Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7

R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Self Learning Module Design of Mobile Robots:

7.0 Sensors used in Robots including Mobile Robots
7.1Aim:
To help students understand different sensors used in robots with a specific reference to robots
that move on ground.
7.2Learning Objective:
After completing this chapter the student will be conversant with:
Sensors used in mobile robot,
Classification of sensors based on function.
Classification of sensors based on operation
Criteria followed for choice of a sensor for the requirement
Principle of operation of these sensors,
Eelectronics used for interfacing these sensors to microcontrollers,
Points to be ensured in installation to get the required performance out of the sensors,
7.3Approach followed:
As indicated earlier we take the example of a specific mobile robot, in this case a Micromouse.
The selected example of micromouse operates in a well defined environment. But some of the
ground based mobile robots like mine detection robot, surveillance robots etc. operate in highly
complex environment. We will also briefly discuss about sensors used for such robots.
7.4Assumptions made:
The following assumptions are made to choose the sensors:
In this chapter we will discuss about sensors used in micromouse as well as robots that
move on ground
As robot is going to be autonomous, we need to consider sizeand power requirement for
sensor selection.
We need to consider working environment for sensor selection. Hence following factors
also need to be considered:
o Temperature and humidity,
o Altitude,
o Pollution like chemical vapour, radiation, dust
o Vibration, shock , acceleration etc.
o AC electrical noise and interference etc for sensor selection.

7.5Classification of sensor based on function:

Sensors are classified based on their function in the robot.
7.5.1 Sensors used in Primary Control System of Robot:
Mostly Robots work on the principle of feedback control.
It can be shown that in a feedback control system, the accuracy and sensitivity of closed-loop
gain of the control system is mainly controlled by feedback factor.
In control systems of robot, the sensors which come in the feedback path and are very critical
for the performance of the robot come under one category.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

7.5.2 Sensors used for safety aspects of the robot:

Sensors used in robot for proper and safe operation of the robot.
If an industrial robot is used for transporting components from place to place, it needs to have
sensors to avoid collision with other moving objects in the environment.
Similarly a cleaning robot needs to avoid objects in the space, avoid steps, walls etc. in the area
of work
7.5.3 Sensors related to payload of the robot:
Robots carry payloads for doing the tasks for which they are designed.
A mine detection robot has to navigate in the area using its sensors. At the same time it needs
sensors to detect mines.
A cleaning robot needs to identify the garbage or dust in an area and needs sensors for doing
the task properly.
A robot which needs to do surveillance needs a stabilized platform which needs to be
maintained level irrespective of ground on which robot is moving.
7.6Developments in Sensor Technology:
Application of semiconductor manufacturing technology to mechanica and electromechanical
systems has resulted in Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) technology. Because of the
rapid developments taking place in the field of MEMS, sensors available for robotics has greatly
increased. Better accuracy and better interfacing to microcontrollers are made possible at much
lower costs than what was possible a decade ago.
In this chapter while discussing about some of the sensors, we will discuss about the underlying
principle and the MEMS-based sensor.
7.7 Sensors used in Primary Control System of Mobile Robots:
As our topic of study is Mobile Robtots, we will discuss about sensors used in mobile robots for
control of robot motion.
We discussed about different motors used in robots motion control.
We saw that Stepper, DC Servomotor and Brushless DC (BLDC) are the types of motors used.
Because of the higher voltage needed and less efficient operation, we will not discuss about
robots using stepper motor for their motion.
Whether we use DC Servomotor or BLDC motor, we need angular position sensor for motion
control of robots. Though BLDC uses sensor or other techniques to do commutation and
switching for its windings, still a sensor is used for feedback control of robots motion.
Magnetic pick-off based or optical encoders are the normal choice. Out of this optical encoder
are more commonly used because of their light weight and sealed construction. We will discuss
about this type of encoder in the following section.
7.7.1 Optical encoders for rotary motion sensing:
For explanation purpose we have taken Agilent Technologys HEDS type of encoders and the
Quadrature IC HCTL 2022. But the basic principle is similar for other products also.
The block diagram and thewaveform from the two quadrature channels are shown in Fig. 7.7.1
As seen in the diagram, the unit contains single LED as its light source
The light is collimated by a lens to theintegrated detector circuit.
The code wheel passes between the LED and photo detectors
The set of photo detectors with integrated electronics produce the quadrature
waveforms.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

