Factors that influence water consumption:

Consumer Groups:

Domestic and public use

Industrial and commercial use

Livestock use

Waterworks use

Losses and wastes ('unaccounted for' water)

Fire demand

Factors influencing water use:

Size of city

Climate and location

Industrial development

Habits and living standards

Parks and gardens

Water quality

Water pressure

Cost of water

Essential elements of water supply

Source of supply
Collection system
Treatment plant
Distribution system
The most common water treatment methods are
Plain sedimentation
Sedimentation with coagulation
Filtration
Disinfection
Treatment process for removal of impurities
Aeration
Water softening
Arsenic removal
Iron removal
Activated carbon application
Fluoridation and de-fluoridation
Demineralization
Desalinization
The following are different types of wells
Shallow wells

Deep wells
Tube wells
Artesian wells

Sewage
Sanitary/Domestic
Industrial
Storm
Sewer
Pipe of conduit which carrying sewage

Sanitary or separate sewer

o Sanitary sewage
o Industrial sewage
Storm sewer
Combined sewer

Hardness
Hardness in water is principally caused by the solution in water of carbonate,
bicarbonate and sulfate or calcium and magnesium. Sometimes iron and
aluminum cause hardness to a lesser degree.
Methods used for water softening
Heating
Freezing
Lime process
Lime and soda ash process
Excess Lime treatment
Caustic soda process
Base exchange process
Zeolete process
Demineralization or exchange process.
Effects of Hardness
Enough consumption of soap
Clogs skin, discoloures porcelain, stains and shortens fabrics, toughens and

discolours vegetables
Gives difficulty in textile and paper manufacture, tannery and other

industrial processes.
Form scales in boilers, resulting in great heat transfer losses and danger of

boiler failure.
Very hard water is not palatable

Water transmission and distribution system

Gravity flow system
Direct pumping

Pumping and Storage system

Different types of pipes

Cast Iron
Steel
Pre-stressed concrete
R.C.C
Water Supply Engineering
A.C. Pipes
Galvanized Iron (G.I)
P.V.C and plastic pipes
Diseases transmitted by fl y

Ty phoid fever
Paratyphoid fever
Bacillar y dysenter y
Amoebic dysenter y
Infantile diar rhea
Pinwor m
Roundwor m
Whipwor m
Hookwor m
Ta pewor m

Test for environmental engineering

Determination of Iron Concentration of Water

Determination of Sulfur from a Soluble Sulfate Solution
H
Determination of P
of water

Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination
Determination

of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of

Pumps classification:

Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)

Alkalinity of Water
Ammonia in an Ammonium Salt
Chlorine Concentration of Water
Arsenic
Hardness of Water
Dissolved Oxygen
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen Demand (COD)
Turbidity of Water

By types of service
o Deep well pumps
o Low lift pumps
o High lift pumps
o Booster pumps
o Fire service pumps
o Stand by pumps

By power source
o AC powered pumps
o DC powered pumps
o Oil powered pumps
o Gas powered pumps
o Diesel powered pumps
o Solar water pumps
o Hand pumps
o Electromagnetic pumps
o Hydraulic ram pumps
o Steam pumps

By Mechanical principal of operation

o Reciprocating or Displacement pumps
o Centrifugal pumps (Roto-dynamic pumps)
Drinking water Standards

Quality
Total Dissolved Solids
Turbidity

WHO (mg/l) (ppm)

500
5

Colour

15

Temperature
Taste and Odour

50
Water should be completely free from taste and
odour

Arsenic

( As )

0.005

Chloride

( C i)

200

PH
Iron

78

( Fe )

0.25

N O3 )
Nitrate (

( Mn )

Manganese

( SO 4 )

Sulphate

( Ca )

Calcium
Zinc

50

( Zn )

0.05
200
75
5

( Mg )

Magnesium

( Cz )

Chromium

( Cd )

Cadmium

75
0.05
0.005

Copper

( Cu )

