UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF PRODUCTION, POWER SYSTEMS
AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINERRING
A
PROJECT REPORT
ON
DESIGN AND FABRICATION
OF
A POLYTHENE RECYCLING MACHINE
(WITH AN EXTRUDER)
SUBMITTED
BY
OLORI OVIE (U2008/3025307)
UCHENDU STANLEY (U2008/3025347)
IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JUNE 2014

CERTIFICATION
We certify that this project on the design and fabrication of a
polythene recycling machine was carried out by OLORI OVIE
(U2008/3025307) of the Department of mechanical engineering,
faculty of engineering, university of Port Harcourt. We have
examined it and found it acceptable for the award of the bachelor
of engineering (B.Eng) in Mechanical Engineering
Engr. Dr. T. A Briggs
(Project supervisor)
Dr. H. U Nwosu
Head of Department
Prof. Ndubuisi S. N
(Dean of Faculty)
...............................
Project Coordinator
...............................
External Examiner

............................. ................................
Signature

Date

............................. ................................
Signature

Date

.............................. ................................
Signature

Date

............................... ..............................
Signature

Date

............................. ................................
Signature

Date

ii

DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the almighty god for his grace,
protection strength and ability given to me during my research to
successful completion of this work.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to Almighty God for his protection,
guidance, wisdom and blessings.
My gratitude also goes to my supervisor Eng. Dr. T. A Briggs who
made remarkable contributions on my final year project. I want
to thank him for his positive response, explanation, guidance and
advice in completing this project. I owe many thanks to my Head
of Department Dr. H.U Nwosu
I would also like to acknowledge and appreciate the efforts and
knowledge imparted to me by the lecturers of mechanical
engineering department. My profound gratitude goes to Mr
Ihejirika in providing the necessary information needed for this
project and his full commitment in guiding me through this
project.
Special mention must be made of my beloved parents Mr and Mrs
Obi and my wonderful siblings, my friends Harry Iyomahan,
Omotoke Okeyemi.

iv

ABSTRACT
This research involves the design and fabrication of a polythene
recycling machine that minimizes the limitations of the already
existing. The machine employs the principle of conveying and
heating to effect shredding and melting of the materials fed
through the hopper through a screw conveyor chamber. The
screw conveyor was driven by a 1.5HP single phase electric motor
that rotates at a predetermined speed. The hot zone was heated
with a resistance heating element and the heat being regulated
by a thermocouple. The barrel was insulated with rock mat and
aluminium surface jacketing to prevent heat loss. The results of
experimental analysis show that for every plastic fed into the
hopper, a temperature of about 200C, Khanna O. P (2005) is
required to melt it. The performance test analysis carried out
defines the characteristics of the machine and shows that at a
speed of 53rpm, the machine functions effectively in performing
its task with a high finishing recycling efficiency of 95.6% which
translates to a significant time. The resulting soft material was
extruded through the die at the end of the chamber.

TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page.....................................................................................i
Certification................................................................................ii
Dedication.................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement......................................................................iv
Abstract......................................................................................v
Table of content.........................................................................vi
List of figures............................................................................vii
List of tables............................................................................viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background..........................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem......................................................2
1.3 Aims and objectives..............................................................3
1.4 Scope of the project..............................................................3
1.5 Significance of study............................................................ 4
1.6 Limitations...........................................................................5
1.7 Project outline......................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Early development................................................................6
2.2 Recent development..............................................................8

vi

2.3 Limitations of previous works..............................................9

2.4 Knowledge contribution......................................................10
2.5 Terminologies associated with recycling..............................12
2.6 Fundamentals....................................................................14
2.6.1 What is polyethylene?......................................................14
2.6.2 What is recycling & plastic recycling?...............................15
2.6.3 The three R's of recycling.................................................15
2.6.4 Why the need to recycle polythene?..................................16
2.6.5 Plastics identification code...............................................17
2.6.6 Classification of polyethylene...........................................18
2.6.7 Selected properties of polythene.......................................20
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Description of the polythene recycling machine...................21
3.2 Design consideration and material selection........................21
3.3 Principles of operation of the machine.................................27
3.4 Design Analysis(Calculation)...............................................22
3.4.1 Design calculation for hopper...........................................29
3.4.2 Length of belt...................................................................30
3.4.3 Maximum torque transmitted by shaft.............................31
3.4.4 Velocity ratio of belt drive.................................................32

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3.4.5 Angle of warp...................................................................32

3.4.6 Angle of contact...............................................................33
3.4.7 Power transmitted by belt drive........................................33
3.4.8 Analysis of shaft..............................................................35
3.4.9 Diameter of shaft.............................................................37
3.4.10 Heat source...................................................................38
3.5 Assembly procedure...........................................................39
3.6 Project design specification.................................................41
3.7 Component specification.....................................................42
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Sources of waste.................................................................43
4.2 Fabrication testing and result.............................................43
4.3 Performance analysis..........................................................45
4.4 Discussion of result............................................................47
4.5 Maintenance.......................................................................48
4.5 Cost analysis of materials and production of machine........49
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion.........................................................................50
5.2 Recommendations..............................................................51
REFERENCES

viii

APPENDIX

ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Plastic identification codes.....................................14
Figure 3.1: Frustum of a cone for the hopper............................23
Figure 3.2: Belt and pulley........................................................27
Figure 3.3: Shaft support in bearing and carrying pulley...........29

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Properties of HDPE and LDPE...................................15
Table 3.1: Mechanical properties of steels used for shafts.........20
Table 3.2: Coefficient of friction between belt and pulley...........21
Table 3.3: Design specification.................................................34
Table 3.4 Components specification.........................................35
Table 4.1: Performance test for machine..................................38
Table 4.2: Bill of engineering measurement and estimation.......41

xi

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Recycling is an aspect of environmental engineering that
deals with the development of technically reasonable solutions to
environmental problems by designing, building and maintaining
systems to control wastes produced by municipalities and private
industries. Plastics are one of the most commonly used materials
in the world today and their inert nature renders them resistant
to bio-degradation which leads them to an increase in the
amount of plastic wastes in dump sites. The manufacturing of
pure plastic raw material consumes large quantities of energy
and

plastics

are

not

degradable

materials,

therefore

its

accumulation after use generates an environmental problem.

