Form 1
Chemistry
Materials can be solid, liquid or gaseous, depending upon the arrangement and freedom of movement of
these particles.
5.1. THE CONCEPT OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Therefore, anything around us provided it has mass
and can occupy the space, is termed as matter. There are many kinds of matter. Can you mention some?
The word matter is used to cover all the substances and materials from which the earth and universe is
composed of. These include all materials around us such as water, soil, plants, animals, air, clothes, etc.
Any particular kind of matter is called a substance. Substances include elements and compounds. An
element is a substance which is the limit of chemical analysis. When two or more elements are combined
chemically, a compound is formed. Matter is made up of atoms, ions or molecules. You will learn more
about this later.
5.2. STATES OF MATTER
Any chemical substance we study exists in any of the three forms (or physical states). The three different
states of matter are solid, liquid and gaseous states. So, each of the many millions of substances around us
can be classified as a solid, a liquid or gas. Look around you and name substances that are solids, liquids
and gases. The state in which any matter exists depends on temperature and sometimes pressure
conditions. One substance may exist as a solid in one condition and as a liquid or gas under a different
condition. Water is an example of such substances. This change is called a change in the state of matter.
The three physical states of matter differ in the way they respond to temperature and pressure. All three
states can increase in volume (expansion) when the temperature is increased. They decrease in volume
(contraction) when the temperature is decreased. Gases are easily compressed. Liquids are only slightly
compressible. Solids are incompressible. They are not affected by change in pressure.
Experiment 5.1. Investigation of the compressibility of solids, liquids and gases
Procedure
1. Take three new syringes and fill them with sand, water and air respectively (figure 5.1).
2. Try to push in the end of each syringe.
MCHORO
Figure 5.1. Compressibility of solids, liquids and gases
Observation
Which of the substances under investigation can compress into a smaller volume?
Findings
You should have found that a solid (sand) and a liquid (water) cannot be compressed but a gas (air) is
easily compressed.
The three states of matter differ in their physical properties. These differences in properties are
summarized in table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Differences in properties of the three states of matter
Property
Shape
Physical state
Solid
Liquid
Gas
has a definite
shape
whole container
variable (depending on
temperature and pressure)
has a fixed
volume
Volume
Fluidity
flows easily
Expansion on
heating
low
medium
high
Compressibility
incompressible
almost incompressible
highly compressible
Motion of
particles
slow
high
very high
Density
high
moderate to high
low
Tangibility
tangible
tangible
intangible
Visibility
visible
visible
invisible
faster the liquid evaporates. The warmer the liquid is, the faster it evaporates. Thus, surface area and
temperature affects the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
When a liquid is heated, its molecules get more energy and move faster. They knock into each other
violently and bounce further apart. As the heating goes on, its molecules vibrate even faster. Bubbles of
gas (due to air dissolved in water) appear inside the liquid. The whole process is called boiling. The
temperature at which a liquid boils is called boiling point.
the boiling point rises. The same behaviour is experienced by a gas when the pressure is either increased
or decreased.
Table 5.2. The melting and boiling points of some common chemical substances at standard
temperature and pressure (s.t.p)
Substance
Melting point
(C)
Boiling
point(C)
Oxygen
gas
-219
-183
Nitrogen
gas
-210
-196
Ethanol (alcohol)
liquid
-117
78
Water
liquid
100
Sulphur
solid
115
444
solid
801
1465
Copper
solid
1083
2600
Carbon dioxide
gas
Boiling
When you suspend your clothing on a cloth line to dry, the moisture in it is lost through evaporation.
Likewise, farmers in the village often spread crops on the ground to dry. They do this in order to reduce
moisture content and hence prevent decaying. The moisture contained in crops leave by evaporation.
Therefore, you can notice how evaporation, as a change in state, is important in everyday lives.
5. Cooling of our bodies in hot weather
During hot weather, our bodies perspire a lot. When water evaporates from the body, it takes up heat.
This brings about the cooling effect, as heat is lost from the body surface. The cooling effect is more
evident when the wind or air is blowing over the body. This is because wind increases the rate of
evaporation. In this way, the body gets cooled down.
6. Ice formation in refrigerators
You all like to drink cold water or beverages especially during hot weather. You can use a refrigerator to
cool down drinking water or beverages directly. Alternatively, you can freeze water into ice and then use
the resulting ice for cooling the beverage. Ice blocks are also saleable. Moreover, one can earn some
money if she freezes water into ice blocks and then sells them to beverage vendors. Perishable products
such as fish, meat, milk, etc are often packed in ice blocks to prevent them from going bad. Ice, as we
studied early, is formed when water freezes (a change in state from liquid to solid).
7. Melting metals to make alloys
In metallurgical industries, need may arise to mix two or more metals (alloys) together. This is only
possible, where two or more metals are first melted at high temperatures into liquids. Then the resulting
liquid metals are mixed in appropriate proportions. This is followed by cooling down the mixture to a
solid alloy. Normally alloys have better qualities than individual metals.