1.0

Barium

( Ba )

1.0

Cyanide

( Cn )

0.01

Fluoride
Silver

( Ag )

0.5
0.05

Total Hardness

100

Total Alkalinity

100

Future Population
Pf =P p (1+r )n
Where,

Pf =Future population
P p=Present population
r=rate of yarly population growt h
n=Number of years be considered

General characteristics of groundwater and surface water

Ground
Constant composition
High mineralization
Little turbidity
Low or no color
Bacteriologically safe
No dissolved oxygen
High hardness
H2S, Fe. Mn

Surface
Varying composition
Low mineralization
High turbidity
Color
Microorganism present
Dissolved oxygen
Low hardness
Tastes and odors
Possible chemical toxicity

SPT Test (ASTM D1586-58)

The SPT consists of driving a 2-inch outside diameter and 1.5 inch diameter Split
Barrel sampler at the bottom of an open borehole with a 140-lb (63.5 kg) hammer
dropped 30 inch. The sample tube is driven 6 inch into the ground and then the
number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate each 6 inch up to a depth of 18
inch is recorded. The number of blows required to achieve the final 12 inch
penetration is the Standard Penetration resistance, N. The N value is the number
of blows to drive the sampler the last 12 inch, expressed in blows per foot,
expressed in blows per foot. After the penetration test is completed, the sampler is
retrieved from hole. The split barrel is opened, the soil is classified, and a moisture
specimen is obtained. After the test, the bore hole is extended to the next test
depth and the process is repeated.

Different types of test for finding properties of soil.

Static Pile Load Test (Axially Loaded Compression/Tension, Transversally

Loaded)
Pseudo-Static Pile Load Test (Axially Loaded Compression)
Dynamic Pile Load Test (Axially Loaded Compression)
Plate Load Test on Soil Ground
Plate Load Test on Soils for Road
Rigid Plate Load Test on Rocks
Large Plate Load Test with Repeat Anchor
Plate Load Test for Deep Piers

Plate Load Test for Deep Borehole

Laboratory Tests of Soil

Properties
Grain size distribution
Consistency

Test
Sieve analysis and hydrometer test
Liquid limit
Plastic limit

Compressibility
Compaction Characteristics
Unit Weight
Shear Strength
1. Cohesive Soils
2. Non-cohesive soils
3. General

Plasticity index
Consolidation
Standard proctor, Modified proctor
Specific Gravity
Corresponding Tests:
1. Unconfined Compression test
2. Direct Shear test
3. Tri-axial test

Field Tests of Soil

Properties

Test

Compaction control

Moisture Density relation

In place density
Vane shear test

Shear Strength (Soft Clay)

Relative Density (Granular Soil)

Field density

Penetration test
Core Cutting
Sand replacement
Permeability
Pumping test
Soil Sampling and resistance of the Standard Penetration test
soil to penetration of the sampler
Bearing Capacity

Split Barrel Sampling

Corresponding Tests

Pavement
Footing
Piles

CBR, Plate Beating test

Plate Bearing test
Corresponding Tests

Vertical Piles
Batter Piles

Load Test
Lateral Load Test

Methods of boring

Wash boring
Rotary drilling
Percussion drilling
Auger boring
Core Boring

Coefficient of compressibility

The ratio of void ratio difference to the effective pressure difference of two
different loadings during primary consolidation.

Geo-textiles
A synthetic fabric used to stabilize soils, retain soils, prevent the mixing of
dissimilar soils, provide a filtering function, pavement support, sub grade
reinforcement, drainage, erosion control and silt containment. See Geo-synthetics
for additional information and publications.
N-Value
Also, standard penetration resistance. The number of blows required to drive a
split-spoon sampler during a standard penetration test a distance of 12 inches
(0.305 m) after the initial penetration of 6 inches (0.15 m).
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

A field test that measures resistance of the soil to the penetration of a standard
split-spoon sampler that is driven 12 inches (0.3 m) with a 140-pound (63.5 kg)
hammer dropped from a height of 30 inches (0.76 m). The N-value is derived from
this test.