In a bid to conserve limited resources and alleviate
environmental pollution, Anaekwe Everistus et al, (2010) said
nylon

and

plastic

waste

recycling

will

complement

the

international concern for environment and our governments

campaign against deforestation and Ozone layer depletion which

xii

leads to climate change therefore plastic recycling is where our

hope lies for the future in terms of waste management.
Consequently, action should be taken to promote recycling
of plastic materials. Plastic recycling is bound to realize a lot of
saving in production costs, conserve limited resources and
alleviate environmental pollution. Evans & Williams (2003)
suggested that the menace of plastic pollutions can be controlled
by the new technological breakthrough called recycling.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In recent times, polythene packaging has increased in
the area of table water, beverages, medicine and soft drinks and
has replaced the bio degradable leaves traditionally used in
wrapping consumer goods in Nigeria. Onibokun & Kumuyi (1981)
believed that because of the extensive use of the polythene
materials in almost every facet of Nigerian life and economy, the
sachets, wrappers, containers etc are littered in almost every
nook and cranny of our roads, markets, streets and non
designated places. Owing to the fast rate at which consumptions
of the products packaged with polythene are going, a high

xiii

demand is being placed on the collection and processing of the

virgin materials from which polythene products are made.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims and objectives of this project are as follows:
1. To design and fabricate an economically-viable polythene
recycling machine from locally sourced materials.
2. To design a machine capable of converting the polythene-nylon
wastes into strips that can be used in the manufacture of strip
woven bags through a process known as extrusion.
3. To reduce the environmental impacts associated with the
dumping of waste polythene materials.
4. To reduce energy input and time waste with a high finishing
recycling efficiency.
5. To enable individuals and small businesses to recycle
polythene wastes and generate profit.
1.4 SCOPE OF PROJECT
This research work tends to look at the used water sachets
as blessing by converting them to a more useful product. The

xiv

effective management of the polythene waste through conversion

into further usable products turns the littered surrounding to an
environmentally friendly one by preventing outspread of disease
and simultaneously creating employment for both skilled and
unskilled labour. Conclusively, used pure water sachet can be
converted into strip woven bags, this is certainly a technology for
reducing a growing waste system problem by converting the
waste to an environmental beneficial and useful product.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
Recycling of used products rather than disposing them of
as waste is a desirable approach for several reasons (Callister &
Rethwisch,

2012).

The

economic

importance

of

waste

management will increase dramatically in coming years. Waste

disposal and recycling are now major concerns of government
environmental bodies, local authorities and industry and there is
a pressing urgency for society to reduce its waste and for experts
to find solutions for managing the growing environmental
problems.

This

project

directly

contributes

to

sustainable

development by helping to reduce our impact on the planet,

which is a step forward towards the implementation of effective
waste management strategy.
xv

1.6 LIMITATIONS
As a result of pressure from other activities, the problems
encountered during the period of developing and writing this
project include:
1. Difficulty of sourcing for needed materials
2. financial constrain
3. Struggling to meet supervisors demand on proper write up
1.7 PROJECT OUTLINE
The full project is divided into five progressively linked
chapters in the order: (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3)
Materials

and

Methods,

(4)

Results

and

Discussion,

(5)

Conclusion. In writing this report, each of the chapters is

developed with proper research and supported with strong
references from published literature. Detailed diagrams and CAD
models were also used to better understanding and aid
visualization. All published literature used in support of this
project were properly referenced and strict measures were taken
to ensure that there is no error of omission, misspelling or
typography.

xvi

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 EARLY DEVELOPMENT
Polythene Recycling came to fruition during the environmental
revolution of the late 1960's as plastic is one of the most popular
building materials of modern human culture, but its widespread
use brought us many problems and caused environmental
danger of unprecedented scale. Since its mass adoption in the
1950's, discarded plastic products have filled landfills and
contained seas and earth with materials that will not break down
for

centuries

and

centuries.

To

combat

this

problem,

governments of many countries around the world formed rules

for

recycling

transforming

plastic,
discarded

established
plastic

industrial

into

useful

processes
materials

for
and

educated communities to the benefit of recycling all around the

world.
In 1972, the first plastic recycling plant for waste techniques was
built in Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, marking the beginning for
all future recycling plants, it took several years and a concerted
effort for the average Joe to embrace the recycling habit, but
xvii

embrace he did and continues to do so in increasing numbers.

Plastic recycling is unlike glass or metal processes due to the
greater number of steps involved and the use of dyes fillers and
other additives used in ''virgin'' plastics.
Mr. Phillipe Julien (1976) developed the Jet recycling technology
to provide a solution to the worlds ever increasing issue of plastic
waste disposal. Mr. Juliens original machine had the capacity to
process 50kg of mixed plastic waste per hour and represented
ground-breaking technology at the time.
The first decade after World War II saw the development of
polypropylene and high density polythene was introduced in
1978 and this introduction made it possible to produce
polyethylenes with densities ranging from 0.90 to 0.96. The raw
materials (polyethylenes) began to compete with the older plastics
and even with the more traditional materials such as wood,
paper, metal, glass and leather. The machine used was generally
designed to accommodate re-processing by injection moulding
method,

blow

moulding

method,

extrusion

method

to

manufacture plastic products similar to those of the original

parts.

xviii

2.2 RECENT DEVELOPMENT

Today, recycling machines has advanced to the point where
machines have the capacity to process up to 800kg of mixed
waste per hour. Today's machines are fully automatic (or semiautomatic), as opposed to the earlier manual versions. All JET
recycling machines are built according to strict design and
quality control guidelines.
Bamisaiye

