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SMOKE TECHNIQUES

Smoke consists of suspensions of small solid or liquid particles in a transparent gas and
are usually observed by the scattering and reflection of light by these particles .The
principal requirements of a smoke for wind tunnel work are
(a)

(b)
(c)
(d)

That it shall not disturb the flow in the tunnel (e.g by the formation of
deposits on the surface of a body exposed to the air stream) nor from deposits
which lead to blockage of the pipe-work used for ducting the smoke into the
tunnel
That it shall be light so that the smoke filament is not influensed
appreciably by gravity ,and of low inertia so that transient and unsteady
ohenomena may be observed .
That it shall be clearly visible ,non-poisonous, non-corrosive
That it shall be easily produced and controllied and preferably inexpensive.

The most common means of producing smoke for fluid motion visualization are chemical
method, the controlled combustion of organic matter, and the vaporization of liquids
.Excellent results have been obtained with the compounds of titanium and stannic
tetrachloride. These substances, which are liquid at normal temperatures, react with the
moisture present in the air stream to form fumes consisting of the oxide of the metal
together with hydrogen chloride .The smoke is of dense white appearance and is easily
visible .The heavy flocculent nature of the smoke may cause it to sink under gravity, a
disadvantage which particularly objectionable at low airspeeds. Moreover, the smoke
tends to form deposits on the surface exposed to its action; these deposits must be
frequently removed if flow disturbances are to be avoided.
The smoke may be introduced into the air stream by a number of methods .For observing
the flow down stream of a body, a few drops of liquid may be placed on the surface, or
continuously supplied to the groove cut in the surface. An alternative method id to supply
the liquid through a small aperture flush with the surface; if this is done, however ,it is
usually advisable to mix the liquid with the equal volume of carbon tetrachloride to
prevent early blockage of aperture. For observation on other parts of flow field, a
filament of smoke may be introduced from a glass rod which has been previously dipped
into the liquid.
The presence of the hydrochloric acid in the fumes makes them corrosive and generally
objectionable, and so smokes of this type are generally unsuitable for use in wind tunnel
which is not constructed for this purpose. For example, the tunnel is constructed mainly
of wood and special precautions are taken at the exit to neutralize the acidic nature of the
smoke. Apart from special applications, therefore, smokes of this type are not often used
in current practice
Smoke produced by the combustion of wood ; tobacco and other organic materials have
been used for some time .It was found that the best results were obtained by the use of
wood rotted to a white silky texture and which could be readily crumbled into small

pieces before insertion into the combustion chamber .The smoke supply to the tunnel
was controlled by the by-passing a major proportion of smoke to the atmosphere so that
the generator could be operated at constant speed independent of the requirements of the
experiment. The wood smoke produced by this method is non-toxic and non-corrosive
and not unpleasant in use .Nevertheless, the time required for starting up the servicing the
apparatus is a considerable disadvantage.
Wood smokes contain a large number of small solid particles which tend to form deposits
on the surface and so to disturb the flow. This is especially troublesome in boundary-layer
observation.
Oil smoke generator is recommended for general application to wind tunnel work except
in special cases in which a large and more robust generator may be preferable .The
smoke is formed by the evaporation and atomization of mineral oil in an air stream ,and
the resultant smoke consists largely of a suspension of small liquid particles. This to a
large extent avoids difficulties associated with the formation of deposits on the surface of
a model and also in the pipe work .More over the generator can be started up in about
five minutes and can then be operated indefinitely .The quantity and rate of supply of the
smoke are under close control and the whole generator is quite small and may either be
made portable or mounded on a panel attached to the tunnel structure.

