LRN 214- Supplementary Instructional Materials

( Summer 2015)

INTRODUCTION

Instructional materials serve as the channel between the teacher and the students in delivering the
instruction. They may also serve as the motivation on the teaching- learning process. They can be used to
get and keep the attention of the students. Good instructional materials encourage the learners to learn.
Learning materials are important because they can significantly increase student achievement by
supporting student learning.
Instructional materials support learning content, allow students to engage in the application of
concepts and provide an opportunity for evaluation. They are developed to facilitate learner
understanding.
QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS:
1. How can instructional materials enhance learning?
Making decisions is a natural part of life. One of the most important decisions faced by a teacher
is how to select instructional resources that ensure or enhance instruction. You implement the curriculum
adopted by the school district in which you teach, using state approved and district approved textbooks
and other resources provided to you. However, you are responsible for student learning, and that involves
going beyond the resources provided, if necessary, to create active, motivating learning experiences for
your students. When you choose instructional materials, they should be chosen on the basis of their
contributions to the learning outcomes rather than on the basis of availability or ease of use. Instructional
materials should relate directly to the purpose(s) and objective(s) of the lesson; extend content or provide
for remediation, reinforcement or enrichment. They should be appropriate to student differences such as
ability, achievement, interests, and learning styles.
Reasons for Use of Instructional Aids
1. It helps the students remember important information.
2.When properly used, they help gain and hold the attention of students.
3.Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and the combination of both audio and
visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved. Instructors
should keep in mind that they often are salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that
attract the attention of potential clients are well worth considering. One caution-the instructional aid
should keep student attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick..
4. Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems.
Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with
culturally diverse backgrounds of today's students, makes it necessary for instructors to be precise in
their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected
to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the instructor. They should provide an accurate
visual image and make learning easier for the student.

5. Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts.
When relationships are presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the
subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to relate to each other through the use of schematics
or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time,
frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract
relationships. Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for the student to be able toretain as much
knowledge of the subject as possible, especially the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to
determine how well instructional aids serve this purpose. Indications from the studies vary greatly-from
modest results, which show a 10 to 15percent increase in retention, to more optimistic results in which
retention is increased by as much as80 percent.
6. Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems.
Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with
culturally diverse backgrounds of today's students, makes it necessary for instructors to be precise in
their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected
to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the instructor. They should provide an accurate
visual image and make learning easier for the student.
7. Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts.
When relationships are presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the
subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to relate to each other through the use of schematics
or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time,
frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract
relationships.
2. What are the best methods for incorporating instructional materials?
Ideally, training facilities should have sufficient resources and equipment to perform classroom
and activity-based learning in a setting conducive to effective learning. However, often such facilities are
not available and instructors find themselves having to make do and adapt to training in the environment
they are given. Sometimes training will be conducted in remote or non-traditional locations. For example,
in the case of day laborers, training could be "in the field" where workers are waiting to be hired. In
other cases, you may be in a smaller room than anticipated, or there may be no electrical outlets or flip
charts in the room where you are training.
Perhaps I should also confess a bias about learning, regardless of the instructional method
employed by the teacher. The bias is that I firmly believe that the most meaningful learning for any
student is that which results from the learner constructing his own knowledge and meaning from the
subject matter content. This approach is commonly referred to a constructivism. There is a wealth of
information available on the Internet about constructivism. Just enter it into Bing or Google to see what I
mean.

Cooperative Learning
Advantages
Helps foster mutual responsibility
Supported by research as an effective technique
Students learn to be patient, less critical and more compassionate
Disadvantages
Some students don't work well this way
Loners find it hard to share answers
Aggressive students try to take over
Bright students tend to act superior
Preparation
Decide what skills or knowledge are to be learned
Requires some time to prepare students to learn how to work in groups