8. Testing the purity of substances
The presence of impurity may lower or raise the boiling point of the substance. A pure substance melts
and boils at definite temperatures (see table 5.4). The values for the melting point and boiling point are
precise and predictable. This means that we can use them to test the purity of a sample. They can also be
used to check the identity of unknown substance.
A typical example
Sea water is impure. It freezes at a temperature well below the freezing point of pure water (0C) and
boils at a temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100C). Other substances behave in a similar
manner. So, boiling as a change in state can be used to test for the purity of a substance.
In addition, the impurity also reduces the exactness of the melting or boiling point. An impure substance
melts or boils over a range of temperature, not at a particular point.
Table 5.4. Melting and boiling points of some pure substances
Substance
Water
100
Ethanol
-117
78
Oxygen
-219
-183
Sodium
98
890
Sulphur
119
445
Iron
1540
2900
Diamond
3550
4832
Cobalt
1492
2900
Nitrogen
-210
-196
Propane
-188
- 42
Ethanoic acid
16
118
9. Formation of rain
Perhaps the most important of all, as far as change in state is concerned, is the formation of rain. Rained is
mainly formed through the process of evaporation and condensation. Water vapour, evaporating mostly
from water bodies (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ponds, etc), land and plants rises up to the sky. As it rises, it
cools down and condenses into tiny droplets. On further cooling as they rise up, these droplets form
bigger water drops. Owing to gravitational force, these drops fall down as rainfall. Every one of you
knows how important rain is to our life. Therefore, you have noticed how evaporation and condensation,
as changes in state, contribute to rain formation.
attraction on each other. They have more energy than the particles of solids and liquids. They move
rapidly and randomly, colliding with each other and with the walls of the container. A typical speed for a
molecule of hydrogen in air at ordinary temperature and pressure has been found to be approximately
500 ms-1. It has been estimated that a nitrogen molecule makes 109 collisions each second. Thus, a gas will
rapidly spread out to fill any container in which it is placed. A gas cannot have any shape of its own.
1. Add some common salt (sodium chloride) to distilled water in a beaker. Stir the mixture until the salt
disappears and forms a solution with water. Transfer the water into a porcelain dish. Heat the content
until all the water has evaporated off. The salt reappears in its original white solid form.
2. Grind some roll sulphur in a mortar to powder. Put the resultant powder in a test-tube and heat
gently, shaking all the time. The sulphur melts to an amber-coloured liquid. On cooling, this liquid
returns to its original condition as a yellow solid.
3. Put a block of ice in a beaker. Heat gently until the whole block melts to form water. Pour the water
formed in a cup and place it in a deep freezer overnight. The water will freeze back to ice.
You will have seen that all the above changes involve only changes in physical forms of the substances.
The chemical nature of substances remained unchanged. Therefore, we can define a physical change as a
change that does not involve formation of a new substance but involves a change in state or physical
form of the substance and that such a form can be reversed.
Chemical change
Some changes that materials undergo are permanent. Such changes usually involve changes in chemical
properties of a substance. For example, when you burn a piece of wood in fire, you get ash. The
properties of wood and ash are very different. There is no way you can change ash back to wood. It is
practically impossible. A permanent change in chemical properties of a substance is called a chemical
change. In a chemical change, a substance losses all its physical and chemical properties.
Characteristics of a chemical change
1. A chemical change results in the formation of a new substance. The new substance has different
chemical and physical properties as compared to the original substance.
2. It is generally not reversible. For example, you cannot turn the ash back to wood.
3. There is a change in weight or mass of the substance undergoing the change. When you burn wood
weighing 5 kg, you cannot expect to get the same weight of ash.
4. The change is accompanied by a considerable heat change. For wood to burn to ash a lot of heat must
be supplied.
We can therefore define a chemical change as the one in which a new substance is formed and that such a
form cannot be reversed.
Demonstration of chemical changes experimentally
Experiment 5.3.
1. Strongly heat some roll sulphur on a deflagrating spoon until it melts and begins to burn with a blue
flame. If you continue heating, it gradually decreases in amount and finally the spoon will be left empty.
The disappearance of sulphur is due to the formation of a new gaseous substance that is invisible. The
presence and existence of a gas in air can be defected by its irritating smell. The gas can also be detected
by burning the sulphur in a gas jar to which some blue litmus solution has been added. The gas formed,
sulphur dioxide, will turn the blue litmus paper into a red one.
2. With the aid of tongs, subject a piece of magnesium ribbon to a Bunsen burner flame. The ribbon
burns to produce a new substance, white ash of magnesium oxide.
3. Wrap a wet cotton wool around an iron nail. Keep it in a test tube for 3 days. By the 3 rd day, some
brown marks of rust will appear on the surface of the nail. Rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide. This is quite a
new substance compared to iron nails.