(2010)

designed

and

developed

low

density

polyethylene using simple standard engineering principles, the

machine was tested to recycled used pure water sheets following
a series of agglomeration which consists of heating at a
temperature of about 115C to melt the material with the cooling
of the melted material aided by a water coolant, the machine has
an input capacity of 5kg, an output capacity of 3.6kg and a
power requirement of 2kW. The machine has a cutting speed
(shaft speed) of 1450rpm with a melting efficiency of 81%.
Ugoamadi et al (2011) optimized the development of a plastic
recycling machine that minimizes the limitation of the already
existing (imported) ones to a great extent and at the same time
ensuring effective waste management. the results showed that for

xix

every used plastic fed into the hopper, about temperature of

200C is required to melt it. The machine employs the principle of
conveying and heating to effect shredding and melting of the
materials fed through the hopper, and requires only two persons
to operate. But the use of chain drive from the electric motor is a
disadvantage as a direct coupling system adopted in this design
gives effective power and significant mechanical advantage.
Odior et al (2012) developed a polythene recycling machine from
locally sourced materials from Nigeria which uses design fixed
and rotary blades for slicing the loaded wastes. The rotary blades
are rotated by a single phase, high speed electric motor and the
friction generated provides the heat required to soften the waste
charges. The recycling machine produces an average of 35kg of
small flakes of recycled waste per hour at a machine speed of
2880rpm. But the friction effects generated in the system is
considered inappropriate as this would cause frequent changes of
the friction parts involved.
2.3 LIMITATIONS OF PREVIOUS WORKS
Developing a polythene recycling machine from locally
sourced materials isn't a perfect product, it does have its

xx

limitations. It was not possible to include all the desired

functionality to make it commercially marketable. However
saying this, it does contain the most important and user friendly
features. Areas in which the product fails to meet expectations on
a commercial scale is performance.
2.4 KNOWLEDGE CONTRIBUTION
The objective of the present project is to contribute in the
improvement

of

manufacturing

of

the
the

technology
recycling

used

in

machine

designing
to

enhance

and
its

performance. The technological improvement employed in the

project includes:
1) Modification of the feeding system by designing a hopper to
aid the feeding process and to ensure operators safety and
prevent injury from the rotating screw.
2) Modification of the end part of the heating system to
improve the extrusion process by adding a heater to the die
set.
3) Change from chain drive to belt drive for easier fix, cheap
cost of replacement, steady operation and low noise.

xxi

4) Each alloy has its benefits and each its drawbacks,

Stainless steel was used for the extruder barrel instead of
mild steel because of its corrosion resistance properties.
5) The extruder barrel was insulated with aluminium to
prevent heat loss.
6) A loader was incorporated at the hopper to prevent the
polythene from falling out due to action of the rotating
screw.
The machine with new design modifications, reasonable
configuration in size, steady operation, low noise, low energy
consumption

and

high

output

offers

many

basic

design

advantages that enable it to be used for minimizing energy and

process costs like: versatility, high productivity, low cost, ability
to produce shapes (strip like form), high product quality. Other
advantages include:
1) It is environmentally friendly.
2) It consumes less energy.
3) It removes the impurities that will mix with the output.
4) Cheaper and easy to maintain.
5) Single screw extruder with specifically designed screw and
barrel ensure good quality final products.
xxii

6) Little or no technical knowledge.

2.5 TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH RECYCLING
EXTRUSION: A plastic shaping process in which resin is melted
and then pushed out of the machine. As it exits the machine, a
die shapes the resin.
MOULDING: The process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or
pliable raw material using a rigid frame called a mould.
INJECTION MOULDING: Involves heating plastic granules to
their melting point and then injecting them at high pressure
through a nozzle into a mould.
BLOW MOULDING: This is the process used to make bottles and
containers. The mould closes and seals a thin plastic tube called
a parison. It also cuts it to the required length.
BARREL: The holding chamber of an extrusion or injection
moulding machine. The barrel holds the resin as the screw melts
and mixes it.
DIE: A tool containing a recess which provides space for the
shaping of plastic.

xxiii

EXTRUDER SCREW: along screw that turns inside the barrel of

the extruder. The extruder screw mixes the resin
FEED THROAT: The entry way for the resin into the extrusion
barrel. The feed throat connects the hopper and the barrel.
HOPPER: A large funnel shaped device located on top of the
barrel on extrusion molding machines. The hopper serves as
entry way for resin into the barrel.
PULTRUSION: A moulding process in which heated resin cures
as it is pulled through a die. Pultrusion is a variation of the
extrusion process, during which resin is pushed through a die.
RESIN: A raw polymer, usually in the form of beads or pellets,
that is not yet formed into its final or moulded shape.
SHAPING: The process of shaping of a piece of plastic. Extrusion
is an example of shaping processes.
THERMOFORMING: A plastic shaping process that shapes
heated plastic sheets around a mould.
THERMOPLASTIC: A polymer that is solid at room temperature
and can be melted at high temperatures. Thermoplastics can be
shaped by heating and then applying pressure.
xxiv

THERMOSET: A polymer that can either be a liquid or a solid. It

can be moulded by heating and placing into a mould, once a
thermoset has cured, they cannot be remoulded.
VISCOSITY: A fluids resistance to flow. In general, the hotter a
resin is, the lower its viscosity.
2.6 FUNDAMENTALS
This section lays the foundation for this project, in the
following subsections are some useful definitions that formed the
basis for further discussion on this project, it is deemed very
necessary that the fundamental principles are discussed in this
part of the project.
2.6.1 WHAT IS POLYETHYLENE?
Polythene is just a technical name for plastic, it was first
synthesized by the German chemist (Hans Von Pechmann, 1898)
while heating diazomethane. It is a type of polymer that is
thermoplastic meaning that it can be melted to a liquid and
remoulded as it returns to a solid state, it is chemically
synthesized from ethylene, a compound that is usually made
from petroleum or natural gas. Polyethylene is also abbreviated

xxv

as PE and its industrial application includes synthetic fibre,

beverage, food containers and other household products.
2.6.2 WHAT IS RECYCLING AND PLASTIC RECYCLING?
Recycling is the practice of reusing items that would
otherwise be discarded as waste. It is a key component of modern
waste reduction and is the third component of the ''Reduce,
Reuse, Recycle'' waste hierarchy. Plastic recycling as described by
(Kutz, 2011) is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics
and reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes
completely different in form from their original state.
2.6.3 THE THREE R'S OF RECYCLING
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (also known as R3) is a widely
accepted waste management method designed to reduce the use
of environmental resources and lessen humans' carbon footprint
on earth. Reducing involves limited purchases and accumulation:
consequently reducing the amount of waste produced. Reduction
strategies include buying used product, avoiding disposable
products. Reusing products makes both environmental and
economical

sense,

reusing

strategies

include

buying used

products instead of buying new ones. Recycling refers to

xxvi

processing, treating or converting an object into reusable

materials. Commercial products made from recyclable or recycled
materials almost always contain a symbol on their packaging.