Brainstorming
Advantages
Listening Listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas
Encourages full participation because all ideas are equally recorded
Draws on group's knowledge and experience
Spirit of cooperation is created
One idea can spark off other ideas
Disadvantages
Can be unfocused
Needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes
Students may have difficulty getting away from known reality
If not managed well, criticism and negative evaluation may occur
Value to students depends in part on their maturity
Preparation
Teacher selects issue
Teacher must be ready to intervene when the process is hopelessly bogged down
Direct Teaching
Advantages
Very specific learning targets
Students are told reasons why content is important - helps to clarify lesson objective
Relatively easy to measure student gains
Good for teaching specific facts and basic skills
Is a widely accepted instructional method
Disadvantages
Can stifle teacher creativity
Requires well-organized content preparation and good oral communication skills
Steps must be followed in prescribed order
May not be effective for higher-order thinking skills, depending on the knowledge base and skill of the
teacher
Preparation
Content must be organized in advance
Teacher should have information about student prerequisites for the lesson

Lecture
Advantages
Factual material is presented in a direct, logical manner
May provide experiences that inspire - useful for large groups
Most efficient way to convey teacher spoken information
Disadvantages
Proficient oral skills are necessary
Audience is often passive
Learning is difficult to determine as the lecture progresses
Communication is one-way
Not appropriate for children below grade 4
Preparation
There should be a clear introduction and summary
Effectiveness is related to time and scope of content
Is always audience specific; often includes examples, anecdotes

Lecture with Discussion

Advantages
Involves students, at least after the lecture
Students can question, clarify and challenge
Lecture can be interspersed with discussion or breaks as the content and time permit
Disadvantages
Time constraints may affect discussion opportunities
Effectiveness is connected to appropriate questions and discussion; often requires teacher to "shift gears"
quickly
Preparation
Teacher should be prepared to allow questions during lecture, as appropriate
Teacher should also anticipate difficult questions and prepare appropriate responses in advance

Multimedia (computer, Internet, CD, DVD, film)

Advantages
Entertaining way of introducing content and raising issues
Internet content easily updated
Usually keeps group's attention
Cost effective way to obtain and disseminate content
May provide opportunities for independent student investigation in a wide range of topics
Disadvantages
Can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion
Distractions happen all too easily
Students working independently can easily lose focus of lesson topic
Most effective when followed by discussion
Discussion may not have full participation
Preparation
Teacher must formulate rules and communicate them to students
Need to obtain and set up equipment
Computing skills required for some applications
Most effective when teacher prepares for discussion after the presentation or activity
ROLE PLAYING
Advantages
Introduces problem situation dramatically
Provides opportunity for students to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view
Allows for exploration of solutions
Provides opportunity to practice skills
Disadvantages
Some students may be too self-conscious
Not appropriate for large groups
Can be time consuming to set up and execute
Preparation
Teacher has to define problem situation and roles clearly
Teacher must give very clear instructions
Teacher must have back up activities in case of problems

Games

Advantages
Students are usually interested in and challenged by games
Can provide opportunities for team member building skills
Feedback is usually easy to provide and is quick
When used in direct relationship to a lesson objective, can provide a stimulating experience for all
Disadvantages
Can create in-group/out-group feelings
Can demotivate those who are not competitive by nature
Can create feelings of inadequacy in those not as skilled or forceful
Can discourage creativity if the format is very rigid and the focus is strongly on winning
3. How can the value and appropriateness of commercially produced or teacher made instructional
materials be estimated?
In establishing guidelines for resource selection, materials that meet high standards of quality and
encourage critical thinking and literary appreciation remain a priority. Connections to classroom
curriculum and specific educational objectives are another essential consideration. In addition, attention
should be given to the following:
1. Illustrations. Illustrations are important because many people, especially children with developing
reading skills, form impressions based on the visual presentation of ideas. It is important that
illustrations avoid portraying characters as stereotypes or caricatures. Thought should be given as to
whether members of cultural groups, including female characters or persons with disabilities, are
depicted in passive or inconspicuous ways. An assessment should also be made to determine if the
illustrations are being used to accurately portray a certain culture or as a stereotypic representation.
2. Fiction and poetry. Novels and poems display a wide use of literary devices, such as irony, imagery,
metaphors, and stereotypes. These elements communicate meanings to students in often subtle, yet most
effective, ways. Often implicit, erroneous messages may be received by students. Therefore, these types of
literature should be analyzed for background, purpose, language, and messages about various groups.
These factors should also be explained carefully when such materials are presented to students.
3. Life Style. Presentations of lifestyles should be examined for accuracy. They should also seek to avoid
oversimplification or the implication that racial groups are limited to any one lifestyle or socioeconomic
condition. There should also be an awareness of how the family structures and relationships of various
groups are portrayed in materials.
4. Language. Words are powerful tools and convey meaning through inference and overtone. Evaluators
need to be sensitive to language which is subtly sexist or racist. They need to be aware of the ways in
which words and phrases reflect biased perspectives.
5. Heroes. Those involved in building collections of materials should analyze characters portrayed as
heroic to determine if there is a representation from all diversity groups. The characters should reflect
those qualities deemed heroic by the cultural group they represent.
6. Effect on Student's Image of Self and Others. All students seek to find images and words that
accurately reflect their own experiences, heritage, and culture. Of course, students want to, and should,
see themselves, their ancestors, and other members of their diverse group in a positive light. Materials
should also present accurate portrayals of history, including inequities experienced by various groups.
7. Author's/Illustrator's Background and Perspective. Authors and artists have their own cultural
heritage and context. Evaluators should be aware of the background and experiences of the creators of
instructional resources and of the qualifications and authority they bring to their work.
8. Copyright Date. A recent copyright date is no guarantee of sensitivity to education that is
multicultural, but it may provide more sophisticated and relevant treatment than is generally found in
older resources.
Instructional materials, including textbooks, educational media (library media print, nonprint,
and electronic resources), computer software, videotapes, films, DVDs, and instructional television
programs represent fundamental resources for schools for enhancing instruction, furthering the pursuit