Table 5.5. Differences between physical and chemical changes
Physical change
Chemical change
Percentage by mass of
elements in the oceans
Oxygen
47
Oxygen
86
Nitrogen
75.5
Silicon
28
Nitrogen
10.9
Oxygen
23
Aluminium
7.8
Chlorine
1.8
Argon
1.4
Iron
4.5
Sodium
1.0
Hydrogen
0.02
Calcium
3.5
Magnesium
0.1
Carbon
0.01
Sodium
2.5
Calcium
0.05
Others
0.07
( total)
Potassium
2.5
Sulphur
0.05
Magnesium
2.0
Potassium
0.04
Titanium
0.5
Nitrogen
0.02
Hydrogen
0.2
Bromine
0.01
Carbon
0.2
Carbon
0.01
1.3
Others (total)
0.02
Others
( total)
5.4.2. Names and Symbols of Elements
A chemical symbol is the way of representing an element using initial letter(s). There are many different
elements as you have seen above. Every element has a name and a symbol to represent it. Some symbols
are just a single capital letter, such as H. Others have two letters, the first of which is always a capital,
such as Mg.
Rules for assigning chemical symbols to elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
All symbols are recognized and are used by all scientists all over the world. Some examples of elements
and their symbols are given in the table below:
Table 5.7. Names and Symbols of some Elements
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Aluminium
Al
Bromine
Br
Copper
Cu
Carbon
Iron
Fe
Chlorine
Cl
Lead
Pb
Hydrogen
Magnesium
Mg
Nitrogen
Mercury
Hg
Oxygen
Potassium
Phosphorus
Silver
Ag
Sulphur
Sodium
Na
Silicon
Si
Calcium
Ca
Iodine
Manganese
Mn
Fluorine
Tin
Sn
Gold
Au
Chromium
Cr
Zinc
Zn
Nickel
Ni
It is easy to remember that the symbol for aluminium is Al, and for carbon is C. But some symbols are
harder to remember because they are taken from Latin names. For example, potassium has the symbol, K
from its Latin name Kalium. Sodium has the symbol, Na from its Latin name Natrium. See the complete
list in the following table.
Table 5.8. Elements with Latin names
English name
Latin name
Chemical symbol
Sodium
Natrium
Na
Gold
Aurum
Au
Potassium
Kalium
Mercury
Hydragyrum
Hg
Silver
Argentum
Ag
Antimony
Stibium
Sb
Lead
Plumbum
Pb
Tin
Stannum
Sn
Iron
Ferrum
Fe
Copper
Cuprum
Cu
Tungsten
Wolfram
The reason for assigning some elements with Latin names was to avoid confusion among scientists when
representing different elements. For example, the symbol for silicon is Si. It could be impossible to
represent silicon by the symbol S and at the same time represent the element sulphur by the very symbol,
S. Similarly, potassium could not be represented by the symbol P that was assigned to phosphorus. So in
order to avoid such confusion, scientists decided to use Latin names to represent some elements. In so
doing, the anticipated and unnecessary contradiction among scientists from different parts of the world
was avoided.
Symbols are particularly useful when more than one atom is present in a substance. For example,
hydrogen gas consists of pairs of hydrogen atoms joined together. So hydrogen gas is shown as H 2. When
more than one atom is joined together like this, we call the substance formed a molecule. Atoms making
up gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc, always exist as molecules. Sulphur exists as a
hexagonal ring of eight atoms. Phosphorus exists as a tetrahedron of four atoms. Table 5.9 shows some
elements that exist as molecules.
Table 5.9. Elements that exist as molecules
Element
Atomic symbol
Molecular symbol
Oxygen
O2
Nitrogen
N2
Hydrogen
H2
Sulphur
S2
Phosphorus
P2
Chlorine
Cl
Cl2
Fluorine
F2
Bromine
Br
Br2
Iodine
I2
Solid,
Density
Date of
discovery
Metal or nonmetal?
liquid
or
Melting
point(C)
Boiling
point(C)
( g cm3)
gas?
Oxygen
1774
Non-metal
Gas
-219
-183
0.00132
Nitrogen
1772
Non-metal
Gas
-210
-196
0.00117
Carbon
Ancient
Non-metal
Solid
3500
4827
22
Iron
1735
Metal
Solid
1540
3000
7.9
Copper
Ancient
Metal
Solid
1080
2500
9.0
Lead
Ancient
Metal
Solid
327
1744
113
Gold
Ancient
Metal
Solid
1060
2700
193
Silver
Ancient
Metal
Solid
961
2200
10.5
Hydrogen
1766
Non-metal
Gas
-259
-253
0.00008
Aluminium
1825
Metal
Solid
660
2450
27
Zinc
1746
Metal
Solid
419
910
7.1
Mercury
Ancient
Metal
Liquid
-39
357
13.6
Iodine
1811
Non-metal
Gas
114
183
4.9
Chlorine
1774
Non-metal
Gas
-101
-35
0.003
Sodium
1807
Metal
Solid
98
890
0.97
Potassium
1807
Metal
Solid
64
760
0.86
Sulphur
Ancient
Non-metal
Solid
119
444
2.1
Phosphorus
1669
Non-metal
Solid
44
280
1.8
Non-metals
Are brittle
B: Chemical properties
1. Give basic oxides, that is, oxides which react
with acids
The properties discussed above are of a general nature and exceptions do occur. Hence, some elements
may appear to be intermediate between metals and non-metals. These are called metalloids or semiconductors. Others may differ from the two groups in just one or two cases. Such elements have some of
the properties of metals and others that are more characteristic of non-metals. See the Periodic Table at
the back of this book for illustration.