2.6.4 WHY THE NEED TO RECYCLE POLYTHENE?

There are several reasons for recycling Polythene as enumerated
below:
1. Recycling reduces the need for raw materials such as
rubber, metals, oil and so reduces our impact on the
environment. Extracting virgin materials is a key cause of
global habitat loss (Friends of the Earth, 2008)

2. Recycling saves energy as recycling a material generally

uses far less energy than manufacturing from virgin
materials (WRAP, 2006).

3. Recycling saves cost. According to (Friedman, 2009) the cost

of recycling is less than that of making new products.

xxvii

4. Recycling is one of the easiest ways to reduce impact on the

environment, it introduces a ''green'' consciousness to daily
life (Friends of the Earth, 2008).

5. Recycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions that contribute

to global climate change.

6. Recycling reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and

incinerators.
7. Recycling creates wealth opportunities, Babajide Komolafe
(2004) stressed that on the introduction of the structural
adjustment

programme

administration,

many

(SAP)

by

Nigerians

the

looked

Babangida
inwards

for

opportunities of self employment and wealth opportunities.

2.6.5 PLASTICS IDENTIFICATION CODE

The identification coding system is a set of symbols placed
on plastics to identify the polymer type. It was developed by the
Society

of

Plastics

Industry

(SPI)

in

1998

and

is

used

internationally. The primary purpose of the code is to allow

xxviii

efficient separation of different polymer types for recycling.

Separation must be efficient because the plastics must be
recycled separately. Even one item of the wrong type of resin can
ruin a mix, the symbols used in the code consist of arrows that
cycle clockwise to form a rounded triangle and enclosing a
number.

Figure 2.1: Plastic identification codes

2.6.6 CLASSIFICATION OF POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene is classified into several categories based
mostly on its density and branching. The most important
polythene grades are HDPE, LLDPE and LDPE. Here, we will
discuss the two major grades based on density i.e HDPE and
LDPE
1. High density Polyethylene HDPE: This is a class of PE
thermoplastic made from petroleum. It is defined by a
xxix

density of greater or equal to 0.941g/cm, HDPE has a low

degree of branching and thus stronger intermolecular forces
and tensile strength, it is four times stronger than LDPE ,
tougher, most chemical resistant and the least flexible of the
types of polyethylene. HDPE is used in products and
packaging such as milk jugs, detergent bottles, garbage
containers and water pipes. One third of all toys are
manufactured from HDPE.

2. Low density polyethylene LDPE: This class of PE is

defined by a density range of 0.910-0.940 g/cc. This results
in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility. LDPE is
used for both rigid containers and plastic film applications
such as plastic bags and film wrap. It was the first grade of
polythene

produced

in

1933

by

Imperial

Chemical

Industries (ICI).

xxx

2.6.7 SELECTED PROPERTIES OF POLYETHYLENE

Table

2.1:

Properties

of

HDPE

and

LDPE(Source:

Academia.edu)
Properties

HDPE

LDPE

Melting Point

135C

115C

Crystallinity

High

Low crystallinity(50-

Crystalline(>90%

60%).

crystalline).
Flexibility

More

rigid

than More flexible due to

LDPE due to higher lower crystallinity.

crystallinity.
Strength

Strong as a result of Not

as

regular packing of HDPE

polymer chains.
Heat Resistance

Useful

above

strong

as

due

to

irregular packing.
100- Retains

110C

toughness

over a wide temp

range

but

density

drops

off

dramatically

above

room temp.
Transparency

Less

transparent Good

than LDPE.

since

transparency
it

is

more

amorphous.
Density

0.95-0.97g/cm

Chemical Properties

Chemically Inert

Tensile

Strength 12.4

0.91-0.94g/cm

26.5

(MPa)
xxxi

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1

DESCRIPTION

OF

THE

POLYTHENE

RECYCLING

MACHINE
This machine is an ideal equipment for recycling plastics e.g
High density polyethylene and Low density polyethylene. The
main components of the machine are: frame, extruder barrel,
heating

compartment,

screw

shaft,

hopper,

drive

shaft,

thermocouple, the die set with hole/opening diameter of 3mm

and 12 holes, belt, pulleys and electric motor. The outlet is
located at the end of the die set where the conditioned materials
are compressed and the content forced out through the outlet
slots. The heating compartment is where the material heats up
and passed through an enclosed passage in the barrel. The
machine is powered by an electric motor via belt drive connected
to the main shaft that turns the screw conveyor. The hopper into
which the plastic material is fed is located at the top of the
housing.
3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATION AND MATERIAL SELECTION
To accomplish this, the following were taken into consideration:
xxxii

1. Sizing of the shafts

2. Selection of the pulley and determination of transmitted
speed
3. Rating of the prime mover
4. Capacity of hopper
5. Volume of chamber
6. Choice of belt
7. Shear force and bending moment on shafts
8. Determination of torque acting on shafts
The factors which influenced the choice of materials
selected for this design include materials suitability, strength,
local availability, corrosion, affordability and cost effectiveness.
Also considered for the criteria of material selection for the
various components of the machine is based on the type of force
that will be acting on them, the work they are expected to
perform and their useful physical and mechanical properties. The
bulk of the parts of the recycling machine were fabricated using
mild steel, except for the extruder barrel, this is because it is
easiest to be joined among all other metals. It is a very versatile
metal, necessitating its use by many industries for fabrication of

xxxiii

process unit equipment. Apart from its versatility, it is also very

cheap and readily compared to other metals.
3.2.1 SUPPORT FRAME
The main function of the machine frame is to support, guide and
hold in accurate alignment all the moving members of the
operating machine. The frame was constructed from four 200mm
mild steel angle bar to give rigidity and stability that will
withstand load and vibration.
3.2.2 HOPPER
The hopper is made of mild steel and it is the receptacle through
which the polythene is accepted into the machine for recycling, it
is attached to opening at the top of the extruder barrel
3.2.3 THE BARREL
The barrel is made with stainless steel which houses the screw
conveyor. The fed polythene materials passes through the barrel
from the hopper to the orifice at the exit. It is equally where the
heating and melting of the materials take place.

