THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

MATH1131 Algebra
Section 1: - Introduction to Vectors.
One of the most powerful developments in Mathematics came from the simple idea of the
co-ordinate plane. Indeed 2-dimensional co-ordinate geometry was crucial in the development of the Calculus.
How do we generalise this to higher dimensions?
Vectors are used in physics, engineering, weather maps etc to represent quantities which
have both direction and mignitude.
In this chapter we will be looking in some detail as to what a vector is and how we can
use vectors to extend our knowledge of geometry from 2 to 3 (and higher) dimensions.
Definition: A vector is a directed line segment which represents a displacement from
one point P to another point Q.
The word vector comes from the Latin veho (cf. vehicle), meaning to carry.

We represent a vector either using the notation P Q or by using v. In the algebra notes
(and in these notes), vectors are represented using bold letters, v. You should represent
vectors by underlining the letter, viz v. This is important, because you will need to carefully
distinguish between vectors, scalars (and later matrices).

PQ
P

SR
S
A vector has both direction and length (or magnitude). Two vectors are equal if
they have the same direction and the same magnitude. Hence in the diagram v = w.
We will denote the length of the vector v by |v|.
1

Two vectors are parallel if they have the same direction.

Position Vectors: We choose a fixed point O, in whatever dimensional space we happen to be and call this the origin. The position vector of a point in any number of
dimensions will be represented by a vector from the origin to that point.

Hence the vector OP in the diagram is called the position vector of the point P . A position
vector gives the position of a point in space, whereas a direction vector is simply a vector
having direction and magnitude (length).
Addition of vectors: To geometrically add two vectors there are two different methods
(each important). If we think of a force vector, then, the obvious way to add two vectors
is to put them tip to tail and join the tail of the first to the tip of the second, as in the
diagram.
w
v+w

To add the vectors v and w, we move w and then complete the triangle. This method of
addition is known as the triangle law of addition.
You can see from this that one could obtain the same vector by forming a parallelogram
from the two vectors and taking the diagonal (often called the resultant) as the sum of the
two vectors.

v+w

v
w

This method is known as the parallelogram law.

Subtraction of vectors is performed in a similar way:

wv
w
v

To check this makes sense, add the vectors that are tip to tail, v + (w v) = w as expected.
Observe that the vector labelled w v is not a position vector.

Thus if P and Q have position vectors v and w respectively, then P Q= w v. In general,

P Q=OQ OP .
Q

wv
w

P
v

Example: Suppose ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with the vector p on the side AB and
vector q on the side BC. Express the vectors on the sides: CD, DE, EF, F A and the diagonals AC, AD, AE in terms of p and q.

Example: In a paralleogram ABCD, AB= a, AD= b, and M is the intersection of the

diagonals. Express, in terms of a and b the vectors, MA,MB,MC,MD.

The Triangle Inequality:

Let us restrict ourselves, for the moment, to the plane.
Since the sum of any two sides of a triangle must exceed the third side, we can write
|u + v| |u| + |v|
for any vectors u and v.

u+v
u

Q: When do we have equality?

Scalar Multiplication:
We can multiply a vector by a scalar (generally just a real number).
This has the geometric effect of stretching the vector if > 1, stretching and reversing
its direction if < 1.
u
u

Commutative and Associative Laws:

The commutative law of vector addition states that a + b = b + a.
Geometrically this is obvious:
5

a+b=b+a
b
a

a
b

The associative law of vector addition states that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. Again the

following geometric proof (?) will suffice.
a + (b + c)
(a + b) + c =

c
b+c

a+b
b
a
Ex: A body is acted on by two forces, 3 Newtons in direction NE, 4 Newtons in direction
W. Find the resultant force and direction.

Geometric Proofs:
Ex: Prove (using vectors) that the line joining the midpoint of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and half its length.

Co-ordinates:
Thus far, much of what we have done works in any number of dimensions. We are now
going to define n dimensional space and introduce a co-ordinate system in which to place
our vectors.
 