Compound and Mixtures
Form 1
Chemistry
Matter contains a mixture of many elements or compounds. In gaseous phase the atmosphere (air) is a
mixture of many gases like Nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur di oxide, nitrogen oxides, oxides of carbon, ozone
and traces of inert gases along with water vapor. In liquid state the water contains many dissolved salts
of metals like Na,K,Mg,Zn,Al etc, Even organic liquid like petroleum is a mixture of many compounds
5.5. COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together. A mixture
is something that contains two or more elements not combined chemically.
It is always difficult to identify a mixture from a compound. Before going any further into this topic, let
us start by looking at the differences between compounds and mixtures. These differences are
summarized in the table below.
Table 5.12. Differences between mixtures and compounds
Mixtures
Compounds
5.5.1. Compounds
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together. This is a
very important difference from mixtures. Mixtures can contain more than one element but the elements
are not chemically combined. The number of chemical substances known is approximately four millions.
All compounds on earth are made from about one hundred simple materials. Such compounds range
from simplest substances, like water, which contains only two elements, to those complex materials of
which our own bodily tissues are composed. The following is a short list of common compounds and the
elements they are made of.
Table 5.13. Elemental composition of some compounds
Compound
Constituent elements
Water
Carbon dioxide
Ethanol
Sugar (sucrose)
Sodium chloride
sodium and chlorine
(common salt)
Sulphuric acid
Sand
Clay
Compounds have different properties from the elements that make them up. For example:
1.
2.
Water (H2O) is a colourless liquid at room temperature but the elements that make it, hydrogen and
oxygen are both gases.
Sodium chloride is a white solid made of sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a solid, highly reactive metal,
and chlorine is a greenish yellow gas with a chocking smell.
Preparation of a binary compound
A binary compound refers to a compound made up of two different elements. In a binary ionic
compound, the total numbers of positive charges and negative charges must be equal. The following
experiment demonstrates a typical preparation of a binary compound.
Experiment 5.4. Preparation of iron sulphide
Procedure:
1. Weigh 56g of iron filings and 32g of sulphur.
2. Put the two elements in a mortar, grind them thoroughly and mix uniformly.
3. Put the mixture into a dry test tube. Heat the test tube, at the bottom, with a small flame. The mixture
will glow.
5. When it glows remove the flame. The glow will then spread slowly through the mixture without
further heating.
6. Allow the test tube to cool, and then break it away from the mass of material left.
Result:
A dark grey, almost black, solid will be formed. This is iron sulphide. The reaction that took place can be
presented as follows
Fe(s)+S(s) FeS(s)
Here 56g of iron react with 32g of sulphur to produce 88g of iron sulphide.
5.5.2. Mixtures
A mixture is something that contains two or more substances not combined chemically. The substances
may mix up completely or they may remain separate.
Our environment is a mixture of all forms of matter. For example, the earth's crust is a mixture of soils,
rocks, minerals, and water. Sea, river, and lake waters contain dissolved gases, living organisms and,
sometimes, salt. Air consists of gases, water vapour, and dust particles. The components of each of these
mixtures could be elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur or gold. Alternatively, the mixture might
consist of elements and compounds such as hydrocarbons (e.g. petroleum), water, metallic oxides or salts.
Other substances that can form mixtures when placed or mixed together include sand and sugar, maize
and bean seeds, soil and table salt, water and mud, etc.
Classification of mixtures
Mixtures can be classified as solutions, suspensions or emulsions. This classification is based on whether
the mixed substances dissolve completely or not. It also depends on the nature of the mixtures that result
upon mixing. Let us look at each category in detail.
Solutions
A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances. Such mixtures may be a solid in a liquid, a
liquid in a liquid, a liquid in a gas and, very rarely, a gas in a gas. (See table 5.14). We most often think of
a solution as being made of a solid dissolved in a liquid. For example, solutions of sugar or salt in water
are quite common. A solid that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute while the liquid in which that solid
dissolves is called a solvent. For example, sugar and salt are solutes and water is a solvent.
However, other substances that are not normally solids can be found dissolved in a liquid. For example,
the gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen, dissolved in water are important for life to continue in oceans,
seas, lakes, rivers, etc.
Less obvious perhaps, but quite common, are solutions of one liquid in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves)
completely with water. Beer, wine and whisky do not separate into layers of alcohol and water (even
when the alcohol content is quite high). Alcohol and water are completely miscible, that, is they make a
solution.