xxxiv

3.2.4 HEATING ELEMENTS

These components are made of materials with very high
conductivity. The heater is adjustable and fixed to the bored
metal (heating chamber) with the aid of clips. The heat from these
heater is conducted through the bored metal which is used in
melting the polythene.
3.2.5 SHAFT
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit
power or motion from one place to another and provides the axis
of rotation of members such as pulley. Since the shaft is
subjected to bending and torsional deflection, mild steel was used
in the design with the following considerations:
a. Rigidity, strength and stiffness.
b. Machinability.
c. High wear resistance.
d. Good heat treatment property.
The mechanical property of the grades of carbon steel are given in
the table below

xxxv

Table 3.1 Mechanical properties of steels used for shafts

Indian

Standard Ultimate

Tensile Yield Strength, MPA

Designation

Strength, MPA

40 C 8

560-670

320

45 C 8

610-700

350

50 C 4

640-760

370

50 C 12

700 Minimum

390

Source: Khurmi & Gupta (2006) Machine Design

3.2.6 BEARINGS
Bearing is used to support moving element (shaft), also to permit
the relative motion

between the shaft and the pulley while in

operation. The radial ball bearings with housing is used because

of:
a. High wearing resistance.
b. Accuracy of shaft alignment.
c. good corrosion resistance properties.
d. Low cost of maintenance which involves greasing through
its nipples.
3.2.7 BELT
Flat belts are extensively used but the selection of the belt
depends on:

xxxvi

a. The power to be transmitted

b. The centre distance between shafts
c. The speed of the driving and driven shafts
3.2.8 ELECTRIC MOTOR
This is the machine component that transmits rotational motion
and power from the pulley to the belt. The guiding selection are
as follows:
a. Speed control
b. Starting and running characteristics
c. Noise level
d. Method of power transmission
Table 3.2 Coefficient of friction between belt and pulley
Belt
Material
Leather
oak
tanned
Leather
chrome
tanned
Convassstitched
Cotton
woven
Rubber
Walata

Pulley Material
Cast Iron, Steel
Wood
Dry
Wet
Greasy
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.3

Compressed Leather Rubber

Paper
Face
Face
0.33
0.38
0.40

0.35

0.32

0.22

0.4

0.45

0.48

0.50

0.20

0.15

0.12

0.23

0.25

0.27

0.30

0.22

0.15

0.12

0.25

0.28

0.27

0.30

0.30
0.32

0.18
0.20

0.32
0.35

0.35
0.38

0.40
0.40

0.42
0.42

Source: Khurmi & Ghupta (2006) Machine Design

xxxvii

3.3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF THE MACHINE

In the recycling of polythene, the polythene is gravity fed from a
top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. When the
material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear
of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating
screw forces the plastic material forward into the barrel which is
heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. A
heating profile is set for the barrel in which two or more
independent controlled heater zones gradually increase the
temperature of the barrel from the rear (where the plastic enters)
to the front. This allows the plastic material to melt gradually as
they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer. Extra heat
is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place
inside the barrel. If the extrusion line is running a certain
material fast enough, the heaters can be shut off by the
thermocouple and the melt temperature maintained by pressure
and friction alone inside the barrel. At the front of the barrel, the
molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a screen pack
to remove any contaminants in the melt. The screens are
reinforced by a breaker plate (a thick metal puck with many holes
xxxviii

drilled through it) since the pressure at this point could be very
high. The breaker plate assembly also serves to create back
pressure in the barrel. Back pressure is required for uniform
melting and proper mixing of the polymer, and how much
pressure is generated can be tweaked by varying screen pack
composition. After passing through the breaker plate, the molten
plastic enters the die. The die is what gives the final product its
profile and was designed so that the molten plastic evenly flows
from a cylindrical profile, to the product's

profile shape. The

product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by

pulling the extrudate through a water bath.

xxxix

3.4 DESIGN ANALYSIS

3.4.1 DESIGN CALCULATION FOR HOPPER
The particular section where the polythene drops assumes the
shape of a frustum. To calculate the volume of the frustum, it is
made to form a cone as shown below.
The top diameter should be three times the bottom diameter. By
similarity
3d

3d=0.54m

B
h

h=0.22m
y

E
d= 0.18m

Figure 3.1 Frustum of a cone for the hopper

y
= h + y -------------------------------------------------------(3.1)
R
r

y
0.09

0.22 + y
0.27

= 0.11

0.27y = 0.09 (0.22 + y)=0.11

y = 0.11
xl

Hence the volume of the hopper = Volume of the big cone - the
Volume of the small cone
(Vh)max=
=[

------------------------------------------------(3.2)

]-[

] =0.0176m3

= [0.0167-0.000933]
= 0.0158m3
Assuming LDPE of the plastic type is to be gravity fed, then mass
of the polythene to fill the volume of 0.0176 is given by
Mp=Vh [Density of LDPE is 0.91-0.94g/cm3]--------------------(3.3)
=9200.0158=14.53kg
Weight of the polythene material required to fill the hopper is
thus Wp=Vhg---------------------------------------------------------(3.4)
=14.539.81=142.59N
3.4.2 LENGTH OF BELT
Diameter of driver pulley= 0.1m
Diameter of driven pulley= 0.065m
Pitch distance between driving shaft X=?
Length of belt L =

+2 +

"

# ---------------(3.5)

The centre to centre distance was obtained using

xli

X=(

d1 + d2
)+ d1 : X is the distance between the centre of 2 pulleys2

---------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.6)
Source: Khurmi and Gupta (2009) Theory of Machines

X=

0.1 + 0.065

+ 0.1
2

=0.1825m
Length of belt (in terms of pulley diameter)
+

L=
=

+2 +

"

0.1 0.065
3.142
0.1 + 0.065 + 2 0.1825 )
*
4 0.1825
2
=0.625m

3.4.3 MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY SHAFT

Tmax=

, d3--------------------------------------------------------(3.7)

Where , = Permissible shear stress of the shaft material, 42MPa

ds= Diameter of the shaft
Tmax=

=201.15N
Tmax=1.2Tmean----------------------------------------------------------(3.8)
Tmean=

. /

=167.6N

xlii

3.4.4 VELOCITY RATIO OF BELT DRIVE

0
0

!1

!1

-------------------------------------------------(3.9)