The two waveforms produced at output of encoder are A and B which are in quadrature
phase.
Some encoders provide a third output called Index pulse. This is produced for every 360degree revolution of code wheel.
One of the important specifications is the number of pulses from each channel for 360degree rotation of code wheel. Typically we may choose an encoder that produces 500pulses per revolution for micromouse application.
With quadrature IC, about which we will discuss in the next section, we can obtain
(4 x 500) = 2000-pulses per revolution.
There are encoders available that provide 220 pulses per revolution and even higher.
The technique used in such high resolution encoders are much different from the one
we discuss in this section.

Fig. 7.7.1 Encoder sensor block diagram and quadrature waveform

Quadrature IC for Encoders:
This IC accepts Channel-A and Channel-B from incremental encoder. We need to feed a clock for
the encoder which can be of maximum frequency 33-MHz.
This IC does the following functions:
Can identify the direction of rotation of the encoder wheel
Provides the total count received from encoder if we had chosen up-counting mode
IC number HCTL-2022 has a 32-bit counter to store the total count and can be read out
to microcontroller through 8-pin output in byte-serial mode.
Can derive rate and approximate acceleration information from the counter by sampling
counter at regular interval.
The encoder pulse outputs, the state diagrams and logic to determine direction of
rotation are shown in Fig. 7.7.2

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Fig. 7.7.2 Pulse from encoder and state diagram

The arrangement of components in an optical encoder are given in Fig. 7.7.3

Fig. 7.7.3 Physical arrangement in optical encoder

7.7.2 Track Following Sensor Arrangement for Mobile Robots:

Mobile Robots used in industries, hospitals and other well defined environments may use track
following arrangement to move through well defined tracks.
The track sensing and alignment to track forms part of the control requirement of the robot.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

One of the common methods of defining a track is by embedding on floor along the required
path a narrow retro-reflective tape / black tape. Suitable way-points are marked using such
tapes at pre-determined locations. This helps the robot to reset itself at the way-points.
Normally a set of Infra Red (IR) Emitter and Detector pairs are arranged on the robot base to
illuminate and sense the tape. The arrangement of IR-Emitter and Detector pairs is shown in
Fig. 7.7.4.

Fig. 7.7.4 Five sets of emitter-detector pairs below PCB

Reason for choice of Infra-Red as against visible spectrum:
When the ambient (surrounding) visible light level is high, Infra-red is preferred to
visible.
Factors to be considered:
The optics is provided with filter to cut-down visible wavelength and allow IR
wavelength.
The emitter and detector pair is chosen to have peak response around the same
wavelength.
Reasons why pulsed emission is preferred over continuous emission:
When the peak current specification of infra-red emitter is much higher than average
current we prefer pulsed emission.
For example, manufacturer of an IR-emitter gives average forward current value of 100mA and surge forward current of 2-A for 100-us. If we use this emitter and pulse 500-mA
current, the power is going to be 5-times that of continuous current.
By suitable choice of duty cycle, we can still be within the emitters average power
rating.

This will provide better signal to noise ratio in the detector.

Just by taking the detector reading before pulsing emitter and during emitter pulsing, we
can eliminate the offset output from emitter due to ambient light.
By taking the detector output when emitter is pulsed, that is in a synchronous manner,
we minimize the interference due to other systems like motor.
We can use simple digital filter to eliminate effect of interference from other sources.
This is possible by taking 3-readings of detector during one emitter pulse and noting
whether all three values are same.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

When to choose Retro-reflective tape and when Black tape:

If the floor of the building where robot is moving around is dark in color and not
reflective, we can use retro-reflective tape for the track.
Retro-reflective tape sends back a good percentage of incident infra-red radiation.
Hence detectors above the tape get good signal.
By choosing high emitter peak current, proper spacing between emitter-detector pair to
floor, proper design of hoods to shield out external light, the signal received by detector
can be made large. In such a case, we can get good logic-1 level signal even without an
amplifier.
Rest of the emitter-detector pairs in the array, which are not above the tape will
produce logic-0 level signal
If the floor is very reflective, it is better to use black tape.
In this case the detectors above tape produce logic-0 output and that not on tape
produce logic-1 state because of reflection from floor.
Fig. 7.7.5 shows the dimensional details of the IR-emitter and also the radiation pattern of the
emitter.
Fig. 7.7.6 shows the dimension details of the IR-detector transistor and also the receiver
responsivity Vs angle and rise-time test arrangement (rise time typically will be around
20-30-usec)