Physical properties
Density, porosity, voids content, moisture content, specific gravity,
permeability and structure (micro or macro).
Mechanical properties
Strength, a measure of maximum load per unit area, stiffness measure of
deformation capacity. Hardness.
Chemical properties
Composition, potential reaction
Thermal properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity
Electrical
Electrical conductivity
Magnetic
Magnetic permeability
Acoustical
Sound transmission
Optical
Colour, light transition, light reflection
For each the above properties, there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of
provoking different responses.
Terminology of Properties
Brittleness: The tendency of a material to break with little or no elongation before
it undergoes plastic deformation. Materials that fail in tension at relatively low
value of strain are classified as brittle materials.
Ductility: The ability of certain materials to be plastically deformed without
fracture. It is the physical property of being capable of sustaining large plastic
deformations without fracture.
Elasticity: The ability to deform and return to the unreformed shape. This follows
hooks law.
Hardness: The resistance to deformation and forced penetration. In materials
science, hardness is the characteristics of a solid material expressing its resistance

to permanent deformation. In other words, Hardness is the resistance to wear. It is

measured by Mohs scale.
Malleability: The ability of a material to take a new shape when hammered or
rolled.
Tensile strength: The maximum tensile load that can be applied before a material
fracture.
Toughness: The ability to withstand cracking, as opposed to brittleness.
Toughness is the ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. It is the resistance of
a materials to fracture when stressed.
Yield Strength: The load at which the material stops elastically deforming, and
starts permanently deforming.
Stiffness: It is the resistance to deform in the elastic range. Stiffness is the
resistance of an elastic body to deflection or deformation by an applied force. The
stiffness K of a body that deflects a distance d under an applied force P is
K=

Unit: Force per unit length

Modulus of Resilience: The area under the elastic part of the stress strain curve.
Modulus of Toughness: The area under the entire stress strain curve.
Stress: The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called stress.
Mathematically,
Stress,

P
A

Normal Stress: The stress acting perpendicular to the cut surface is called normal
stress.
Strain: The change in length or deformation is referred as Strain. The resulting
state of stress and strain is called uniaxial stress and strain.
Mathematically, the ratio of change in shape to the original shape is termed strain.

Strain,

Where,
= Strain
= Deformation
L = Length
Exercise: A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected to an axial
tensile force of 100 KN. The measured elongation is d = 1.5 mm. Calculate the
tensile stress and strain in the bar.
Solution

Stress,

Strain,

P
=
A

100
252 =203.72 N/mm2 = 204 MPa
4
1.50
=0.0004286
3.5 1000

=4.310-4

Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in length to the original length is termed
longitudinal strain.
Shearing strain: Shearing strain is defined as the angle of shear measured in
radians.
Shear force: Shearing is defined as a force that works perpendicular to the
extension of an object. Shearing force is other than tensile or compressive force
which acts parallel to a plane and produce sliding or skewing type of deformation.
Shear Stress: The intensity of internal distributed force that is parallel to the
surface of an imaginary cut surface is called the shear stress on the surface.
Shearing stress is a stress where the stress is parallel to a force of the material to
prevent sliding.
It is denoted by ,
=

S h ear force
Area under s h ear

Hooks Law: Within the elastic limit of a solid material, the deformation (strain)
produced by a force (stress) of any kind is proportional to the force. If the elastic
limit is not exceeded, the material returns to its original shape and size after the
force is removed, other it remains deformed or stretched. The force at which the
material exceeds its elastic limit is called 'limit of proportionality. Discovered in
1676 by the UK scientist and inventor Robert Hooke (1635-1703).
In generalized form, Hooke's law in says that strain is directly proportional to
stress.
=E.
E is a constant known as the modulus of elasticity or Young Modulus.
Young Modulus: Young's Modulus also known as the Elasticity Modulus of a
material is the ratio of the stress versus the strain within the Elastic region of the
Stress-Strain diagram.
Elasticity Modulus = Stress / Strain
This is usually found from the slope of the stress vs. strain curve.
Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus: It is the shearing modulus of elasticity,
which according to hooks law is the constant of proportionality between shearing
stress and shearing strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by Es or G.
Es or G =