of knowledge, and providing experiences of educational significance for class groups or for individual
students. It is the shared responsibility of the State and District to provide an adequate number and
range of instructional materials and resources in a variety of formats that are appropriate, timely, and
essential to the attainment of specified educational objectives. It is also the responsibility of the State and
District to provide instructional materials that are free of bias, stereotypes, distortions, and prejudices.
4. What are the characteristics of a good textbook?
In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. There is a saying "As
is the text-book, so is the teaching and learning". A good text-book can even replace class-room teaching.
The science text-book should aim at aiding the pupils in the development of their personalities, in
developing open mindedness, developing appreciation and understanding of nature and not merely
stuffing their minds with facts.
Characteristics of a good text-book:
1 . The author: A good text-book is judged, at face, by the author, his qualification and experience.
2. Mechanical features of the text-book:
a) The print and paper used and the binding of the text-book should be attractive. It should be hard and
durable.
(b) The printing should be clear, legible and appropriately spaced.
(c) The book should be well-illustrated with diagrams, sketches and pictures.
(d) The size of the print, the language and experiments discussed should suit the age of the child and
standard of the child.
3. The subject matter-its nature and organization:
(a) The subject-matter should be developed as far as possible in psychological sequence. Care must be
taken of the mental growth and interest of pupils.
(b) There should be consistency of the subject-matter and the text-book should satisfy the objectives of
science teaching.
(c) Each chapter should begin with a brief introduction and end with a summary. ^
(d) Subject-matter should lead to the inculcation of scientific attitudes, disciplinary and cultural values.
(e) Each chapter should contain assignments at the end.
(f) During treatment of subject-matter, numerical examples should find place where necessary.
(g) Headings and sub-headings are given in bold letters.
(h) Each text-book should contain detailed Table of Contents and an index.
(i) The language of the book should be simple, clear, lucid, scientific and precise. The English equivalents
of the terms should be always given in brackets.
(J) The text-book should give suggestions for improving scientific apparatus.
{k) Examples in the text-book should be given from local environment and from life experience.
(l) During the treatment of science subject in the text-book, care should be taken to see that it is
correlated with other subjects like craft, social environment and physical environment.
(m) Each text-book should be accompanied by a laboratory manual.