A heavy mineral oil, highly refined and with a boiling point in excess of 350 degrees
centigrade. Was originally used for the production of the smoke, but ordinary commercial
kerosene is now employed as it avoids difficulties arising from the carbon deposits
caused by the cracking of the oil
APPLICATION OF SMOKE TO OTHER FLOW VISUALISATION PROBLEMS
Apart from its application to boundary layer investigation, smoke may also be used to
visualize the flow in many other problems. For instructional purposes in particular many
interesting results can be obtained by using smoke to visualize filament lines in the main
body of the flow .For this purpose the smoke may be introduced into the tunnel through a
comb of tubes placed upstream of the model. The principal requirement of smoke tunnel
is that the flow at the working section should be uniform and of low turbulence. An open
circuit is u usually essential, or the tunnel would soon become filled with smoke. The air
speed should not be so low that difficulties associated with the sinking of the smoke
filaments under gravity are encountered. In this connection there is some advantage in a
vertical flow arrangement .The smoke should generally be introduced in, or upstream of,
the contraction so that disturbance may have an opportunity to decay. Adequate lighting
should be arranged and should be suitably reinforced opposite the model to prevent the
formation of shadows. A typical arrangement is sketched below

HOT WIRE TECHNIQUES


In these techniques a filament of air of different density from that of the main stream is
introduced by inserting a heated wire in to the stream. The changes of refractive index
associated with the density changes are then visualized by one of the methods
described .The development of the hot wire technique is largely due to Town end
The wire is usually of platinum and about 0.002 in diameter and from 0.5 to 1 m in
length. It is heated by current from accumulators at a voltage of about 14 V and
controlled by a series rsistance. The wire should be heated to a dull red color: this
requires a current of about 1 A at wind speeds of the order of 30ft/sec. A number of
wires speed at about 0.5m in intervals across the air stream provide a convenient method
for introducing a series of heated filaments. At very low speeds convection effects
introduce confusion but at speeds above about 2ft/sec these are usually negligible . In
conjunction with a stroboscope the method is particularly useful for the visualization of
periodic and transient motions.
SPARK TECHNIQUES
In these techniques the paths of particles are visualized by the heating of small volumes
of the air stream by the discharge of a series of electric sparks. The thermal capacity of
the electrodes between which the spark is discharged also usually produces a continuous
filament of heated air in between the spark discharges, so that a stream filament is also
visualized. Perhaps the most important advantage of the spark techniques is that the
frequency of the spark discharge may be readily controlled so that instantaneous
photographs of the resultant flow may be used directly to give quantitative information
concerning the variation of the velocity in the field of flow .These techniques are also of
value for instructional and demonstration purposes
The sparks may be generated either by an ignition coil or by an alternator. The latter
method was found by town end to be preferable, with a 0.5 h.p alternator delivering 150
V at 2000 rpm. The delivery from alternator was then passed through a series resistance
of about 100 ohms which controlled the output to a step-up transformer (100:1) used to
produce the spark.
A spark gap of about 3/8 in was found to be satisfactory .This was formed between 2
spheres of about 1/16 in diameter produced by holding the ends of pieces of steel piano
wire of about 0.024 in diameter in the flame of a carbon arc for a few seconds .This
procedure has the advantage that the oxidation of the electrodes is at once complete, and
that further oxidation of the electrodes is at once complete, and that further oxidation
(with the associated variation of nature of the discharge) does not occur when the spark is
discharged.

TUFTS
Tufts are valuable for the visualization of the flow close to a solid surface. The thickness
and length of tuft are determined largely by the scale of the model and the Reynolds
number .For usual atmosphere tunnels they are generally about in long and are made of
fine silk frayed out at one end and attached smoothly to the surface of the model at the
other. If the aerofoil is observed from the directional of the local velocity at the surface
may be observed .Moreover .whilst in the laminar regions of the boundary layer the tufts
remain steady ,they flutter visibly downstream of the transition position the vibration
becoming violet may also be obtained by viewing the tufts from along the span