S h earing Stress
S h earing Strain

E
2( 1+ )

Where,
E = Youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio
Poissons Ratio: It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. It is denoted

= x
by ,
y
Displacement: The total movement of a point with respect to a fixed reference
coordinates is called displacement.

Deformation: The relative movement of a point with respect to another point on

the body is called deformation.
Creep: Creep is defined as the increase in the strain under a sustained constant
stress after taking into account other time dependent deformations not associated
with stress. I.e., shrinkage, swelling and thermal deformations. Creep is the term
used to describe the tendency of a material to move or to deform permanently to
relieve stress. Development of strains over long periods of time is called creep.
Relaxation: It is opposed to creep. The time depended decrease of stress in any
material termed relaxation.
Fatigue: When cyclic loading is applied to a material, failure may occur at a stress
much lower than the strength under static loading. This apparent weakening of
the material is called fatigue.
Resilience: It is the ability to absorb energy in the elastic range. Resilience is
defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. It is
represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the stress strain
diagram.
What is the difference between stress and strength?
o The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called stress. But
the strength is a stress at which the material fails is called the strength.
o Therefore any strength is a stress but any stress is not strength.
Bearing Stress: The compressive normal stress that is produced when one surface
presses against other is called the bearing stress.
Strength: The stress at which the materials fails or ruptures (rupture is the
process of breaking open or bursting) is called strength.
Compressive Strength: The maximum compressive stress a material can
withstand without failure.
Crushing Strength: The compressive stress required to cause a solid to fail by
fracture; in essence, it is the resistance of the solid to vertical pressure placed
upon it.
Fatigue Strength: The maximum stress a material can endure for a given number
of stress cycles without breaking. Also known as Endurance Strength.

Flexural Strength: Strength of a material in bending, that is, resistance to

fracture.
Hydrostatic Strength: The ability of a body to withstand hydrostatic stress.
Impact Strength: Ability of a material to resist shock loading.
Shear Strength: The maximum shear stress which a material can withstand
without rupture.
Tensile Strength: The maximum tensile stress a material can withstand without
failure.
Ultimate Strength: The tensile stress, per unit of the original surface area, at
which a body will fracture, or continue to deform under a decreasing load.
Yield Strength: The stress which a material exhibits a specified deviation from
proportionality of stress and strain, that is, it indicates the end of elasticity and
the beginning of plasticity.
Proportional limit: The point up to which the stress and strain are linearly
related is called the proportional limit.
Ultimate stress: The largest stress in the stress strain curve is called the ultimate
stress.
Rupture stress: The stress at the point of rupture is called the fracture or rupture
stress.
Elastic region: The region of the stress-strain curve in which the material returns
to the unreformed state when applied forces are removed is called the elastic
region.
Plastic region: The region in which the material deforms permanently is called the
plastic region.
Yield stress: The point demarcating the elastic from the plastic region is called the
yield point. The stress at yield point is called the yield stress.
Plastic strain: The permanent strain when stresses are zero is called the plastic
strain.
Necking: The sudden decrease in the area of cross-section after ultimate stress is
called necking.

Bending Stress
o When a member is loaded with some external loading, moment & shear
force are set up at each strain. The bending moment at a section tends to
deflect the member & internal stresses tend to resist its bending. This
internal resistance is known as bending stresses.
MY
f=
I
Where,

M =Moment at considered section

.
f =Extreme fiber stresses at considered section .
I =Moment of inertiaat t h at section .

