PART 1

BASIC ELECTRONICS
ELECTRONICS
Science dealing with the study and applications of devices, circuits and systems involving the flow of electrons
in solid, liquid, gas or vacuum
Trace of Important Events in Electronics History
1901 Radio
1906 Vacuum tube triode(Dr. Lee de Forest)
1947 Transistor (Dr. William Shockley)
1958 Integrated Circuits
1971 - Microprocessors

I. APPLICATIONS
1. COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONICS
Includes AM radio, FM radio with stereo and television
Equipments are divided into either transmitter or receivers
Satellite communications being a transmit-receive system
2. ELECTRIC POWER
Applications in any system involving generation and distribution of 60-Hz ac power
Includes lighting, heating, motors and generators
3. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Operates using pulses of currents and voltages which illustrates an on and off condition, high and low, 0 and 1
4. AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS
Used of electronic equipments in vehicles for battery charging, power assist functions, measuring gages and
control of engine
One of the best application is electronic ignition
5. INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
Use of electronics in welding, control, detection and computer-controlled machinery
6. MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
Used of electronics principle in medical research, diagnosis and treatment with the aid of electronic equipment

II. VACUUM TUBES

Dominated electronics in the early 1900s
Used in special applications such as CRTs, high power RF amplifiers and high power microwave devices
Typically tubes consume large amount of power, larger in size and produce more heat that is why they are less
reliable than semiconductor devices
1. VACUUM TUBE DIODE
Fleming Valve
Developed in 1904 by john Ambrose Fleming
Component that conduct current in one direction from cathode to anode
It has heater that is connected to an AC power source and filament that heats the cathode element inside the
tube to a high temperature
Electrons are produced from the cathode through thermionic emission
Used as a rectifier
Problem: existence of space charge (cloud of electrons emitted from the cathode bit does not have sufficient
energy to reach the plate)

2. VACUUM TUBE TRIODE

 Audion
Developed in 1906 by Lee de Forest
Addition of a control grid to eliminate space charge
Has three electrodes anode, cathode and control grid
Used as an amplifier
Problem: interelectrode capacitance and very high grid to plate capacitance

3. VACUUM TUBE TETRODE

Developed in 1926 by Henry Round
It has 4 electrodes, anode, cathode, control grid and screen grid
Screen grid reduces the grid to plate capacitance, it must have + dc voltage
Problem: secondary emission from plate

4. VACUUM TUBE PENTODE

Developed in 1928 by Tellegen and Hist
It has 5 electrodes and 3 grids
Suppressor grid suppresses the effect of secondary emission
Has lesser grid to plate capacitance
Expensive and noisy

III. BASICS of ELECTRONICS

1. ELECTRONIC EMISSION
Process of liberating an electron from the surface of a material
a. Thermionic
Primary, hot cathode
Application of heat energy
b. Photoelectric
Used of light energy
c. High Field Emission
Cold cathode
Collision of some electrons
d. Secondary Emission
Application of strong electric field at the surface of metal
Work Function (Wf)
Energy needed by an electron to be emitted from the surface of the material
2. CLASSIFICATIONS of MATERIALS
a. Conductor

 Number of valence electrons is 1 3 with very high conductivity

b. Semiconductor
Number of valence electrons is 4 with intermediate conductivity
c. Insulator
Number of valence electrons is 5 - 8 with very low conductivity
3. SEMICONDUCTORS
Material that has conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor
Most common semiconductor includes Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Advantages of silicon over germanium
Cheaper and abundant
More stable
Features of Pure Semiconductor
Resistance is more than conductor but lesser than insulator
Negative temperature coefficient
Electron valence is 4
Covalent Bonds
The union of atoms sharing valence electrons
In the case of semiconductors, atoms do not usually gain or lose the electrons but share them with neighboring
atoms resulting in an outer configuration with 8 outer electrons following the octet rule
Octet Rule specifies that atom is physically, chemically and electrically stable if it has 8 valence electrons
Crystal Structure
Definite geometrical form of the internal atoms
Diamond is an example of the crystalline structure for pure carbon
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor without any doping
Semiconductors whose number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes
Example is pre germanium that was discovered in 1886 and silicon discovered in 1823
Intrinsic Ge has only 1/1000 the resistance of Si but Si allows less leakage current
At absolute temperature it is insulator
At room temperature still insulator
Net charge is neutral

Extrinsic Semiconductor
Not in the natural form because it is the result of doping
DOPING is the addition of impurity atoms to alter the electrical characteristics of the semiconductor
Typically the addition of impurity has a ratio of 1 impurity atom to 1 x 10 8 intrinsic atoms
The difference is that an intrinsic semiconductor has only covalent bonds for all the atoms but extrinsic
semiconductor has free charges as a result of doping
N Type Doping

Addition of Donor impurity elements (with 5 valence electrons or pentavalent atoms) to form N-type
semiconductor
Doping Agents
1. Phosphorus
2. Arsenic
3. Antimony
4. Bismuth
Excess electron introduces electron flow
Number of electrons (majority carrier due to doping) is greater than the number of holes(minority carrier due to
temperature)
N-type is electrically neutral