Tufts have been used successfully in flight and in high speed tunnels .They can be
generally be observed without special lighting arrangements and are easily
photographed. For these reasons they are of great value whenever a raid qualitative
examination of the surface flow is required .It is however desirable that whenever they
used it should be ascertained that the disturbances introduced into the flow do not have
serious aerodynamic effects
depth tufts (tufts attached to the ends of wires protruding fro the surface) have been
used for observing the flow at some distance from the surface there is evidence however
that the presence of tufts of this type may lead to appreciable aerodynamic effects and it
seems that as a general rule their use is not desirable.
An analogous technique which is valuable for visualizing the flow in ducts and wind
tunnel circuits consists of supporting cotton streams from a wire stretched between two
opposite walls. By this method the steadiness and direction of the flow may be examined.
If the direction of the flow is to be measured at a number of points across the duct it is
generally preferable to traverse a single streamer across and to observe it either directly
or by projecting its shadow on a screen by passing a parallel beam of light through the
duct .With the later arrangement changes the direction of the order of 1 degree may be
detected.
Tufts are the simplest and most often used. One may use any light and flexible thread
(3/4)-oz baby wool or heavy cotton thread, for instance adjusting the length of the tuft
according to the size of the model but not exceeding 2 inches in any event in order to
avoid flag waving. Usually the tufts are attached to the model surface (cleaned with
carbon tetra chloride or benzene) by scotch cellophane tape. When the tape is removed
any traces should be washed off either of the above solvents.
Possibly the most rapid method of installing tufts is to attach them about every 4 inches
to the tape before applications as shown in fig. Whole strips can then be put on at once.
For wing tests, streamers at the 15,30,45,60,and 75 percent chord points are adequate and
form them the whole stall pattern may be progressively traced. A stall picture is
illustrated in fig. This type of set up may not be photographed with the usual high shutter

speeds because the movements of the tufts that result from unsteady flow would not be
apparent. However at 1/50 sec the moving tufts show up blurred and the stall progress
any is noted. Additional visual observations are usually in order to establish the advent of
unsteady flow, intermittent stall and full stall.
A more detailed stall study that that show in fig. usually drawn for a single angle of
attack, would show flow direction by arrows, rough flow by wiggly arrows intermittent
shall be circled crosses and full stall by crosses

A more detailed stall study than that shown in fig. usually drawn for a single angle of
attack, would show flow direction by arrows, rough flow by wiggly arrows, intermittent
stall by circled crosses, and full stall by crosses
A streamer may also be of use mounded at the end of a fish pole so that vortices and
roughness may be traced about the model without the proximity of the investor disturbing
the flow. if this necessitates the operators entering the tunnel ,goggles are needed
although his appearance is a bit silly a particle of dust in his eye at 60 to 100 mhp is no
laughing matter.
Still another kind of tuft for flow visualization is the tufted wire grid developed by bird at
the NACA. Its construction is illustrated in fig. Much of its use has been concerned with
checking the theories for the roll-up of the vortices of various wing platforms.
Several chemicals, for example titanium tetra chloride and tin tetra chloride .will produce
smoke when brought in contact with damp air, but both compounds are corrosive. Smoke
bombs and candles may be obtained from armed services but these are hard to control
.Most tunnel operators use the smoke from heated kerosene, rotten wood or smouldering
paper. Reference 3 :22 warns of the necessity of providing ample ventilation when smoke
which produces carbon monoxide is used .Since a concentration of 4.0 per cent is fatal
after less than one hours exposure.
The fales method consists of mounding a half model (split through the plane of
symmetry) on a glass plate and lightly coating both plate and model with a mixture of
lampblack and kerosene .The air flow spreads the mixture along the streamlines so that
after the tunnel has been stopped the flow pattern remains. Good pictures can then be
made of the flow pattern, and if the lampblack is spread sufficiently thin, only a minimum
will be blown into the tunnel. Another good method is to spray the model with
fluorescent oil before a run and then examine the flow pattern afterwards under ultra
violet light ,perhaps using color film.