Solutions of gases in gases are very uncommon. Technically, air could be described as a solution of
several gases in nitrogen, though this could be unusual everyday use of the term. However, it is
interesting to note that different gases always mix completely with each other.
Table 5.14 Examples of types of solutions
Solutes
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Gas
Naphthalene slowly
sublimes in air to form
a solution
Liquid
Sucrose (sugar) in
water and salt in water
Carbon dioxide in
water (carbonated
water)
Solvents
Solid
Hydrogen in metals
Suspensions
A suspension is a cloudy mixture of solid particles suspended in a liquid. A solid is said to be in
suspension in a liquid when small particles of it are contained in a liquid, but are not dissolved in it.
If the mixture is left undisturbed, the solid particles will slowly settle to the bottom of the containing
vessel, leaving the pure liquid above them.
Muddy water is a typical suspension. The mud would settle after a time if left undisturbed leaving brown
residue on the bottom of the containing vessel and clear water above. The particles of mud would be
retained by filtering whilst the water (and any solids in solution) would pass through.
If you mix flour or chalk dust in water, it forms a suspension. Their particles are simply dispersed
(spread) throughout the water and would eventually settle down to the bottom of the vessel if left
undisturbed for sometime.
Table 5.15 shows the differences between solutions and suspensions
Table 5.15 Differences between solutions and suspensions
Solutions
Suspensions
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Transparent/clear
Opaque/not clear
Particles completely
dissolved
Emulsions
An emulsion is a cloudy mixture of tiny droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid. Sometimes
two immiscible liquids will not separate out into two layers when mixed together. One of the liquid may
form droplets and spread throughout the other to form an emulsion. Cooking oil and water do not mix but
they will form an emulsion when they are mixed and shaken. Droplets of oil will spread throughout the
water. Unlike pure liquids, emulsions are cloudy (opaque). So you cannot see through them. The
emulsion will not settle like a suspension. Which other liquids you know can form suspensions?
Formation of mixtures
Mixtures can be formed from different substances in two major ways.
The first type constitutes homogenous mixtures, where the substances are totally mixed together uniformly.
Examples include solutions of salts and sugars in water.
The second type constitutes heterogeneous mixtures, where the substances remain separate and one
substance is spread throughout the other as small particles, droplets, or bubbles. All emulsions and
suspensions fall under this category. Examples include suspensions of insoluble solids or oil droplets in
water.
5.6. SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
To make use of the materials around us, we need methods for physically separating the many and varied
mixtures that we come across. One of the distinctive characteristics of a mixture of substances is that it is
usually possible to separate the constituents by physical means. There are many different physical
methods used to separate a wide variety of mixtures. The particular method employed to separate any
given mixture depends upon the nature of its constituents. The following are some of the methods in
wide use.
5.6.1. METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
1. Filtration
This method is best applicable in separation of components of mixtures called suspensions. A mixture of
chalk dust or flour with water can be separated by filtering the suspension. The suspended particles get
trapped in the filter paper. The trapped particles are called the residue. The water is called the filtrate.
This method is used to separate substances that form a solution. In such a mixture, the solute is
completely dissolved in a solvent to make a uniform solution. To separate these substances, the solution
is heated so that the solvent evaporates, leaving the solid residue behind. A mixture of salt or sugar in
water can be separated by applying this method.
5. Fractional distillation
Separating the liquids from a mixture of two (or more) miscible liquids is again based on the fact that
liquids will have different boiling points. However, the boiling points are closer together than for solidin-liquid solutions. It is difficult to separate mixtures of liquids whose boiling points differ by only a few
degrees. In this case, fractional distillation is used.
For example, ethanol boils at 78C whereas water boils at 100C. When a solution of ethanol and water is
heated, ethanol and water vapours enters the fractionating column. Evaporation and condensation take
place as the vapours rise up the column. Ethanol passes through the condenser first as the temperature of
the column is raised above the boiling point. Water condenses in the column and flows back into the flask
because the temperature of the column is below its boiling point of 100C.
The temperature on the thermometer stays at 78C until the ethanol has distilled over. Eventually, the
thermometer reading rises above 78C. This is a sign that all the ethanol has been separated, so heating
can be stopped. By watching the temperature carefully, the two liquids (fractions) can be collected
separately.
Various forms of fractionating column can be used. Their general purpose is to provide surfaces, e.g. flat
discs, on which ascending vapour can condense. Glass beads in the column provide a large surface area
for condensation.
3. Leave the filter paper until the water has risen to the top of the paper.
4. Remove the paper and allow it to dry.
5. Note the colours the ink contains.
Uses of Chromatography
Chromatography is used in many different ways. The following are some of the application of
chromatography:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It can be used to find out the components of a liquid or solid, or even to identify different substances.
It can be used by security agents and medical personnel to analyse blood and urine samples.
Causes of pollution in water and in animals that live in water can also be detected using chromatography.
In chemistry, chromatography is used to test the purity of substances and in separation of mixtures.