Y =Extreme fiber distance neutral axis .

f max=Maximum stress at t h e fart h est fiber i. e at Y max neutral axis

Fine Aggregate: The aggregate particles passing through sieve #4 (ASTM) and
retained in #200 sieve is called fine aggregate. The standard sieve sizes are #4, #8,
# 16, #30, #50, #100 and #200. The opening sizes of sieves are 4.75 mm, 2.36
mm, 1.18 mm, 600 m, 300 m, 150 m and 75 m respectively. The FM value of
fine aggregates varies up to 3.0. For usual construction work the value of FM of
fine aggregates i.e. fine & coarse sand varies within 1.2 2.5.

Coarse Aggregate: The aggregate particles retaining through sieve #4 (ASTM) is

called coarse aggregate. The standard sieve opening sizes are 75 mm, 63 mm, 50
mm, 37.5 mm, 25 mm, 19 mm, 12.5 mm, 9.5 mm respectively. The FM value of
coarse aggregate greater than 3. This value has an important effect on the
workability of fresh concrete.

For usual construction work the value of FM of

coarse aggregate i.e., khoa varies within 4 5.

Chemical analysis of good brick clay should give the following chemical
composition.

Compounds
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
Magnesia
Lime
Organic

Percentage
55%
30%
8%
5%
1%
1%

matters
Total

100%

The following are the characteristics of good bricks:

i. Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. The standard dimension is
240 x 115 x 70mm. (9.5 x 4.5 x 2.75 inches)
ii.

They should be sound and compact.

iii. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone
nodules, etc.
iv. They should not absorb more than about 115 of their own weight of water
when immersed in water for 24 hours 05 to 20% of dry weight).
v. The average compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 2500 psi
(as per 'LGED Road Structure Manual-B').
vi. The percentage of soluble salts (Sulphates of Calcium, Magnesium.. Sodium
and Potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in burnt bricks. Because the
presence of excess soluble salts causes efflorescence.
vii.They should be neither over-burnt nor under-burnt.
viii. The weight should be generally 2.7Kg (6 lb.) per brick and the unit weight
should be generally 2000 Kg/in' (125 lbs. /cft).
ix. They should have low thermal conductivity as it is desirable that the buildings
made of them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
x. They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
xi. Bricks should not change in volume when wet.

xii. They should give clear ringing or metallic sound when struck by another
brick or hammer.

Field Testing of Bricks

The following tests may be performed for quick and rough determination of the
quality of brick:
1. Take a brick and try to make a mark on its surface with nail. If you can do
this, it is not a good brick. If not, it is sufficiently hard and compact.
2. Take a brick and strike it with a hammer or another brick. If it gives a clear
ringing or metallic sound, it is a good brick.
3. Surfaces of good bricks should be smooth having square edges, and free
from cracks and voids.
4. Color, shape, size and structure of bricks should be uniform.
5. Take two bricks and form a 'T' as shown in the following figure and drop
from a height of 1.2m (4 ft.) to 1.5m (5 ft.) on a more or less solid surface. If
they break, they are not good bricks. If they remain unbroken, they are
good bricks.
Cement is typically made from limestone and clay or shale and sand. These
raw materials are extracted from the quarry, crushed to a very fine powder and
then blended in the correct proportions.
General constituent of cement:
Ingredient
Lime
Silica
Iron- oxide
Magnesia
Sulphar trioxide
Alkali

Limits
58-65%
20-25%
4-11%
0-4%
0-1.75%
0-3%

Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds.
The composition of a typical Portland cement is listed by weight percentage in
Table.