A good oil mixture may be made as follows:


a) 3 quarts of SAE 30 wt oil
b) 1 quart of SAE 500 to 600 ET of gear oil

c) 4 Tablespoons dow corning mold release


d) 3 Tablespoons kerosene
e) 5 Tablespoons CH 185 per cent fluorescent green dye

THE PHOTO VISCOUS METHOD


In some liquids, viscous shear gives rise to optical effects of stress analysis. In such cases
the flow may be observed by passing a beam of polarized light through the field. The
method has no applications to routine wind-tunnel work, but may be useful in
fundamental researches.
METHODS DEPENDING ON CHANGES OF REFRACTIVE INDEX
When the refractive index n of an optical medium is close to unity ,it can be related to
the density with sufficient accuracy by the expression
(n 1)/

= constant

Thus if the refractive index of the air can be measured throughout a filed of flow around a
body it is possible to deduce the density and hence on certain assumptions to calculate the
pressure, speed and mach number .Several methods have been suggested for the
measurement of the refractive index (or its first or second derivative) in a wind tunnel by
observation of the behavior of a beam of light directed through the working section.

Before describing these methods and seeing to what extent they may be used in practice,
it is worth considering their inherent advantages when compared with other method of
exploring flow. The alternatives usually involve the introduction of some form of
mechanical exploring gear into the field and are therefore subject to the following
disadvantages:(a)

With the exception of the measurement of surface pressure, the exploring


apparatus introduces disturbances which may lead to error of observation at
high Mach number.

(b)

Apart from certain types of electrical instruments, the inertia of the measuring
apparatus, such as that due to the lag in the pressure leads to the manometer, is
usually large: in general therefore, conventional methods are suitable only for
measurements in steady flow.

(c)

The labour involved in the expansion of extensive fields by conventional


methods is considerable .This is particularly serious at high mach number
,where for power economy the tunnel run be as short as possible and where

the disturbance introduced by a rake or comb of exploring tubes is often


intolerable.
(d)

At high mach number ,observations with pitot and static tubes are subjected to
uncertainties

Optical methods are essentially applicable to compressible flow only, i.e at high mach
number, where the inherent advantages over conventional methods are greatest .It should
be noted however that all real flows are compressible to a greater or less extent, and that
quantitative results have been obtained with the interferometer, and quantitative results
with the schlieren apparatus at air speeds below 200ft/sec.

The principal fundamental objection to these optical methods is that all density changes
in the light paths are integrated. In particular, serious errors may arise from phenomena
occurring at the ends of aerofoil .The chief practical difficulties are to minimize the
effects of vibration and of temperature fluctuations. Moreover they are restricted to a
two- dimensional (and also sometimes axi-symmetrical) flow and are often not
sufficiently accurate in quantitative use.

Suppose a ray of light passing through the undisturbed stream in the working section
(empty tunnel) strikes the screen at the point P1. When the model is present, the resultant
changes in density, and hence in refractive index, causes a change in the optical path .The
ray is therefore deflected through an angle d and strikes the screen at a point P2distant
dQ from P1 , taking an additional time to traverse the new path. Observation may be
made of dQ, d , or dt or a combination of these quantities. In practice dQ is observed in
the direct shadow arrangement, d in the schlieren and dt with the interferometer. It may
be shown as a reasonable approximation that the indication given by the interferometer is
a function of the density that given by the schieren method a function of the density
gradient and that by the direct shadows a function of the rate of change of density
gradient. To this extent the methods are complementary rather than alternative. Moreover
since the indication given by each method depends on a different derivative of the
refractive index, the required quantity of the optical components differ for each .For
example wind-tunnel windows which are satisfactory for schieren work may not be
suitable for interferometry or vice versa.