2
The point in R2 with coordinates say (2, 3) can be identified with the position vector
3
obtained by moving 2 units to the right along the x-axis and 3 units up the y-axis. This can
be extended to any number of dimensions.

a1
a2

We take an n-tuple
. of real numbers and think of each ai as lying on an axis xi . In
.
an
2 and 3 dimensions, we identify these axes as the XY and XY Z axes respectively, which
7

are mutually orthogonal.

The set of all such n-tuples will be called Rn .

a1
a2

.
n
, if we move a1 units along

We say that the vector P Q in R has co-ordinates

.
an
the x1 axis, a2 units along the x2 axis, and so on, when moving from P to Q.

a1
a2

Hence an n-tuple
. in R can be interpreted as the position vector of a point P
.
an
n
in R .

2
For example, in R3 , the point P in the diagram has position vector 3 .
1

2
P 3
1

0
0= 0
0
We can then define the addition of two vectors (algebraically) in Rn by

a1 + b1
b1
a1
a2 b2 a2 + b2

. + . =
.

. .
.
an + bn
bn
an
and multiplication by a scalar to be

a1
a2
.
.
an

=


8

a1
a2
.
.
an

Multiplying a vector by a scalar merely stretches the vector (if > 1 ) or shrinks it if
0 < 1. If is negative then the vector reverses direction. (Note: The algebraic definition
of addition agrees with the geometric definition.)
2v

v
Note that
the commutative
viz:
lawalgebraically,

rules as
such
prove
now
we can
a1
b1
b1 + a1
a1 + b1
b1
a1
a2 b2 a2 + b2 b2 + a2 b2 a2

= . + . = b + a.
=
+ . =
.
.
.
a+b =

. .

. .
.
.
an
bn
bn + an
an + bn
bn
an
Parallel Vectors.
Two vectors are defined to be parallel if one is a non-zero multiple of the other. That
is, v is parallelto w
some scalar
6= 0.
if v = w for

1
2
For example, 2 is parallel to 4 .
3
6

7
2

Ex: Find the vectors P Q, and QP if P = 1 and Q = 1 .

3
3

 
 

 
2
3
1
0
are the position vectors
,D =
,C =
B=
Ex: Suppose that A =
1
5
4
0
for four points A, B, C, D. Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.


Ex: ABCD is a parallelogram

with vertices
 A, B, C, D which have the following position

 
2
3
1
. Find the three possible position vectors of
,C =
,B =
vectors: A =
6
4
2
D.

10

Basis Vectors:

 
0
1
which are often
and
The standard basis vectors in R are the vectors
1
0
2
denoted by i and j. Observe

that every vector in R can be written in terms of these basis
1
vectors. For example
can be written as i 2j.
2

1
0
0

0 , 1 , 0 .
In 3-dimensions, the basis vectors, i, j, k are
0
0
1

a1
Note that every vector in R3 can be expressed in terms of these basis vectors, viz: a2
a3
can be expressed as a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.


In higher dimensions, we label the basis vectors as e1 , e2 ,... and so on.

Thus, in R4 , we have




0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0

e1 =
0 , e2 = 0 , e3 = 1 , e4 = 0 .
1
0
0
0
Once again, we can represent any vector in Rn in terms of the standard basis vectors in Rn .
Distances and Lengths:
 
a
in R2 , we can use Pythagoras Theorem to compute the length
Given a vector x =
b

2 + b2 . We use the notation |x| =

a
a2 + b2 . In R3 , given a vector
of this
vector
as

a

b , we can see from the diagram that |OP | = a2 + b2 and then in OAP we
x =
c

have |OA| = |x| = a2 + b2 + c2 .

11

c
O
a
X

In higher dimensions, we can define the length of a vector by generalising this formula, i.e.

a1
a2
p

Definition: A vector x = .. in Rn has length |x| given by |x| = a21 + a22 + + a2n .
.
an

1
1
2

Ex: Find the lengths of a = 3 and b =

3 .
2
4

12

The distance between two points A and B in

Rn willbe defined as the length of the vector
AB,

a1
b1
a2
b2

in other words, if A has position vector a = .. and B has position vector b = .. ,

.
.
an
bn

then the length of AB is

p
(b1 a1 )2 + + (bn an )2 .