Fig. 7.7.5 IR Emitter dimensions and radiation pattern

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Fig. 7.7.6 IR Detector dimensions and receiving pattern and rise time

Real World Navigation of Mobile Robots:

Another extreme of mobile robot is one which has to move around in real world environment
autonomously. Googles driverless car is such a mobile robot.
It has radars, vision camera, GPS navigation system etc.
The sensors used in such mobile robot are outside the scope of our module.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

differencebetween.com/difference-between-google-car-and-ordinary-car/

Fig. 7.7.7 Googles Driverless Car

Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGV):
There are some robots that are in between the Googles Driverless Car and theone which we
discussed as track following robot.
This category of robots is called Autonomous Ground Vehicles.
These are meant for any terrain.
The sensors that are made use of in this type of robotic vehicles are:
Vision system for both day light and night vision conditions
GPS based position determination.
Magnetometers to get attitude / direction of movement
Accelerometers for torque control, gradient detection, tilt correction for stabilized
platforms on the vehicle etc.
Rate gyros to measure / control body rates
We are not going to deal with the vision systems and GPS based position determination system
in this module.
We will discuss about the principles of other sensors in the following section.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Unmanned Ground Vehicles - Wikipedia

7.7.3 Magnetometers:
Magnetometers are used in the navigation of mobile robots .
Magnetometer makes use of earths magnetic field for that purpose.
As magnetic field on earth has a dip component also, for proper determination of earths field, a
triaxial magnetometer will be an ideal one. Such magnetometers are readily available. They
comprise of three single axis magnetometers in the same housing with associated electronics.
Though flux-gate magnetometers are widely used in avionic systems, we will discuss about
magneto-resistive type of accelerometers which are of lower accuracy but lower cost. These
magnetometers also come with hybrid electronics and are very small in size and weight. These
are highly suited for robotics and we will discuss about these in this section.
As with any magnetometer measurement, we need to ensure that these sensors are not placed
near permanent / electromagnet. They should not be placed in housing made of magnetic
materials like mild steel, which may shielld earths magnetic field and result in false reading.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

As earths magnetic field data is available for any region, the earths magnetic field itself can be
used for calibration of magnetometers.
For study purpose let us take Honeywells magneto resistive sensors though number of
manufacturers are available offering similar sensors.
Magneto-resistive Sensor:
Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) occurs in ferrous materials.
It is a change in resistance when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current
flow in a thin strip of ferrous material as shown in Fig. 7.7.8.

Fig. 7.7.8 Principle of Magneto Resistive (MR) sensor

The transducer is arranged in the form of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 7.7.9.

Fig. 7.7.9 MR Transducer

When no magnetic field is present, the resistance, R, of all four magnetoresistors is the
same.
The bridge supply, Vb, causes current to flow through the resistors.
A crossed applied field, H, causes the magnetization in two of the oppositely placed
resistors to rotate towards the current, resulting in an increase in the resistance, R.
In the remaining two oppositely-placed resistors magnetization rotates away from the
current resulting in a decrease in the resistance, R.
For Honeywells MR sensors the sensitivity is typically 3 mV/(V/Oe) and the range of
linearity is within 2-Oe

Fig. 7.7.10 shows single and two-axis magnetometers. These provide the basic Wheatstones
bridge providing differential output.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Fig. 7.7.10 Single and Two-axes magneto-resistive sensors

Fig. 7.7.11 shows hybrid circuit having single and 2-axis sensors (forming 3-axis sensor) with
Instrumentation grade amplifiers. This hybrid module provides high output as amplifier is
incorporated.

Fig. 7.7.11 Triaxial magneto-resistive sensors with hybrid electronics

7.7.4 MEMS Accelerometers:

Accelerometers based on MEMS technology may be working on:
Strain-gauge technique
Piezo-electric techniqe

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Capacitance type
We are going to discuss the one based on capacitance type.
Though there are many manufactures producing this type, we will discuss here about the
Analog Devices ADXL series.
The reason for choosing the above one is because of its use in micromouse and other mobile
robots. This sensor is of low cost type and consumes low power.
The operating principle can be understood by referring to Fig. 7.7.12

Fig. 7.7.12 Accelerometer Structure

Proof mass attached through springs to substrate.