Let Oz represent the undisturbed path of a ray of light and let A represent the undisturbed
path of a ray of light and let A and B represent the points on a element pf the wave-front
at O.suppose now that a disturbance is introduced into the light path with a constant
gradient of refractive index dn/dx in the direction normal to Oz .If n is the refractive
index at O and nA and nB are the refractive indices at A and B respectively, then

and the corresponding optical velocities are related by the equations

The ray will therefore be deflected through an angle and with a local radius of curvature
R given by

d = 1 dn ds
n dx
the total deflection in a plane normal to Oy is given by

x = 1 dn ds
n dx
and similarly in a plane normal to Ox by

y = 1 dn ds
n dy

For the purpose of calculating the density it is usually assumed that the deflection from
the undisturbed path is infinitesimally small so that ds may be replaced by dz in the
equations above
The schlieren method
The form of the schlieren method which is most commonly employed is described in ref.
in this method some quantity is recorded from which it is possible to deduce the
deflection of the equations above. An extended line source of light S is usually
employed the light being converted into a parallel beam by means of the lens L1 (or a
mirror) before passing through the working section of the tunnel. Beyond the working
section of second lens L2 produces an image of the source in the plane K beyond which a
camera produces an image of the model in the working section on a screen or
photographic plate. By a suitable choice of the camera lens the size of the resultant image
may be adjusted over a wide range and so it is usually possible to obtain adequate
illumination.
If the source is of uniform intensity and the angle is sufficiently small (<= 4) the image
obtained at the screen will be of uniform brilliance. Of now an opaque cut-off is
introduced in the plane K so that a fraction of the image of the source is obscured, the
illumination at the screen will remain uniform (since K is at the focus of L2) but will be
reduced being proportional to the distance a .In the disturbed flow part of the beam of
light is deflected and the corresponding part of the image of the source moves a distance
da relative to the cut-off. Since this movement and the change of illumination are both
proportional to the angular deflection of the equation observations of the change of
illumination will indicate the density in the tunnel.
Assuming that is small
da = f2
Where f2 is the focal length of the lens L2 .The contrast is given by
dI = da
I
a
Where dI is the change of illumination at the screen and I the orginal value .hence

dI = f2 = f2
I
a
a

1 dn dz
n dx

If high sensitivity is required the quantiy a will be made as small as possible


a limit being imposed by diffraction effects or when the illumination
Becomes too low for photography or isual observations. The above
Considerations cease to apply however when the image of the source is
Displayed completely off or on to the cut-off.its range over which the

Contrast is approximately proportional to the angular deflection of the light


is usually required to be the same for deflections both toward and away from
the opaque part of the cut-off. The apparatus must therefore be setup initially so that half
the image source is cut-off. The apparatus must therefore be setup initially so that half the
image of the source is cutoff. It then follows from above equation that max = a/f2 is
the maximum angular deflection lying within the working range of the apparatus
.Defining the sensitivity of the apparatus as the rate of change of contrast with angular
deflection it then follows from the equation that the sensitivity is inversely proportional
to the max
it is important not to exceed the working range or detail will be lost in the corresponding
part s of the image on the screen. This is illustrated by the early schilieren photographs in
which there are extensive black regions where the intensity gradient is not constant but
the angular deflection is sufficient to displace the image of the source on to the opaque
part of the cut-off. the range may be increased by increasing the dimension of the source
normal to the knife-edge or by alerting the optical dimensions of the apparatus.
The figure shows the cut-off as seen from along the axis of the optical system. If some
particular point of the image of the source was originally in focus at P1, then in the
disturbed flow p1 is displaced to either P2 or P3 .The optical system only indicate the
component da of the displacement normal to the edge of the cut-off and since this
displacement is a function of the density gradient in this direction,it follows that cut-off
must be placed in the direction perpendicular to that of the density gradient which is to be
observed .
Although a source and cut-off with straight parallel edges are most common, other shapes
are used for special purposes. For example a point source and annular cut-off may be
used if uniform sensitivity to displacement s in all directions is required. In some cases
also the apparatus has been arranged so that two separate photographs are taken
simultaneously, with sources and knife-edges perpendicular to each other, whilst in other
it has been arranged that the flow may be observed by eye (using a continuous source)
and photographs taken simultaneously (using an intermittent source with a separate cutoff but working through the same pair of mirrors).If very short exposures are to be made
it should be noted that the relative speeds of emulsions may not be the same as at normal
exposures ,particularly if the illumination is low
Although the schlieren method has not been widely used for obtaining numerical values
of the density

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