Weight

Abbreviatio

Percentage

Tri calcium silicate

50 %

C3S

Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2

Di calcium silicate

25 %

C2S

Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2

Tri calcium aluminate

10 %

C3A

Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3

C4AF

Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or

Cement Compound

Tetra calcium

10 %

aluminoferrite
Gypsum or Calcium
Sulphate

Chemical Formula

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
CaSO4.2H2O

5%

Initial setting time indicates the beginning of the setting process when the cement
paste starts losing its plasticity.
Final setting time is the time elapsed (passed by) between the moment water is
added to cement and the time when the paste completely lost its plasticity and can
resist certain definite pressure.
These times of set are tested according to standardized procedures and have no
special relationship to concrete setting behavior.
ASTM C 150 Specified Set Times by Test Method
Test Method
Vicat

Chemical Properties

Chemical analysis
Compound composition
Chemical limits

Physical Properties

Fineness
Soundness
Consistency
Setting time
False set and flash set

Set Type

Time Specification

Initial

45 minutes

Final

375 minutes

Compressive strength
Heat of hydration
Loss on ignition
Density
Bulk density
Sulfate expansion

Fineness of cement is also important; it affects:

Rate of hydration
Rate of setting
Rate of hardening
Durability
Rate of carbonation during storage
Cost
Rate of gypsum addition
Bleeding

American Society for Testing Materials Standard (ASTM C109)

3 -days
7 -days
28 -days

1740 psi
2760 psi
4060 psi

(12.0 MPa)
(19.0 MPa)
(28.0 MPa)

The compressive strength is governed by the following factors:

w/c ratio

characteristics of cement

characteristics of aggregates

time of mixing

degree of compaction

temperature and period of curing

age of concrete

air entertainment

conditions of testing

Allowable slumps for various constructions

Slumps
Type of Construction
RCC Foundation walls & Footings
Plain Footings, caissons & substructure walls
Slabs, beams & reinforced walls
Building columns
Pavements
Heavy mass constructions

mm
25 75
25 75
25 100
25 100
25 75
25 - 50

Inch
1
1
1
1
1
1

3
3
4
4
3
2

Admixture
1.

Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease the

water content at the same workability;

2.

Retard or accelerate time of initial setting;

3.

Reduce or prevent shrinkage or create slight expansion;

4.

Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding;

5.

Reduce segregation;

6.

Improve pump ability;

7.

Reduce rate of slump loss;

8.

Retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening;

9.

Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages;

10. Increase

strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural);

11. Increase

durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure,

including application of deicing salts and other chemicals;

12. Decrease
13. Control

permeability of concrete;

expansion caused by the reaction of alkalies with potentially

reactive aggregate constituents;

14. Increase

bond of concrete to steel reinforcement;

15. Increase

bond between existing and new concrete;

16. Improve

impact and abrasion resistance;

17. Inhibit

corrosion of embedded metal; and

18. Produce

colored concrete or mortar.

1. Classification based on size:Sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size:
a) Very fine sand (1/16 - 1/8 mm)
b) Fine sand (1/8 mm - 1/4 mm)
c) Medium sand (1/4 mm - 1/2 mm)
d) Coarse sand (1/2 mm - I mm), and
e) Very coarse sand (I mm. - 2 mm).

Bulking of Sand
This is increase in the volume of a given weight of sand due to the Presence of
moisture. For up to about 5 to 8 Percent Of moisture by weight of sand there is a
steady increase in volume to about 20 to 30%. The bulking of sand for small

moisture content is due to the formation of thin film of water around the sand
grains and interlocking the air in between the sand grains and the film of water.

The key factors affecting durability out of many factors:

Water Cement Ratio

Deterioration (Steel Corrosion)
Drying Shrinkage
Freezing and Thawing Action
Chemical Attack

1. Classify soil Based on grain size.

Classification System or
Name of the organization
Unified
AASHTO
MIT
ASTM

Particle size (mm)

Gravel

Sand

75 4.75
75 2
>2
> 4.75

4.75 0.075
2 0.05
2 0.06
4.75 0.075

Silt

Clay

Fines (silts and clays) < 0.075

0.05 0.002
< 0.002
0.06 0.002
< 0.002
0.075 0.002
< 0.002

2. Write the ASTM Standard Sieve Opening Size

ASTM Standard Sieve no

Sieve opening micron (0.001mm)