The proof mass can move only up / down
A movable and fixed plate capacitors are formed around this
The two sets of capacitors are excited using square wave of opposite polarity.
A reference voltage is used for phase-sensitive demodulation
Under zero acceleration, the output voltage is zero
Depending on the direction of acceleration, opposite polarity signal is produced at
output of demodulator
The magnitude of the voltage is directly proportional to magnitude of acceleration.
This is illustrated in Fig. 7.7.13

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Fig. 7.7.13 Circuit for measuring acceleration

The physical dimension of the accelerometer with integrated electronics is shown in Fig. 7.7.14

Fig. 7.7.14 Package dimension

7.7.5 MEMS Gyroscopes:

In the case of Accelerometers, force on the proof mass is F = m x a
In the case of MEMS Gyroscope Coriolis force is made to act on the proof mass.
Coriolis force is illustrated in Fig. 7.7.15

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

Fig. 7.7.15 Coriolis Force

Two polysilicon sensing structures each contain a dither frame which is electrostatically
driven to resonance.
This produces the necessary movement to create a Coriolis effect during rotation.
At two of the outer extremes of each frame, orthogonal to the dither motion, are
movable fingers that are placed between fixed fingers to form a capacitive pickoff
structure that senses Coriolis motion
Rest of the signal processing is similar to Accelerometer.

7.7.6 Potentiometers:
You may wonder how a good old component like potetiometer finds use in the robotics!
These are very much used in many Radio Controlled (RC) toys like cars, model aircrafts and
helicopters for manipulating the control surfaces, throttle etc.
It is incorporated in a device called servo.
You may vary the width of a pulse that is sent 50-times a second from 4 to 20-msec.
Depending upon the width of the pulse a shaft will turn from zero to 90, 180, 270 or nearly 360
deg.
Inside the assembly called servo you will find processor electronics, DC brushed / brushless
motor, the spider whose angle is to be controlled and a potentiometer for feedback.
Such servos are used not only in RC toys but also in robots like humanoid to move the leg and
hip joints.
Hence do not be surprised to see a potentiometer being used to sense angle of rotation!
7.7.7 Tactile sensors:
If a robot has to handle a glass bottle / cup, it needs to handle it with some predetermined
force. It should not crush the glass nor should glass slip out of its grip.
Such applications need tactile sensors.
Such sensors may start from a simple micro-switch. Some of the manufacturers provide data on
force to operate the switch. It can also be a simple limit switch where the force is specified.
It can be strain-gauge based sensor which measures force. Such sensors may need integral
amplifiers to bring the output to a few volts range.

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Design of Mobile Robots

Self Learning Module: Chapter 7
R.Nandakumar, V.K. Agrawal, Divya Rao

One may have to do survey and choose a suitable sensor and modify it for a specific application.
7.7.8 Obstacle Detection:
This requirement may arise to avoid collision of robot with other moving / stationary
objects.
One of the common type of sensor is Ultrasonic transmit-receive set.
A pair of ultrasonic devices may be used at the specified frequency in pulse-mode.
As sound travels at approximately 300 m / sec, the round-trip distance to the obstacle
decides the delay between transmit and receive pulses.
Knowing the delay, the distance to obstacle may be determined.
In this case, we need to get specifications on type of obstacle and reflection
characteristics of ultrasound.
Maximum distance for sensing an obstacle, resolution, accuracy are parameters to be
considered for such sensors.
The associated electronics for oscillator, pulsing circuit, power amplifier, detector, time
delay measurement using microcontroller are to be planned to make a complete
obstacle detection system.
Obstacle detection and ranging systems are availble that work on IR pulsing, Laser
pulsing etc.
The field of sensors is vast and there is steady increase in the sensors available.
7.8 Sum up:
We discussed need of sensors in robots to do:
Control of robot
For the payload requirements
For the safety aspects of the robot and its environment
Different types of sensors
Their operating principle
Associated electronics
Factors to be considered in the choice etc.

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