1
3
1
3
Ex: Find the distance between
and
and between 2 and 6 .
2
4
5
1
| AB | = |b a| =

The length function | |, (sometimes called a norm) has the following properties:
1. |a| 0.
2. |a| = 0 if and only if a = 0.
3. |a| = |||a|, for R.
A vector which has unit length is called a unit vector. Any vector can be made into a
unit vector by dividing by its length.

2
Ex: Find a unit vector parallel to the vector 3 .
1

13

Ex: Suppose A and B are points with position vectors a and b.

Find a vector (in terms of a and b) which bisects the angle AOB, where O is the origin.

Equations of Lines:
We seek to find the equation of a line in vector form. The vector equation of a line is a
formula which gives the position vector x of every point on that line. This equation is
sometimes referred to at the parametric vector form of the line. I will generally just say
vector equation of the line.
Suppose we have a line passing through the origin which contains a vector u in R2 . Every point on that line will have a position vector which is a multiple of u. Conversely,
every multiple of u will correspond to the position vector of a point on that line. Hence the
equation of the line can be written as x = u where is any real number.

14

x = u


2
then the equation of the line through u passing
For example, if u were the vector
3
 
2
, R.
through the origin would be x =
3


Another way of denoting the set of all real multiples of a given vector is to call it the
span of the vector. Thus we could write {u : R} as span(u). This idea of span is
extremely important.

15

Ex: In R what is the span of

1
0

 
1
?
? What is span
1

The advantage of this definition of the equation of a line is that it easily generalises to any
number of dimensions. For example,
of the line
in R3 which
the equation

passes through the

1
1
origin and is parallel to the vector 3 is simply x = 3 .
6
6
If the line does not pass through the origin, then we proceed as follows: To find the vector
equation of a line we need to know two things:
1. The position vector a of a point A on the line

2. The direction of the line, i.e. a vector AB= b parallel to the line.

X
b

x = a + b

B
b
A
x
a
0
Thus, the span of b will give a line through the origin parallel to b and adding a will shift
the line to its proper position. Thus we can find the position vector x of any point X on the
line by going from the origin along the vector a and then moving along the line, by adding

some multiple of b until we reach X. Thus, the vector OX is given by OX=OA + AX and

AX is some multiple of b. Hence the equation of the line is x = a + b, R.

16

Ex: Find the

vector equation of the line

2
tor 3 and parallel to the vector
5

passing
through the point P with position vec1
6 .
4

Ex: Find thevectorequation ofthe line

passing through the two points P, Q with position
1
4
vectors P = 2 and Q = 2 .
6
3

Ex: Find the vector equation of the line in 2-dimensions with cartesian equation y = 2x + 1.

17

1
3
2

2
4
Ex: Does the point
lie on the line x =
+ 1 ?
3
11
4

Configurations:
In R3 two lines can
meet at a point
be parallel
neither meet nor be be parallel.
Line Segments:
The set

1
2

S = x R3 : x = 2 + 3 , 1 3

3
1

3
5
represents that line segment from 1 to 11 .
4
0

Cartesian Equations of the Line: Given the vector form of a line in 3-dimensions, we can
write down the Cartesian
(note
the
equations

plural) as follows. For example, suppose the

1
3
vector equation is x = 2 + 2 . Recall that x is simply an abbreviation for
3
1

x1
x2 . Hence, equating co-ordinates, we can write x1 = 1 + 3, x2 = 2 2, x3 = 3 + .
x3
18

Eliminating from these equations we have

x2 2
x3 3
x1 + 1
=
=
.
3
2
1

These are called the cartesian equations of the line. Clearly this can be done for any such
line and so the general form is
x1 a
x2 b
x3 c
=
=
,

where (a, b, c) is a point on the line and (, , ) is a direction vector of the line, provided
that none of the numbers , , is zero.

a

b
Hence in vector form this would be x =
+ .
c

The following example tells us what to do when one of the components of the direction
vector is zero.