P Type Doping

Addition of Acceptor impurity elements (with 3 valence electrons or trivalent atoms) to form P-type
semiconductor
Doping Agents
1. Boron
2. Aluminum
3. Gallium
4. Indium
Extra hole creates hole flow
Number of electrons(minority carrier) is lesser than number of holes(majority carrier)
P-type is electrically neutral

TEST YOURSELF 1
Review Questions
1. A vacuum tube has electrodes confined inside an evacuated________.
a. Glass envelope only
b. Metal envelope only
c. Either glass or metal envelope
d. Plastic envelope
Answer c. Either glass or metal envelope
2. Calculate the velocity needed by an electron to be emitted from the surface of a tungsten material whose work function is 4.52 eV
a. 1.3 Mm/s
b. 2.3 Mm/s
c. 3.3 Mm/s
d. 4.3 Mm/s
Answer a. 1.3 Mm/s
Solution
Wf =

v=

1
mv2
2

therefore

v=

2 Wf
m

2( 4.52)(1.6 x10 19 )
9.11x10 31

v = 1.26 Mm/s
3. In which of the following applications vacuum tubes in a radio transmitter are used to.
a. Public addressing system
b. Radio receivers
c. Radio transmitters
d. electroplating
Answer b. Radio receivers
4. The emission of electrons in a vacuum tube diode is achieved by
a. electrostatic field
b. magnetic field
c. heating
d. electron bombardment
Answer c. heating

5. When an electron moves through a potential difference of 10 Volts, the energy acquired by it will be
a. 10 ergs
b. 10 joules
c. 10 watts
d. 10eV
Answer d. 10eV
6. Secondary emission of electrons occurs when the metal surface is
a. Cooled to very low temperature
b. heated
c. Subjected to electric as well as magnetic field
d. Bombardment with high energy electrons
Answer d. Bombardment with high energy electrons
7. Which of the following electron emission process is widely used in vacuum tubes?
a. Photo electric emission
b. High field emission
c. Thermionic emission
d. Secondary emission
Answer c. Thermionic Emission
8. Generally metals with low work function have
a. Low melting point
b. Non-crystalline structure
c. High hardness
d. Low specific gravity
Answer a. Low melting point
9. Which of the following emitter material has the lowest work function?
a. oxide coated
b. thoriated tungsten
c. pure tungsten
d. copper
Answer a. oxide coated
10. The work function of the oxide coated emitter material is _________.
a. 1 eV
b. 2.63 eV
c. 3.98 eV
d. 4.52 eV
Answer a. 1 eV
11. Which of the following material usually needs less than 1000 V as plate voltage?
a. Oxide coated
b. Thoriated tungsten
c. Pure tungsten
d. All of the above
Answer a. Oxide coated
12. In case of indirectly heated tubes, the heater filament is usually made of
a. manganin
b. tungsten
c. invar
d. Gold
Answer b. tungsten
13. In case of indirectly heated cathode, the cathode is in the shape of___.
a. Wire filament
b. cylinder
c. Metal strip
d. Circular
Answer b. cylinder
14. The surface of the anode is usually blacked and roughened to
a. Dissipate heat produced at the anode
b. Arrest escaping electrons
c. Retard fast electrons emitted by cathode
d. Eliminate outside interference
Answer a. Dissipate heat produced at the anode
15. A control grid is provided in the pentode tube to
a. Collect electrons from the space charge
b. Control the number of electrons moving from cathode to plate
c. Restrict the secondary emission from the plate
d. Accelerate the electron emission from the plate
Answer b. Control the number of electrons moving from cathode to plate
16. The grid of the triode is normally maintained at_______.
a. Negative potential with respect to cathode
b. Positive potential with respect to cathode
c. Zero potential
d. Same potential as that of the anode

Answer a. Negative potential with respect to the cathode

17. What will likely to happen when cathode of a vacuum tube is heated and the anode is not connected to any external circuit?
a. Electrons escape through glass tube
b. Glass tube gets charge
c. Electrons form a space charge
d. Protons are emitted from anode
Answer c. Electrons form a space charge
18. A triode can also be used as an amplifier because_______.
a. It has 3 elements like a transistor
b. Plate is a high values and less positive
c. Control grid voltage is made less negative
d. Any small change in grid is capable of causing a larger change in plate voltage
Answer d. any small change in grid is capable of causing a larger change in plate voltage
19. In a cathode ray tube, which electrode has the highest positive voltage?
a. cathode
b. anode
c. heater
d. Control grid
Answer b. anode
20. What is the unit of amplification factor?
a. siemens
b. ohms
c. amperes
d. Unitless
Answer d. Unitless
21. The value of parasitic capacitance of the triode increases as_______.
a. Current increases
b. Current decreases
c. Signal frequency increases
d. Signal frequency decreases
Answer c. Signal frequency increases
22. The control grid of the triode is usually given negative potential with respect to the cathode so as to_______.
a. Reduce the grid current to zero
b. Reduce the space charge
c. Increase the space charge
d. Restrict the space charge to a safe value
Answer a. Reduce the grid current to zero
23. In a tetrode tube, secondary emissions means the emission of
a. High velocity electrons from the cathode
b. Electrons from the plate due to bombardment of the fast moving electrons emitted from the cathode
c. Electrons from the filament due to heat energy
d. Electrons from the filament due to light energy
Answer b. electrons from the plate due to bombardment of the fast moving electrons emitted from the cathode
24. The phenomenon of secondary emission is common in_________.
a. diodes
b. triodes
c. tetrodes
d. Pentodes
Answer c. tetrodes
25. In a pentode, the suppressor grid is provided between
a. Plate and screen grid
b. Cathode heater
c. Screen grid and plate
d. Control grid and cathode
Answer a. Plate and screen grid
26. In a pentode, the suppressor grid is used to_______.
a. Limit anode voltage
b. Limit anode current
c. Dissipate heat
d. Suppress secondary emission
Answer d. Suppress secondary emission
27. Which of the following vacuum tube cannot be used as an amplifier?
a. diode
b. triode
c. tetrode
d. Pentode
Answer a. diode
28. Which of the following does not have three electrons?
a. Boron
b. Aluminum
c. Gallium