Inches

4.75

0.1870

3.35

0.1319

2.36

0.0929

10

2.00

0.0787

16

1.18

0.0465

20

850 m

0.0335

30

600 m

0.0236

40

425 m

0.0167

50

300 m

0.0118

60

250 m

0.0098

100

150 m

0.0059

140

106 m

0.0042

200

75 m

0.003

3. What is Effective Size, coefficient of curvature & uniformity coefficient?

This parameter is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve
corresponding to l0% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good
measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil
Uniformity Coefficient
Cu =

D60
D10

Coefficient of Curvature
C c=

Where

D60

D 30

D 230
D 60 . D 10
and

D 10

are the diameters corresponding to percents

finer than 60, 30, and 10% respectively.

4. Show D60, D30 and D10 with graph.

100%
90%
80%
70%
D60

% Finer by Mass

60%
50%
40%

D30
30%
20%
D10

10%
0
10

0.1

1
Grain Size, D (mm)

5. Define Consistency Limits (Atterberg limits).

Consistency Limits may be defined as The moisture contents of a soil at the
points where it passes from one stage to the next are called consistency
limits or Atterberg limits.
On the other hand, The moisture content, in percent, at which the soil
changes from a liquid to a plastic state, is defined as the liquid limit (LL).
The moisture content, in percent, at which the soil changes from a plastic to
a semisolid state and from a semisolid to a solid state are defined as the
plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage limit (SL), respectively. These limits are
referred to as Atterberg limits.
6. Difference between Compaction & Consolidation
Compaction

Consolidation

It is a dynamic Process
Volume reduction by removing of air

It is a static Process
Volume reduction by removing of

voids from soil grains

It
is
almost
instantaneous

water from soil grains

It is time dependent phenomenon

phenomenon
Soil is Unsaturated
Specified Compaction

Soil is always saturated

Consolidation occurs on account of

are used in this process.

techniques

a load placed on the soil

7. Briefly describe different types of gradation of soil particle with graph.

Well or Dense gradation
A well gradation is defined as a sample that is approximately of equal
amounts of various sizes of aggregate. By having a well gradation, most of
the air voids between the materials are filled with particles. A dense
gradation will result in an even curve on the gradation graph.
Uniform gradation
Uniform

gradation

is

defined

as

sample

that

has

aggregate

of

approximately the same size. The curve on the gradation graph is very steep,
and occupies a small range of the aggregate.
Gap gradation
A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate in the medium
size range. This results in only coarse and fine aggregate. The curve is
horizontal in the medium size range on the gradation graph.
Open gradation
An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little fine aggregate
particles. This results in many air voids, because there are no fine particles
to fill them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is horizontal
in the small size range.
Rich gradation
A rich gradation refers to a sample of aggregate with a high proportion of
particles of small sizes.

100

90

Well Graded
Open Graded

Uniform Graded

80

70

Percent Passing

60

50

40

Gap Graded

30

20

Dense Graded

10

0.6

0.2

0.10

0.06

0.02

0.01

0.005

0.002

Particle Size in mm (log Scale)

8. Write down the factors influencing bearing capacity of foundation.

The factors are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Depth of foundation
Size of foundation
Shape of foundation
Inclination of the load
Inclination of the foundation bed
Inclination of the ground
Ground water table

1. Write the name of test which occurs in materials lab.

Ans

Aggregate Impact Value (AIV).

The Flakiness Index
Elongation Index

Angularity Number
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Specific Gravity
Loss on Heating
Penetration
Softening Point of Bituminous
Materials
Solubility of Bituminous Materials
Flash and Fire Points
Ductility
CBR (California Bearing Ratio)

2. What are the laboratory testing of engineering materials.

Ans

Consistency test of Cement

Initial Setting Time of Cement
Direct Compressive Strength of Cement Mortar.
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate
Specific Gravity and Absorption Capacity of Fine aggregate.
Unite weight and Voids in Aggregate
Los Angeles Abrasion test for coarse aggregate
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical concrete Specimens and Cubes.
Sampling and testing of Brick for Compressive Strength and
Absorption.

