This article is about a school of philosophy. For the but in dierent proportions. The interplay of these gunas
statistics journal, see Sankhya (journal).
denes the character of someone or something, of nature
and determines the progress of life.[18][19] The Samkhya
Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: skhya) theory of gunas was widely discussed, developed and rened by various schools of Indian philosophies including
is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy.[1]
[20]
Samkhyas philosophical treatises also inIt is described as the rationalist school of Indian philoso- Buddhism.
uenced
the
development
of various theories of Hindu
[2]
phy. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism,
[3]
ethics.
and its rationalism was inuential on other schools of Indian philosophies.[3]
Smkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose
1 Etymology
epistemology accepted three of six Pramanas as the only
reliable means of gaining knowledge. These included
Pratyaka (perception), Anuma (inference) and Sabda Samkhya (), also referred to as Sankhya, Skhya,
(ptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[4][5][6] or Skhya, is a Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deSamkhya is strongly dualist.[7][8][9] Smkhya philosophy liberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, reregards the universe as consisting of two realities; Purua lating to number, rational.[21] In the context of ancient
(consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living be- Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the philosophical
ing) is that state in which purua is bonded to prakriti school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and
in some form.[10] This fusion, state the Samkhya schol- rational examination.[22]
ars, led to the emergence of buddhi (spiritual awareness) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness,
I-maker). The universe is described by this school
as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with 2 Historical development
various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[10] The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numDuring the state of imbalance, one of more constituents bers.[23] Although the term had been used in the genoverwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, par- eral sense of metaphysical knowledge before,[24] in techticularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage nical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that
is called liberation, or moksha by Samkhya school of evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early cenHinduism.[11]
turies CE.[25] The Samkhya system is called so because
it
'enumerates twenty ve Tattvas or true principles; and
The existence of God or supreme being is not diits
chief object is to eect the nal emancipation of the
rectly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya
twenty-fth
Tattva, i.e. the Purua or soul.[23]
philosophers. Skhya denies the nal cause of Ishvara
(God).[12] While Samkhya school of Hinduism considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an
atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other
scholars.[13][14] A key dierence between Samkhya and
Yoga schools, state scholars,[14][15] is that Yoga school of
Hinduism accepts a personal, yet essentially inactive, deity or personal god.[16]
2.1 Origins
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much
later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas.
Isvarakrsna is identied in these texts as the one who summarized and simplied Samkhya theories of Pancasikha,
many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in
the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in 6th century CE.[30]
of these views may have resulted in the concept of the Purua, the unchanging immaterial
conscious essence, contrasted with Prakti, the
material principle that produces not only the
external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the
human mind (such as the intellect, ego, internal and external perceptual organs). Classical
Skhya is remarkably independent of orthodox Brahmanic traditions, including the Vedas.
All our early sources for the history of Skhya
belong to the Vedic tradition, and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them
the full development of the Skhya system,
but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the
Brahmanic fold.[28]
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the
Samkhya school.[29] However, it is unclear in which century of 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.[30] Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word
means reddish brown color. Both Kapila as a seer
and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2
in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting
Kapilas and Samkhya philosophys origins may predate
it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila;
for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1
describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to
Kapila, called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.[30] A 6th century
CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state
3
Indras power over against both the chaos and
the order.[40]
The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and nonexistence (asat) in the Nasadiya sukta of the Rig Veda is
similar to the vyaktaavyakta (manifestunmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymn of Purusha sukta may also
have inuenced Samkhya. It contains the earliest conception of Purusha, a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises.[41] Purusha also nds numerous mentions in the hymns of the Atharvaveda.[42] The Samkhya
notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of
hiranyagarbha which appears in both the Rig Veda and
the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[43]
2.4
Upanishadic inuences
Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies.[48]
However, suering appears central to Samkhya in its
later literature, which suggests a likely Buddhism inuence. Elaide, however, presents the alternate theory
that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benetting from their mutual
inuence.[48]
Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls
(jiva) could have inuenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that
Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the
notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya
was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various
Vedic and non-Vedic schools.[48]
3 Texts
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical
Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200
CE[49] or 350450 CE[36] ) of Ivaraka.[36] There were
probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none
of them are available today.[50] Ivaraka in his Krik
describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila,
through suri and Pacaikha to himself. The text also
refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called
aitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.[36]
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia
was the Gauapda Bhya attributed to Gauapda,
the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks
it is unlikely that Gauapda could have authored both
texts, given the dierences between the two philosophies.
Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidpka (c. 6th century CE) and Vcaspatis Skhyatattvakaumud (c. 10th century CE).[51]
The Skhyapravacana Stra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.[52] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Skhyastravtti, c. 15th cen2.5 Buddhist and Jainist inuences
tury CE), Vijnabhiku (Skhyapravacanabhya, c.
16th century CE), Mahdeva (vttisra, c. 17th century
This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of CE) and Ngea (Laghuskhyastravtti).[53] AccordSamkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with ing Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy,
which, Partha, you will cast o the bonds of karma.
Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also
[47]
contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.[54]
Bhagavad Gita 2.39
Buddhism and Jainism had developed in Northeastern
India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these
schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya
inuenced each other. A prominent similarity between
4 Philosophy
4.1
Epistemology
PHILOSOPHY
4.2 Dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplied
by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and
theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter where
matter includes both body and mind.[68][69]
The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two irreducible,
innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti.
While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya admits
a plurality of the Puruas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the nal source of the world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its
bosom. The Purua is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the Purua cannot
4.2
Dualism
Purua
Prakriti
Prakriti is the rst cause of the manifest material universe of everything except the Purua. Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and mattercum-energy or force. Since it is the rst principle (tattva)
of the universe, it is called the Pradhna, but, as it is the
unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called
the jaDa. It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). These are:
Sattva poise, neness, lightness, illumination, and
joy;
Rajas dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
Tamas inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction,
and sloth.[70][72][73]
All physical events are considered to be manifestations of
the evolution of Prakriti, or primal nature (from which all
physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being or Jiva
is a fusion of Purua and Prakriti, whose soul/Purua is
limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. Samsra
or bondage arises when the Purua does not have the dis- Elements in Samkhya philosophy
criminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the Ego/ahamkra, which is
actually an attribute of Prakriti. The spirit is liberated
when the discriminate knowledge of the dierence between conscious Purua and unconscious Prakriti is realconscious.[75] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self,
ized by the Purua.
The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, con- appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus,
mind and inteltains 23 components including intellect (buddhi,mahat), personalizes the objective activities of
[76]
lect
by
assuming
possession
of
them.
But consciousego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the intellect, mind
ness
is
itself
independent
of
the
thought
structures it
[74]
and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.
[75]
illuminates.
Thought processes and mental events are conscious only
to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In
Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material congurations or 'shapes assumed
by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be
4.3
Evolution
PHILOSOPHY
4.5 Causality
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-krya-vda or the
theory of causation. According to Satkryavda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent
or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a
material one, when it becomes eect. Since, eects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of
everything is seen as Prakriti.[87]
More specically, Samkhya system follows the PrakritiParinma Vda. Parinma denotes that the eect is a
real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or more precisely Moola-Prakriti
(Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an
exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning
with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakriti is transformed and dierentiated into multiplicity of objects.
Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the
physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back
into Prakriti, which now remains as the undierentiated,
primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution
and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very
dierent from the modern theories of science in the sense
that Prakriti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving inEvolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The dividual bodies and minds to each and after liberation
two primary purposes of evolution of Prakriti are the en- these elements of Prakriti merges into the Moola Prakriti.
joyment and the liberation of Purusha.[83] The 23 evo- Another uniqueness of Smkhya is that not only physilutes of prakriti are categorized as follows:[84]
cal entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from
pure consciousness.