Where t is thickness of belt

S is the slip and the result is to reduce the V.R
N1= speed of the driver in rpm
N2= speed of the driven in rpm
D1= diameter of the driver pulley
D2= diameter of the driven pulley
t= thickness of the belt
S= total percentage of slip (assume 2%) : Khurmi & Gupta
(2006)Machine Design
0.1 + 0.01
2
1

100
0.065 + 0.01

N2= 1500

= 1500 1.47 0.98

= 2160.9rpm
3.4.5 ANGLE OF WARP

sin 7 =

8
"

(in radians)-------------------------------------------(3.10)

Where,
r1 is radius of driver pulley=0.05
r2 is radius of driven pulley=0.0325
xliii

0.05 0.0325
=0.0959
0.1825

7 = sin8 0.0959 =5.5

7 =180-5.5=174.5=3.05 radians

(360= 2:;<

3.4.6 ANGLE OF CONTACT

= = 180 27

rad------------------------------------------------(3.11)

= 180 2 3.05

=3.04 rad
3.4.7 POWER TRANSMITTED BY BELT DRIVE
slack side

tight side

Driven pulley

Driving pulley
Figure 3.2 Belt and pulley
Power is transmitted by P=(T1 T2)vW---------------------------(3.12)
Where,
T1 is tension in the tight side of the belt
T2 is tension in the slack side of the belt
Torque exerted on driver pulley
TA=(T1 T2)r1--------------------------------------------------------(3.13a)
Torque exerted on driven pulley

xliv

TB=(T1 T2)r2-------------------------------------------------------(3.13b)
Where r1 and r2 are radius of the driver and driven pulley
respectively
V= Linear velocity of the belt
V=

@A B
+

-----------------------------------------------------(3.14)

Source: Khurmi and Gupta (2006) Machine design

=

3.142 0.1 1500

60

=7.86m/s
Power of electric motor= 1.5HP=1.5746=1119W
C

T1T2= -----------------------------------------------------(3.15)
D

T1T2=

1119
7.86

T1T2=142.36N
E
E

= eGH (condition for transmission of maximum power)-----(3.16)

Source: Khurmi and Gupta (2009) Theory of Machines

I
I

=J

. /

=2.117

T1=2.117T2
2.117T2T2=142.36N
T2=127.45N
xlv

T1=2.117127.45=269.81N
From equation 12: Power transmitted P=(T1 T2)vW
=(269.81127.41)7.86
=1119W
From equation 3.13a & 3.13b:
Torque on the driving pulley TA=(T1T2)r1
= (269.81 127.41)0.05
=7.12N
Torque on the driven pulley TB= (T1 T2)r2
= (269.81 127.41)0.0325
= 4.63N
3.4.8 ANALYSIS OF SHAFT
pulley

bearing

shaft
Fig 3.3 Shaft support in bearing and carrying pulley
It is necessary to identify the forces acting on the shaft. The
various shear forces and bending moment are calculated as
follows:

xlvi

According to maximum shear stress theory, maximum shear

stress on the shaft
,max= KLM + 4, -----------------------------------------------------(3.17)
Neglecting the weight of the shaft total vertical load acting on the
pulley
W= T1 + T2------------------------------------------------------------(3.18)
Bending moment can be calculated using M=

WL
----------(3.19)
4

Where W= Total vertical load acting on pulley

L= Length of shaft= 0.704m
The equivalent twisting moment and bending moment can be
obtained from
Te= K N OP + Q O1 ------------------------------------------(3.20)
Where,
Km= Combined shock and fatigue factor for bending= 1.5
Kt= Combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion= 1.0
(Khurmi et al, 2005)
Bending moment and shear force bending can occur as a result
of the applied loads on the shaft and belt tension.
From equation 3.18:
Total vertical load acting on the pulley, neglecting the weight of
the shaft W= T1 + T2 = 269.81 + 127.41= 397.22N
xlvii

From equation 20:

Bending moment M
M=

WL
397 .22 0.704
=
= 69.9N
4
4

N + K N OP + Q O1 --------------------------------(3.21)

Me=

Where Te= Equivalent twisting moment

Me= Equivalent bending moment
M= Bending moment
Equivalent twisting moment, Te= K 69.9 1.5 + 1 7.12
= 105.09Nm
Equivalent bending moment, Me= 1 S69.9 + 105.09T = 87.4Nm
2

3.4.9 DIAMETER OF THE SHAFT

This is calculated from the relationship
Te=

UVWX Y.
+

------------------------------------------(3.22)

Where ,PZ"[ 42MPa (Permissible shear stress of shaft material)

LM[ 84MPa (Bending moment ASME code for design of
transmission haft with allowance for key, Khurmi & Gupta, 2008)
2

/.

= 0.023m
xlviii

Also from bending moment

87.4=
2

- .
Y

= 0.022m

chosen diameter of shaft= 0.02m

3.5.10 HEAT SOURCE
The processing temperature of most plastic is between
163C and 200C even though they melt between 108C and
121C. In this design, we have chosen 200C as the target
temperature of the heating chamber must be raised from room
temp (25C) to 200C. For LDPE of mass 14.53kg as calculated,
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of this mass
from 25C to 200C can be obtained from
Q= S\J<] ^JJ J ]_ ;<`aJ ]J c<]J;`<d ]_ `]a cJd]`^e f_`^]T +
S\J<] ^JJ J ]_ cJd] ]J J^]`;J c<aaT +

S\J<] ^JJ J ]_ ;<`aJ ]J ]Jcf _g ]J c_]J; f_dh]J^J ]_ 200iT

Q25-200= Nij ] + Nl + Nij ] ------------------------------------(3.23)
Where M= Mass of the material= 14.53kg
ij = Specific heat capacity of material= 2.004KJ/KgK
(Determined from standard tables)
] = 12125= 96C
] = 200 121= 79C
L is the specific latent heat of fusion given to be 74.8KJ/Kg

xlix

Q25-200= (14.53 2.004 96)+(14.53 74.8)+(14.53 2.004 79)

= 6182.51KJ

3.5 ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

First of all, the support frame was fabricated from four equal
length of 200mm mild steel angle bar, the components were
welded together to form the support frame using arc welding.
The cylindrical barrel was then welded to the support frame and
the feed throat was cut with an electric grinder.
The hopper plates from mild steel were marked, chiselled out in
shapes, fitted together and welded with mild steel electrode to
form a pyramidal shape.
The loader holes on the hopper were created using an electrical
drill.
Then the designed hopper was welded to the feed throat of the
cylinder using stainless steel electrode to give a better grip.
The drive shaft was then designed with mild steel, 3mm round
bars were used in creating the screw pitch.