Draw a neat sketch of national highway.

Right of Way
Road Margin
1m

Borrow pit
10 m

Road Margin
Berm
10 m

Slope (2:1)
3m

Road

Way
10 m

Slope (2:1)
3m

Berm
10 m

Borrow pit
10 m

1m

Section of National Highway

1. What are the lab testing of Aggregates of roadway.

Ans

1m

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Los Angeles Abrasion test

Aggregate Impact value
Aggregate Crushing Value
Soundness Test
Gradation test
Unit weight and Void test
Flakiness Index
Elongation Index
Angularity Number

2. What are the laboratory test for bituminous materials

Ans
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Specific Gravity of Semi-Solid Bituminous Materials

Loss on Heating test
Penetration test
Softening Point test
Solubility test
Ductility test
Flash And Fire Points test
Spot test
Specific Gravity test
Distillation test

3. Define flexible and rigid pavement.

Ans
Flexible pavements: Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to
the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in
the granular structure.
Rigid Pavement: A rigid pavement typically consists of a Portland cementconcrete slab resting on a sub-base course. The slab possesses beamlike
characteristics that allow it to span across irregularities in the underlying
material. When designed and constructed properly, rigid pavements provide
many years of service with relatively low maintenance.

4. What are the properties of aggregate for roadway.

Ans

Properties of aggregate

Particle size and gradation

Hardness or resistance to wear
Durability or resistance to weathering
Specific gravity and absorption
Chemical stability
Particle shape and surface texture
Freedom from deleterious particles or substances

5. What is the Difference between Flexible & Rigid Pavement

Ans
Flexible pavement

Rigid pavement

Empirical design
About 20 years of age
More maintenance
Less costly
High-strength concrete
Adopt stage constriction

Precise design strength

About 40 years age
Less maintenance
Very costly
Bituminous surfacing
No stage constriction

Maintenance are less available

Surface is rough
Utility location can be replaced

Maintenance are more available

Surface is smooth
Utility location can be due to

Penetration of water
Need street light
Environmentally not friendly
Overall life cycle is more

difficulties to break the slab

Almost impervious
Glare under sunlight
Environmentally friendly
Over all life cycle is more

Bangladesh Water Development Board Sub Assistant Engineer.

1. Draw SFD and BMD for the following diagram
10 kip

3 ft

2.

40 kip

3 ft

3 ft

3. Find vertical stress and total stress. Depth 8m, unit weight of saturated soil
18kn/m3, unit weight of water 9.81 KN/m3.
4. Size of beam 1020. Bending moment 80 kip-ft. find maximum stress.
5. What is pH. Find OH concentration for ph value 10
6. Draw D10, D20 and D50 graph for a soil sample.
7. Find FM of sand.
8. ADT = 20000. Find design hourly volume where K=0.1, D=.
9. Find discharge. Velocity of fluid 20 m/sec, dia of pipe 18 cm.
10. Design a sediment tank for 3 hours concentration period 3 hours discharge
125 liters/hour. Ratio of H: B: L = 1:1:3.
11. Estimate
12. Flow modulus of a city is given. For 25% area is 2.84, for 50% area is 3.12,
for 15% area is 15% 1.32 and for 10% area is 1.82. Find the combined flow
modulus of the city.
13. Find the FAB and FBC.

60

30
60 Kip

1.

What is the meaning of

i. FBCCI
ii. VOIP
iii. WASA
iv. ATM
v. GMT
vi. CARE
vii. SPARSO
viii. SIM
ix. MLSS
x. ICDDR
xi. RAM
xii. CAD
xiii. UNICEF
xiv. FIFA
xv. UNIFCCC
xvi. MS DOS
xvii. PVC
xviii. JICA