The intellect is the rst evolute of prakriti and is called
mahat or the great one. It causes the evolution of
ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from selfconsciousness is aected by the dominance of gunas. So
dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the ve organs of perception, ve organs of action and the mind.
Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of ve subtle elements sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from selfconsciousness. These ve subtle elements are themselves
evolvents and cause the creation of the ve gross elements
space, air, re, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in
the evolutes.[82] Purusha is pure consciousness absolute,
eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product
of evolution, nor the cause of any evolute.[81]
4.4
Liberation or moka
The Supreme Good is moka which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the
realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple.
Samkhyakarika I.3[85]
Samkhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that
evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because Prakriti is
always in a state of tension among its constituent strands
or gunas Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one,
unmanifest Prakriti which is unknowable. A guna is an
entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any
modication.
5.2
Textual references
Atheism
5.1
Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not
prove God.
REFERENCES
Hinduism
Linga sarira
Ratha Kalpana
Khyativada
8 Notes
[1] Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan
sources, but reects the cosmology and anthropology of a
much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical
speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other
non-Vedic Indian systems.[27]
6.2
[92]
On Tantra
See also
9 References
[1] Knut Jacobsen, Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 100-101
[2] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875, pages 43-46
[3] Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et
al), Ashgate, ISBN 978-0754633013, pages 149-158
[4] Larson 1998, p. 9
[5]
[6] John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Dened in English, State University
of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
[7] Michaels 2004, p. 264
[8] Sen Gupta 1986, p. 6
[9] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 89
[10] Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
[11] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36-47
Darshanas
Dualism
[17] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 154-206
[18] James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN
9780823931798, page 265
[60] W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reection, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-0362-9, page
26-27
[62] James Lochtefeld, Anumana in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing.
ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
[63] Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of Indias Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0
[64] Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious,
Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac
& Co, London, page 61
10
10 SOURCES
10 Sources
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Eliade, Mircea; Trask, Willard Ropes; White,
David Gordon (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-69114203-6
Flood, Gavin (2006), The Tantric Body: The Secret
Tradition of Hindu Religion, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 9781-84511-011-6
Fowler, Jeaneane D (2012), The Bhagavad Gita:
A Text and Commentary for Students, Eastbourne:
Sussex Academy Press, ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5
Haney, William S. (2002), Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, New Jersey: Bucknell
University Press, ISBN 1611481724
Hiriyanna, C. (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN
81-208-1099-6
Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), Proceedings.
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Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd, ISBN 81-7023-746-7
Isayeva, N. V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7
Jacobsen, Knut A. (2008), Theory and Practice of
Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9
11
Karmarkar, A.P. (1962), Religion and Philosophy of
Epics in S. Radhakrishnan ed. The Cultural Heritage
of India, Vol.II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-03-1
King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh
University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3
Kripal, Jerey J. (1998), Kalis Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780-226-45377-4
Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Skhya:
An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8
Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies: Yoga: Indias philosophy of
meditation, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-2083349-4
Leaman, Oliver (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key
Readings, New Delhi: Routledge, ISBN 0-41517357-4
11 Further reading
Hulin, Michel (1978). Skhya Literature. Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447018999.
Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
(Eighth Reprint Edition ed.), Calcutta: University
of Calcutta, ISBN 81-291-1195-0
Eliade, Mircea (1969), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Bollingen Series LVI (second ed.), New York:
Bollingen Foundation, Inc, ISBN 0-691-01764-6
Meller, Max (1899), Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd, ISBN 0-7661-4296-5
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-563820-4
Rajadhyaksha, N. D. (1959), The six systems
of Indian philosophy, Bombay (Mumbai), OCLC
11323515
Ruzsa, Ferenc (2006), Skhya (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
12 External links
Samkhya entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Origin and Development of the Samkhya System of
Thought by Pulinbihari Chakravarti M.A., Curator
of Manuscripts, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
12
13
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