8. Layer separation
Mixtures of two immiscible liquids can be separated with a separating funnel. The mixture is placed in a
separating funnel and allowed to stand. The liquids separate into two different layers. The lower denser
layer is then "tapped" off at the bottom.
For example, when a mixture of kerosene and water is poured into the funnel, the kerosene floats to the
top as shown in figure 5.15. When the tap is opened, the water runs out. The tap is closed again when all
water has gone, leaving the kerosene in the funnel.
Use
Nitrogen
Manufacture of fertilizer
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Helium
2. Filtration and purification of drinking water make use of processes such as decantation, filtration and
sometimes distillation. The bottled water we drink is prepared by some or a combination of these
processes.
3. In mining, an electromagnet is used to separate magnetic iron ore from other materials in the crushed
ore.
4. In the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation in breweries, distillation is used in the final stage to
purify ethanol to its purest form (surgical spirit) in which the ethanol is usually sold. Likewise,
distillation of fermented starch (8-12% ethanol), yields alcoholic drinks called sprits (whisky, gin, brandy,
rum) which contain about 35-40% ethanol.
5. (i) Paper chromatography is very useful in analysis of substances present in a solution. For example, it can
tell whether a substance has become contaminated or otherwise. This can be very important, because
contamination of food or drinking water, for instance, may be dangerous to our health.
(ii) Chromatography has proved very useful in the analysis of biologically important molecules such as
sugars, amino acids, and nucleotide bases. Molecules such as amino acids can be seen if the paper is
viewed under ultra- violet light.
(iii) Paper chromatography is the test that can be used to check for the purity of a substance. If the sample is
pure, it should only give one spot when run in several different solvents (see figure 5.13).
6. Other separation methods are also used to check whether purification has been successful. Samples
obtained by distillation can be re-distilled. The purity of crystals can be improved by re-crystallisation. A
water sample can be tested for amount of dissolved material by evaporating a certain amount of water to
dryness. The solid waste can be weighed. This would give the amount of dissolved solid in the water.
The process of purification is of crucial importance in many areas of chemical industry. Medical drugs
(pharmaceuticals) must be of highest possible degrees of purity. Any contaminating substances even in
very small amounts may have harmful side effects.
7. (i) Separation of cream from whole milk is done by the process of centrifugation. As the milk is spun,
the heavier contents are forced down and the lighter cream rises up. After centrifugation, the cream is
poured off the top by decantation. This is the initial stage of milk constituent separation, after which other
components such as milk proteins (cheese) are separated.
(ii) Centrifugation is applicable in blood analysis, where the solid part of blood is separated from the
liquid part by centrifugation. Blood is a suspension containing microscopic blood cells (corpuscles) in a
liquid called plasma. If blood is centrifuged in a test tube, the blood cells are flung to the bottom, leaving
the liquid plasma on top.
8. Knowledge of separation of two immiscible liquids can be applied in the extraction of metals such as
iron from their ores. For example, at the base of the blast furnace, the molten slug forms a separate layer
on top of the liquid iron. The two can then be "tapped" off separately. The method is very useful in
organic chemistry as part of the process called solvent extraction.
9. Evaporation process is used in the extraction of common salt from seawater whereby the sun
evaporates water molecules from salty water, leaving crystals of the salt behind.
10. Layer separation technique is applied in the recovery of liquids from contaminants.
11. Solvent extraction process is applied in the extraction of certain edible oils from seeds, and in the
extraction of some metals from sludge mixture.
Chemistry
Find ring stands and accessories, burettes, glass tubing, digital balances, tongs and clamps, corks and
rubber stoppers, distillation equipment, and other chemistry lab equipment.
Instruments used for carrying out different experiments in the laboratory are called laboratory apparatus.
Laboratory apparatus can be classified according to their uses as:
apparatus for holding things e.g. test-tube holder, retort stand and clamp, test-tube rack, tongs and
tweezers;
apparatus for taking measurements e.g. thermometer, burette, pipette, measuring cylinder,
measuring flask, beam balance, electronic balance, common balance, measuring syringe, beaker and
stop watch;
apparatus for heating substances e.g. boiling tube, pipeclay triangle, crucible and lid, wire gauze,
deflagrating (combustion) spoon, Bunsen burner, spirit lamp, tripod stand, evaporating dish, wire
gauze and stove;
apparatus for doing chemical reactions (or testing) e.g. beaker, test tube, dropper, flask, watch glass,
gas jar and thistle funnel;
apparatus for filtering e.g. filter funnel, filter paper and cotton wool;
apparatus for grinding e.g. mortar and pestle;
apparatus for storage e.g. reagent bottles and wash bottle;
apparatus for scooping e.g. spatula; and
apparatus for safety e.g. goggles and hand gloves.
The apparatus can also be classified based on materials they are made of. Most of the apparatus are made
of glass. Others are made of metal, plastic or wood. Just a few are made of clay and asbestos.