d. Phosphorus
Answer d. Phosphorus
29. What is the forbidden energy gap of germanium?
a. 0.12 eV
b. 1.12 eV
c. 0.72 eV
d. 7.2 eV
Answer c. 0.72 eV
30. The forbidden energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band will be least in case of
a. metals
b. semiconductors
c. Insulators
d. All of the above
Answer a. metals
31. What is a semiconductor in its purest form?
a. Intrinsic semiconductor
b. Extrinsic semiconductor
c. P-type material
d. N-type material
Answer a. Intrinsic semiconductor
32. At absolute zero temperature, a semiconductor behaves like
a. An insulator
b. A superconductor
c. A conductor
d. A variable resistor
Answer a. An insulator
33. When the atoms are held together by the sharing of valence electrons
a. Each atoms becomes free to move
b. Neutrons start shifting
c. They form a covalent bond
d. Some of the electrons are lost
Answer c. they form a covalent bond
34. What happen when an electron breaks a covalent bond and move away?
a. A hole is created
b. A proton is also lost
c. Atom becomes an ion
d. Rest of the electrons moves at faster rate
Answer a. A hole is created
35. It is the process of deliberately adding impurity to a semiconductor material is called
a. Impurification
b. Pollution
c. Deionization
d. Doping
Answer d. Doping
36. What is a doped semiconductor?
a. Impure semiconductor
b. Dipole semiconductor
c. Bipolar semiconductor
d. Extrinsic semiconductor
Answer d. Extrinsic semiconductor
37. What are the two mechanisms by which holes and electrons move through a silicon crystal?
a. Covalent bond and recombination
b. Forward and reverse bias
c. Free and charge particles
d. Diffusion and drift
Answer d. Diffusion and drift
38. Pure silicon crystal atoms contain how many valence electrons as a result of covalent bonding?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16
Answer c. 8
39. What is considered as the key to electrical conductivity?
a. the number of electrons in the valence orbit
b. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
c. the number of protons and electrons in the atom
d. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
Answer a. the number of electrons in the valence orbit
40. Lifetime is the amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a/an_______.
a. free electron
b. proton

c. ion
d. neutron
Answer a. free electron
41. Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent impurity is called
a. p-type semiconductor
b. n-type semiconductor
c. intrinsic semiconductor
d. extrinsic semiconductor
Answer a. p-type semiconductor
42. In an N-type semiconductor, holes are called_______.
a. minority carriers
b. majority carriers
c. protons
d. charge carriers
Answer a. minority carriers
43. A silicon crystal is _______if every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom.
a. extrinsic semiconductor
b. intrinsic semiconductor
c. p-type material
d. n-type material
Answer b. intrinsic semiconductor
44. Before doping, the semiconductor material is
a. dehydrated
b. heated
c. hardened
d. purified
Answer d. purified
45. Which of the following is acceptor impurity element?
a. antimony
b. gallium
c. arsenic
d. phosphorus
Answer b. gallium
46. An electrically neutral semiconductor has
a. no free charges
b. no majority carriers
c. no minority carriers
d. equal number of positive and negative charges
Answer d. equal number of positive and negative charges
47. In an N-type semiconductor, the concentration of the minority carriers mainly depends on
a. the number of acceptor atoms
b. the number of doping atoms
c. extent of the atom
d. temperature of the material
Answer d. temperature of the material
48. The resistivity of semiconductor
a. increase as the temperature increases
b. decreases as the temperature increases
c. remains constant even wren the temperature varies
d. remains constant even when the temperature is constant
Answer b. decreases as the temperature increases
49. Semiconductors have _________.
a. zero temperature coefficient
b. positive temperature coefficient
c. negative temperature coefficient
d. all of the above
Answer c. negative temperature coefficient
50. What is the crystal structure of silicon?
a. simple cubic
b. body central cubic
c. face centered cubic
d. diamond
Answer d. diamond