Besides these characteristics, the UNESCO Planning Mission has given some principles of writing textbooks in U.S.S.R. and other countries. They are as follows:
(i) It should be first of all according to the requirements of the syllabus. It should also help in the
improvement of the syllabus.
(ii) The facts, concepts etc., should be modern and within the comprehension of the pupils.
(iii) The contents should contain not only the established facts but also the problems which are being
researched and thereby, arousing the interest in the pupils in these problems.
(iv) It should help in linking up science with life and practice. The pupils should be equipped with 'knowhow' utilizing the knowledge in everyday life.
(u) The whole content of the text-book should be aimed at shaping the integrated modern scientific
outlook which ensures success in mastering scientific knowledge and solution of the problems of vital
issues. The content should be simple, brief, exact, definite and accessible.
5. How is the reading level of textbook determined?
When determining a reading level, it's important to take your individual reader's ability and
interests into consideration. It's also good to remember that not... every bookstore organizes their books
in the same categories. When in doubt, it's always a good idea to ask your friendly bookseller for
clarification and advice. School reading tests also offer online lists, where you can match your child's
reading level to a list of recommended books that challenge them to increase their reading
capabilities.Just remember, the farther up the age ladder, the more complex the plots get and the more
grown-up the subject matter. There's an extremely wide variety of books available at every reading level,
so there's sure to be at least one that captures your reader's imagination.

To determine reading level on your own, note a books length, complexity and vocabulary. Arizona
State University instructor Diann Christensen adapted guidelines from Irene C. Fountas and Gay Su
Pinnells widely used Guided Reading Level. Kindergarten books, levels A and B, typically have eight
pages or less with pictures and use repetition and subjects familiar to young readers. Books at level J,
such as Where the Wild Things Are, are longer, with more adjectives and adverbs and a wider range of
themes. You can use an informal assessment to find out if a particular book is right for a reader. The
National Institute of Professional Practice, in partnership with Wilkes University, recommends having
students read selections aloud. Count the words each student stumbles over. If the student misses only
one in 20 words, the book is easy for her; if she misses more than one in 10, it is difficult. You can
encourage students, when reading to themselves, to count the words they dont know to help them
determine reading level for themselves.
6. Why are workbooks often criticized?
Workbooks have often been criticized for being a mish-mash of lessons. A spelling workbook, for
example, which is probably the most popular type of workbook, is often a mixture of spelling words,
punctuation, grammar, and capitalization. It is no doubt true that not every student needs every exercise
in a spelling workbook; however, individualization of instruction has not gotten (anywhere near) to the
point where a student is working only on work that he or she needs. Many or most of the exercises in a
student's workbook are probably useful. Workbooks are a marvelous invention and should not be readily
dismissed. When students are properly placed in a good workbook, the workbook can keep them
purposefully learning hour after hour. When students are working in a workbook, the teacher is free to
work with other students.
Many of the learning materials referred to in the subject-matter lists (accessed from Section III of the
homepage) are on blackline masters, that is, they are reproducible by the page. They can be copied in
quantity and stored in folders, or they can be laminated as single copies. In any case, these kits must be
organized and clearly labeled. One-time use of a kit is probably counterproductive because of
management problems; a student who uses a kit should use the pages sequentially over a period of weeks

or months. Records of a student's use of a kit must be kept, both by the teacher and by the student. The
student manager of a kit must keep it orderly and stocked.
How can they be improved?
A criteria rubric was created that was divided into student concerns and teacher concerns. Each of
these two smaller rubrics was divided into five and six categories, respectively. Categories were chosen
for both the student concerns rubric and the teacher concerns rubric based upon existing research [1,7].
The student concerns rubric dealt with topics valuable for student understanding of material. The
criteria for this rubric were as follows: "Amount of information per page," "New vocabulary fully
explained," "Reads left to right and top to bottom logically," "Readability Average" (using the Fry
Readability Test), and "Potential student interest of material." These topics were chosen after a review of
relevant literature, which argued that these criteria, when taken together, help foster student
understanding of material.
7. What problems might the teacher encounter in providing journals, magazines, or newspapers in the
class?
Materials for the provision of Multigrade Teaching in the classroom are an essential aspect of any
discussion of Multigrade Teaching. On the one hand, there is not a considerable amount of materials
support at the other hand multigrade teaching is often associated with schools in remote and difficult
contexts dealing with rural and other disadvantaged persons, with the result that there are few resources
available, given the poverty of the region in which this type of teaching is found. Multigrade teachers
have, therefore, to work in a considerably negative context in terms of materials support.
The provision of teaching-learning materials is constrained by limited financial resources.
The poverty of many of the regions where Multigrade Teaching is to be found in such that collaborative
development and sharing of materials is necessary if the teaching is to improve in quality.