Table 2.3 summarizes some common laboratory apparatus and their uses.
Table 2.3. Composition and uses of some chemistry laboratory apparatus
Apparatus
Material
Uses
1.
Test tube
Glass
2.
Funnel
Glass or plastic
3.
Beaker
Glass or plastic
4.
Flask
Glass
5.
Retort stand
Metal (iron)
6.
Tripod stand
Metal (iron)
7.
Gas jar
Glass
Gas collection
8.
Wash bottle
Plastic
Washing
Crucible
Heating
10
Test tube
holder
11.
Weighing
balance
12.
Spatula
Metal
13.
Condenser
Glass
14.
Pipette
Glass
15.
Burette
Glass
Titrations
16.
Trough
Glass
17.
Tongs
Metal
18.
Measuring jar
Glass
19.
Thistle funnel
Glass
20.
Dropper
21.
Mortar and
pestle
Clay
22.
Wire gauze
Metal
23.
Spring balance
Metal
Measuring weight
24.
Distillation
flask
Glass
Distillation
25.
Combustion
spoon
Metal
26.
Thermometer
Measuring temperature
27.
Delivery tube
Glass
28.
Bunsen burner
Metal
Heating substances
29.
Separating
funnel
Glass
30.
Measuring
cylinder
Glass or plastic
31.
Measuring
syringe
Plastic
32.
Stopwatch
Plastic or glass
and metal
33.
Watch glass
Glass
34.
Boiling tube
Glass
35.
Evaporating
dish
Ceramic
36.
Filter paper
Paper
Filtration
37.
Wood or plastic
38.
Reagent bottle
Glass
39.
Wash bottle
Plastic
40.
Safety goggles
Glass
41.
Bell jar
Glass
With the help of your chemistry teacher or technician, practise the use of the apparatus for measuring the
following physical quantities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. Put an empty watch glass on the weighing balance. Note down its mass. Record this as mass M 1.
2. Place the various items you have on the watch glass, one item at a time. Note down the mass. Record
this as M2.
Note: to obtain the mass of an object, we subtract the mass of an empty watch glass from the mass of the
watch glass and the substance. That is, M2 - M1.
For example
Weight of watch glass = 2.6 grams
Watch glass + st grams
Therefore, mass of st 2.6) = 42.4 grams
Questions for discussion
1. What is the mass of each item that you have measured?
2. Record your measurements in a table like the one shown below.
Name of substance
Mass in grams
Activity 2.3
Aim: To measure the temperature of liquids
Materials: thermometer, beakers, tripod stand, wire gauze, stopwatch, a pair of tongs, water
Procedure
1. Pour some tap water into two beakers. Dip a thermometer in each of the beakers. Let it stand there for
one minute.
2. Remove the thermometer from the water and record the temperature.
3. Place one beaker in a fridge and leave it there for about half of an hour.
4. Remove the beaker from the fridge. Dip a thermometer in the water for one minute. Record the
temperature.
5. Place a wire gauze on a tripod stand.
6. Place a Bunsen burner under the tripod stand and light it.
7. Place the second beaker of water on the wire gauze and heat for ten minutes.
8. Turn off the burner. Use tongs to remove the beaker from the wire gauze to avoid burning yourself.
9. Place the thermometer in the beaker containing hot water. Let it stand there for one minute. Remove it
from the beaker and note down the temperature.
Questions for discussion
1. What is the reading on the thermometer when it is placed in:
1.
2.
3.
tap water?
water from the fridge?
heated water?
2. For what ranges of temperature can the thermometer give readings
2.5. CHEMICAL WARNING SIGNS
Chemical warning signs are safety symbols found on containers, especially those used in the laboratory.
The symbols are also found on tanks or containers that are used to carry, store or transport certain
chemicals. Containers holding flammable fuels such diesel, petrol and natural gas, as well as those
containing toxic chemicals normally bear warning symbols. These symbols indicate the danger (hazard)
likely to be caused by the chemicals they contain if carelessly handled.
When performing experiments in the laboratory it is important to read the safety signs on chemical
containers. This will minimize the chances of causing accidents in the laboratory.
All chemists now have to follow strict rules when handling chemicals. These rules must be obeyed
whether you are working in an industry, a research laboratory or a school laboratory.
Before your teacher does any experiment with you, he will have to check for possible hazards and will
warn you of these. It is important that you follow all instructions that you are given. There are many
hazard signs but the most common ones are shown below. These signs are called the Hazchem Code.
warning signs
Before conducting any experiment in the laboratory you must be aware whether the chemical you want
to use is toxic, corrosive, flammable, oxidant, explosive or harmful. This information will help you know
how to handle the chemicals safely. Proper handling of chemicals enables you avoid unnecessary
accidents. Below is an explanation pertaining to some hazard labels represented by the symbols above.
Toxic
Toxic substances include those that can poison you or the other person working close to you in the
laboratory. These substances can kill within a short time or after some few days. They should not be
allowed to get into your body through body orifices (month, nose, eyes, ears, etc). Neither should they be
allowed to contact your skin. They become even more dangerous when they get into the body. If it
happens that these substances touch your skin accidentally, wash it immediately with ample water.