Radial ball bearings were used for the drive shaft and stiff
bearings for the loader to permit relative motion between shaft
and pulley.
The heating element was then attached to the cylindrical barrel
(heating chamber), it is insulated with rock mat and aluminium
surface coating to prevent heat loss.
The machine was sprayed green, reason being that recycling
represents green technology.
Finally, the motor was mounted and the machine ready for use.

li

3.6 PROJECT DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table 3.3: Design specification
Base height

605mm

Base length

700mm

Base width

415mm

Length of solid shaft

704mm

Diameter of the shaft

23mm

Diameter of loader pulley

65mm

Diameter of driver pulley

100mm

Diameter of driven pulley

70mm

Height of hopper

220mm

Diameter of extruder barrel

75mm

Length of extruder barrel

650mm

Feed throat

100mm by 40mm

Power of electric motor

1.5HP

Speed of electric motor, N

1500rpm

Steel used

Mild steel & Stainless steel

Max allowable bending moment

84MPa

Max allowable tensile stress

42MPa

Insulation material thickness

62mm

Volume of hopper

0.0158m3

Coefficient of friction between 0.25

belt & pulley

lii

3.7 COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

Table 3.4: Components
PART No

DESCRIPTION

SPECIFICATION MATERIAL

Angle iron

3 full length

Mild Steel

Steel plate

1 full length

Mild steel

Driver pulley

D 100mm

Cast iron

Driven pulley

D 70mm

Cast iron

Shaft

D23mm 704mm Mild steel

long

Extruder

3 inches

Stainless steel

12 and 10mm

Mild steel

Barrel
G

Bolts & nuts

liii

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 SOURCES OF WASTE
The most abundant of these wastes were the table water sachets,
these were followed by poly bags and other nylon wrappers. Since
it was difficult to pick up the waste from sewers and drainages
where they constitute a nuisance, they were recovered from road
side,

domestic

bins

and

dumpsites

around

the

school

environment. The experiment was carried out at a temperature of

200C.
4.2 FABRICATION TESTING AND RESULT
The fabricated polythene recycling machine was tested to
evaluate its performance. First and foremost, polythene materials
of various types, sizes and shapes were collected, sorted out,
sliced and washed. The machine was prepared for the recycling
operation by first switching on the heater (heating element), a
stop watch was used to measure the time taken for recycling per
batch and the heating lasted for about 30 minutes to enable the
barrel reach the heating temperature of 200C, an innovation
that slashed the heating time of previous machines that lasted
liv

for about 1hr10mins . The hot zone of the barrel was maintained
at this temperature. Then, the sorted polythene materials were
fed into the machine through the hopper, the 1.5HP single phase
electric motor which is the prime mover was simultaneously
switched on, the feed material was conveyed through the barrel
by means of the screw positioned inside it. The material
eventually got softened and came out of the die's orifice at the
end of the chamber. The material came out in strips and dropped
into a bucket of water kept in place. The water medium helped to
cool the resulted material fast. On subsequent testing of the
recycling machine, it was discovered no remnant of the softened
polythene inside the heating chamber had caked on cooling to
impede the rotation of the conveyor screw. In comparison to
existing recycling machines, the chamber had to be heated to
soften the remaining material before resuming operation and still
not much progress was made. In an effort to effectively discharge
the recycled polythene and improve output of yield, stainless
steel barrel was used as opposed to mild steel because of its
corrosion resistance properties. Another added advantage over
mild steel is that it does not stick to the polythene in its molten
state. It takes about 3mins to recycle a batch of plastics and the

lv

average performance of the machine is estimated to be 95.6%

efficient and the capacity of the machine is approximately
285kg/hr.
Recycling efficiency, RE=

mn1jn1 PZ22 mo pq qrp sZ21p

Specific mechanical energy=

Torque, Q =

+ C
z

1tPp 1Zupv

Cmsp C ItPp 1
wn1jn1 PZ22 x

--------(4.1)

----------------(4.2)

-------------------------------------------------(4.3)

Where S= screw speed, putting equation 4.3 into 4.2, gives

T=

+ z{|x
z1

---------------------------------------------------(4.4)

4.3 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

In actualizing the aims of this project, the performance test was
carried out after the equipment has been assembled. The
machine was started and samples of equal weighted mass of
polythene nylon bags were fed through the hopper, each time. A
stop watch was used to monitor the time taken for recycling per
batch. A 1.5HP single phase electric motor and from the test
result, the average performance of the machine is estimated to be
95.6% efficient and the capacity of the machine is approximately

lvi

285kg/hr. The test runs were carried out 6 times to obtain the
performance of the machine in table 4.1
Table 4.1: Performance test for the machine
S/N

Input

Continuous

Responses

mass

variables/parameters

(kg) (I)
Screw

Torque

Time

SME

Total

Recycling

speed

(Nm)

(secs)

(kj/kg)

mass

efficiency

(rpm)

(T)

(t)

output

(%) (RE)

(kg) (Q)
1

53

201.51

105

17.80

6.6

95.6

106

100.79

116

23.60

5.5

83.5

106

100.79

120

24.86

5.4

81.0

106

100.79

113

22.18

5.7

87.3

53

201.51

110

19.23

6.4

90

106

100.79

108

18.59

6.5

92.4

Equations above show that speed and torque is inversely

proportional to recycling time as demonstrated in figures above
drawn from the plots of table 4.1. Often, screw length is
referenced to its diameter in terms of an L:D ratio, it was
observed that the length per unit diameter L/D affects the mixing
shear and the resistance time of the polythene material in the
extruder, the higher the ratio, the indication of a longer extrusion

lvii

barrel and the higher the mixing of the polythene inside the
barrel.
To save running cost and high energy consumption, figure
4.1(appendix) illustrates that the higher the output mass, the
lower the SME at low speed(S1). Similarly, experiments show that
for a batch process in fig 4.2 (appendix), the effect of recycling
time on the efficiency on the efficiency of the machine under the
influence of the screw speed(rpm) and torque. Decreasing screw
speed and increasing the torque while maintaining a constant
temperature results to a plot of increase in efficiency with
corresponding decrease in recycling time. This shows that the
dependence of the efficiency could be examined as a function of
time.
4.4 DISCUSION OF RESULT
During the testing of the project, it was observed that the
recycling efficiency was higher with the shaft maintaining a
steady and uniform speed as compared to previous work by Odior
et

al

where

knife

penetration

first

causes

compaction

accompanied by frictional heat. A heater profile was set up in this

design for required heating of the blend thereby eliminating the

lviii

process of cutting and heating action which partially melts the

compacted waste to produce only thick shreds.
4.5 MAINTENANCE
In order to maintain the waste polythene recycling machine, the
following guidelines are recommended:
I.