2
2
Ex: Convert x = 1 + 0 into cartesian form.
5
1

Observe that two lines will be parallel if their direction vectors are parallel. Two direction
vectors are parallel if and only if one is a nonzero multiple of the other. For example the
lines

1
3
2
6
x = 5 + 2 and x = 4 + 4 are parallel since their direction vec6
1
7
2
19

3
6
tors are 2 and 4 respectively and the second vector is simply a multiple of the
1
2

1
3
1
6
first. Observe also that the equations x = 5 + 2 and x = 5 + 4
6
1
6
2
represent the same lines, since they are parallel and pass through the same point.

1
Ex: Find the equation of the line passing through 2 and parallel to
5
x+1
y1
z+6
=
=
.
3
2
4

1
1
Ex: Find the intersection (if possible) of the lines x = 0 + 2 and
3
1

3
2
x = 5 + 1 .
2
3

20

Equations of Planes:
In 3-dimensions and higher, we can construct planes. Suppose we seek the vector equation of the plane passing through the origin parallel to two given non-parallel vectors a and
b.

b
b

a
0
a P
To reach any point X with position vector x on the plane we need to stretch the vector a

to P and stretch the vector b to Q in such a way that OX=OP + OQ. Thus, x = a + b.
Conversely, if we take the vector which results from adding a multiple of a and a multiple
of b then this will be the position vector of a point on the plane.
Ex:
equation
of the plane passing through the origin parallel to the vectors
Find
the vector

1
2
5 and 4 .
3
7

The plane generated

is called the span
two vectors.
So
of the

by two
such vectors

for example,
1
2
1
2

the span of 5 and 4 is simply the set 5 + 4 : , R .

3
7
3
7
21

This set is also referred to as the set of all linear combinations of the two vectors. Thus,
given any two vectors a, b, span{a, b} = {a + b : , R} and we say that x is a linear
combination of a and b if x = a + b for some particular and .

1
2
1
1

2 ,
3
2 , 4 .
Ex: Describe the span of
. Repeat for span

3
5
3
6

As with the equation of a line, to get the vector equation of a plane not through the origin,
we simply shift the plane by adding any position vector of a point which lies on the plane.
Thus to obtain the vector equation of a plane we need:
1. The position vector of a point on the plane.
2. Two non-parallel vectors which are parallel to (or lie on) the plane.
Ex:
passing
through
Find
the vector equation of the plane

the point P with position vector

2
1
2
3 and parallel to the vectors 6 and 5 .
5
4
1

22

Ex: Find the vector

equation
the
three points P, Q, R with

of theplanepassing through
1
4
1
7
2
2

position vectors P =
6 , Q = 3 and R = 2 .
5
1
2

Configurations:
In R3 , two (distinct) planes can be
parallel
meet in a line
In R3 , three (distinct) planes can be arranged so that
the three planes are parallel
two planes are parallel and the third plane is parallel to neither the first two.
they meet at a single point
they meet in a line
none are parallel, but no point lies on all three planes.
In the next chapter we will learn how to analyse these scenarios algebraically.

23

Cartesian Equation of a Plane:

As with lines, we can find the cartesian equation of a plane by eliminating the two parameters and . This is generally quite fiddly to do algebraically. Later in this course, you
will see a much better method, but for the moment, we will do it by algebra.

1
2
1
Ex: Find the cartesian equation of the plane x = 2 + 4 + 0 .
3
0
3

The procedure can be reversed to find the vector equation of a plane from the cartesian
equation.

Ex: Find the vector equation of the plane 3x 6y + 2z = 12.

24

Further Examples:
Ex: Find the intersection of the planes 2x + y z = 10 and 3x + 4y + 2z = 29.

11
Ex: Show that the line x = 5 is parallel to the plane
3

2
4
1
x = 5 + 2 + 3 .
6
6
5

25

1
1
Ex: Find the intersection of x = 2 + 4 and 2x + 3y z = 29.
3
2

26