Inappropriate curriculum and instruction can lead to many types of problem behaviors among
students with learning disabilities. Students may:

Feel bored with curriculum that is beneath their ability, or involving material that is not
interesting to them;

Be embarrassed if material is not appropriate for their age levels;

Become frustrated if material is too difficult; or

Feel like giving up if instructional delivery is too rapid.

8. What are the best methods for incorporating simulations and games into lessons?
There are educationally useful computer games that are not simulation games because the games
do not to any significant degree represent real-world systems and situations. In general such games tend
to focus on teaching factual content. Simulation games, however, offer models of real-world systems,
relationships, and scenarios. Their ability to immerse players in dynamic interpretations of the past is
their primary strength. Therefore, the most critical question for a teacher evaluating a simulation is: How
reasonably does the game simulate the aspects of the real world that will be studied?
Given the constraints of the classroom, the time required to learn and play the game meaningfully
is perhaps as important as the reasonableness of the games interpretations. There are no hard and fast
rules for determining the difficulty of a game. While some students may find a game easier to play than
the teacher, it is simply not the case that adolescents are categorically skilled at playing computer games.
The teacher must consider how long it will take to learn to play a given game and make preparations to
instruct students who have difficulty. Likewise, there is no simple formula for assessing how long it will
take to play a game sufficiently to understand and analyze its models. The minimum amount of time
required to play a game is not the same as the amount of time needed to appreciate a game in-depth.

9. What is the main purpose of using instructional materials?

Instructional materials are highly important for teaching, especially for inexperienced teachers.
Teachers rely on instructional materials in every aspect of teaching. They need materials
for backgroundinformation on the subject they are teaching. Young teachers usually have not built up
their expertise whenever they enter into the field. Teachers often use instructional materials for lesson
planning. These materials are also needed by teachers to assess the knowledge of their students. Teachers
often
assess
students
by
assigning
tasks,
creating
projects,
and
administering
exams. Instructional materials are essential for all of these activities.
Teachers are often expected to create their own lesson plans. This can be difficult, especially if the
teacher has limited background knowledge on the subject. Teachers are expected to have a wide variety
of expertise in many different fields. Often, they need instructional aides to supplement their
knowledge. Instructional materials can help provide background knowledge on the subject the teacher is
planning for, and offer suggestions for lesson plans. Lesson planning is often the most stressful aspect of
teaching. Teachers are usually dependent on them to do their job properly.
Assessing students correctly can sometimes be a challenge. There is some controversy about the
effectiveness of exams in assessing the ability of students. Instructional materials can offer some insight
into the best methods of creating exams. These materials can also help teachers create assignments and
project ideas for students. Teachers are required to use several different methods for assess their students
in order to provide the most accurate assessments. Instructional materials often provide innovative and
creative ways to assess students performance. It is hard to imagine any teacher who is capable of
teaching effectively without the accompaniment of instructional materials. In addition to this, any teacher
who is deprived of instructional materials most likely experiences stress and anxiety on a daily basis.

10. Is there a danger in using too many materials in a class? Explain.

Look at the effectiveness of teaching modalities. Lecture is the absolute worse teaching modality
for retention of material. Students who act as a teacher tend to have the best retention. Rather than try
to be a presenter all the time, you need to get your students to actively participate in the material.
Perhaps oral presentations might be a good choice, or perhaps having students prepare their own
instructional
materials.
As a teacher, it may be smarter to teach less and let the students do more of the work. Minimum effort,
maximum effect.
Well, in general, if you have too many, the class can become unfocused, as you race from one
example/exhibit/activity to another. Better to use a few well than a whole bunch not so well. Beyond that,
I suppose it depends on what you mean by "danger" and what the class is. If you have a lot of
instructional materials, it can be hard to keep track of them all. And if the class is something like
"explosive ordnance demolition", there's definitely a danger in having too much.

References:
cet.usc.edu/resources/teaching_learning/docs/teaching_nuggets_docs/...

: http://www.ehow.com/how_2042199_determine-reading-level-book.html
yahoo.com Education & Reference Homework Help
www.ehow.com Education K-12 K-12 For Educators
www.gistarea.com/instructional-materials-teaching-examples-importanc
www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9607&page=23
www.neola.com/miamidade-fl/search/policies/po2510.htm
www.journalsbank.com/ejhss_2_4.pdf
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation
teachinghistory.org/nhec-blog/25225 C