The machine should not be overloaded or its design capacity

exceeded and it must be ensured that the machine attains
sufficient speed before loading.

II.

Sufficient and proper lubrication of the bearings should be

carried out since insufficient lubricant will cause noise and
high operation temperature.

III.

The machine should not be exposed to rainfall to minimize

corrosion of the components.

lix

4.6 COST ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION OF

MACHINE
Table 4.2: Bill of engineering measurement and estimation
S/N

ITEM

UNIT

QTY

DESCRIPTION

UNIT

TOTAL

PRICE

PRICE

(N)

(N)

Shaft

3000

3000

Angle iron

1900

5700

Sheet

of 1

5000

5000

plates
4

Stainless pipe

3500

3500

Bearing

500

1500

Electric motor 1

30000

30000

Pulley

1500

4500

Belt

700

1400

Heating

3500

3500

10

Thermocouple 1

4000

4000

11

Labour

20000

20000

12

Miscellaneous

9000

15000

element

Total

97,100

lx

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
A low technology, low cost machine designed specifically for
recycling low-density polythene for use in particular applications.
The

low-density

polythene

recycling

machine

performs

satisfactorily in these conditions. It is efficient, cheap, easy to

operate

and

cheap

to

maintain. These

features

make

it

particularly suitable for the informal sector where there is little or

no technical knowledge. Its low cost when compared to existing
machinery also makes it competitive. It removes the restrictions
posed to recycling by the high cost of existing machinery,
consequently increasing recycling activities. One great advantage
to be derived from the use of this machine is that the cost of
running it is minimal compared to what it takes to a full
imported plant. The simplicity of operation of the machine
ensures that no too much technical skill is needed to operate it.
When

the

machine

is

well

maintained,

its

durability

is

guaranteed. The machine is compact, less complex and requires

no special expertise. Its maintenance cost is also lower when
compared with existing imported machinery. The machine will
also contribute favourably to environmental and economic issues.
lxi

It is affordable for small scale plastic recycling business. The

modifications introduced in the design and operation of the
plastic recycling machine, if implemented will be beneficial and
advantageous in the following:
I.

The processing of waste plastic materials will be enhanced

to achieve the production of high quality plastic products on
relatively large scale for domestic and industrial uses.

II.

The national economy will be boosted since adoption of such

machines will help in reducing the importation of similar
machines, maximize the use of local materials, save cost
and conserve foreign exchange.

III.

The

machine

is

recommended for local entrepreneur

because of its cost effectiveness, simplicity and availability

of parts. It reduces drastically the labour, fatigue and cost
involved in the production of plastic products under
environmentally friendly conditions.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
This machine is very suitable for the developing economy and
environment. It is not only helpful to the setting up of recycling
activities which in turn affect the environment and economy, it is

lxii

also a very good source of self employment. It has the capacity to

reduce

employment

in

developing

countries

like

ours.

recommend this machine to the informal sector of the Nigerian

economy and other developing nations. I also recommend it to
the young entrepreneur and those who are unemployed. It is
cheap to obtain, easy to maintain and possess ability to generate
substantial income in a period of time. I therefore recommend
that subsequent work on plastic recycling should be focused on
further improvement and incorporation of this machine. The
following suggestions can be adopted:
1. A cooling system should be incorporated in the design to
automatically cool the pellets of the plastic materials
recycled.
2. The use of diesel or petrol powered engine to eliminated
dependency on the epileptic electric power supply.
3. A feedback system that automatically re-feeds plastic which
have not been recycled.
4. The process of sorting and cleaning that precedes the
recycling should be efficient so that the plastics will be dried
before recycling to aid easy recycling.

lxiii

REFERENCES
Anaekwe E. N, (2010), Nylon and Plastic Recycling Plants in
Nigeria, development report, 29th July.
Babajide. K (2004): ''Polythene Products and our Environment''
Vanguard Newspaper, 15th July, P. 20.
Bamisaiye O. P (2010) Design and Development of a Low Density
Polythene Recycling Machine, P. VIII.
Callister W. D JR. & Rethwisch D. G, (2012) fundamentals of
Materials Science and Engineering: An Integrated approach, 4th
Edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Friedman L. S,

(2009), Garbage and Recycling, Green haven

Press, Cengage Learning.

Friends of the Earth (2000), Beyond the Bin, Economics of Waste
Management Option, a summary option, P. 27.
Khanna O. P. (2005): ''A Textbook of Production Technology'' New
Delhi, Dhanpat Rai Publications Ltd P. 87.
Khurmi, R.S & Gupta, J.K. (2005), A textbook of Machine Design,
New Delhi-110055, Eurasia Publishing House.
Khurmi R. S & J.K. Gupta (2010), Theory of Machines, Eurasia
Publishing House, Pvt, Ltd.
Myer. K, (2011) Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook, Elsevier
Inc.

lxiv

Odior A.O., Oyawale F. A. and Odusote J. K. (2012) Development

of a Polythene Recycling Machine from Locally Sourced Materials
Vol 2, No. 6.
Onibokun A. G. and Kumuyi A. J. (1981), ''Clean up Nigeria'', A
research paper available on recycling.
Rajput, R, (2008) Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Mechanics: S.
Chand & Company Limited.
Ugoamadi C. C., Ihesiulor O. K. (2011) Optimization of the
development of a plastic recycling machine Nigerian Journal of
Technology Vol 30, No. 3.
Waste and Resource Action Programme, WRAP (2010), Final
report on Environmental benefits of recycling, March 2010.

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APPENDIX A

Belts

Electric motor

Stainless steel extruder barrel and hopper

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APPENDIX B

The designed polythene recycling machine with extruder

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