al. (1999); Jormua, FinlandKontinen (1987), Peltonen
et al. (1996).
407
Subduction-unrelated
Subduction-related
Garbensch. amph.
OIB
Th/Yb
Undiff. amph.
E-MORB
0.1
N-MORB
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Nb/Yb
10
Th/Yb
0.1
Subduction-unrelated
Subduction-related
Wawa greenstone
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
Nb/Yb
10
100
10
Th/Yb
0.1
Subduction-unrelated
Subduction-related
Jormua
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Nb/Yb
408
Constructive and thorough comments on earlier versions by Robert Gregory, Brian Robins,
and Paul Robinson helped us improve the paper.
Our work on ophiolites around the world has been
409
410
411