Corrosive
Corrosive substances refer to those chemicals that can burn or corrode (eat away) your skin. They can
also corrode wood or metals. One can become blind if such substances accidentally get into his/her eyes.
If they contact your skin, wash it immediately with a lot of water. Examples of corrosive substances
commonly found in a school laboratory are concentrated mineral acids such as sulphuric acid,
hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, and concentrated alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide and ammonia.
Flammable
These chemicals catch fire easily. For this case, they should be kept away from flames or fires. They can
be set into fire by any kind of sparks, be it from welding or fire. When working with flammable chemicals
in the laboratory all burners must be put off. These chemicals are usually very volatile. The containers
used to carry them must be stoppered immediately after every use. Examples of flammable chemicals are
methylated spirit, ether, acetone and methanol.
Explosive
Explosive chemicals are those that explode rapidly upon detonation (set into fire or ignited). Because the
reaction is rapid, it results into throwing off particles at a high speed. For this reason, they should not be
kept in glass containers. This is because during explosion the particles will disperse around and cause
serious injuries to people. Those explosive chemicals that can react without external detonation are even
more dangerous
Oxidizing agents
These chemicals can stimulate a burning substance to burn efficiently and faster. Therefore, they must be
kept away from fires no matter how small that fire may be. An example of oxidizing agent is oxygen gas.
Harmful or irritant
Harmful substances are those that can impair your health or make you fall sick. They do not normally kill
instantly but have detrimental effects following a long exposure to them. These chemicals do not kill
immediately. However, care must be taken when handling or dealing with them. Irritating substances
cause pains when in contact with the body. They are dangerous to health when in contact with the body
surface for a long period of time.
Air, Combustion, Rusting and Firefighting
Total volume of air present in atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen 21% oxygen and remaining 1% is
made up of other gases such as argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon and radon.
6.1. AIR
Air is a mixture of different gases. The gases that make up the air include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, noble gases (argon, helium, neon, krypton and xenon) and a little water vapour. Air may also
contain traces of impurities such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO 2), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) and other gases. The presence of these gases in air results in air pollution. Table 6.1 shows the
composition of air by volume. The proportion of water vapour and impurities in air is very variable.
Table 6.1. The percentage composition of air by volume
Gas
Approximate percentage
Nitrogen
78.00%
Oxygen
21.00%
0.94%
Carbon dioxide
0.03%
Water vapour
0 4%
The composition of air is not exactly the same everywhere. It changes slightly from day to day and from
place to place. There is more water vapour in the air on a damp day and in air above water bodies such as
oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, etc. Over busy cities and industrial areas there is more carbon dioxide. But the
uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun causes the air to move continually, resulting in winds.
The resultant winds spread the pollutants around.
6.1.1. The composition of air by mass/weight
The determination of air by mass was carried out by Dumas in 1841. The apparatus used consists of three
units as shown in figure 6.2
heating magnesium in the residual gas from the above experiment. Magnesium and nitrogen will react
thus:
3Mg(s) + N2 (g) Mg3N2(s)
Upon treatment with water, magnesium nitrite gives ammonia gas. The gas can be recognized by its
characteristic smell and its action of turning red litmus paper to blue.
The presence of oxygen in air
Oxygen is known as the active portion of the air because it supports combustion and combines with
many other substances. Its presence and composition in air can be determined by using these properties.
Any of the following two (2) experiments can be used to determine the composition, by volume of
oxygen contained in air.
1. Experiment 6.1. Determination of the presence and proportion of oxygen in air by combustion of a
candle
Method
1. Place a small candle on a plastic lid or any object that can float. Then set up the apparatus as shown in
figure 6.3. Sodium hydroxide is used in order to absorb the carbon dioxide gas produced by a burning
candle.
2. Light the candle and place the measuring cylinder over the top. Note the level of sodium hydroxide
solution in the measuring cylinder at the start. A candle will stop burning (go off) once all the oxygen in
the cylinder is used up.
3. When the candle goes off, leave the apparatus to cool to room temperature. The purpose of cooling is
to let the heated and expanded air to return to its normal condition. Then note the level of sodium
hydroxide solution in the measuring cylinder.
Figure 6.3. Determining the presence and percentage composition of oxygen in air by burning a candle
Observation and findings
The oxygen in air enclosed in the measuring cylinder is used to burn the candle to produce carbon
dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide so produced dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution. The dissolved
carbon dioxide causes the level of sodium hydroxide solution to rise up. The oxygen gas used to burn the
candle is practically equal to the amount of carbon dioxide produced. This fact is, therefore, used to
calculate the percentage of oxygen in air.
Model results
In the experiment, the initial volume of air was found to be 70.5 cm3 and the final volume was 55 cm3. The
percentage of oxygen in the air is calculated in two steps:
1. To find the volume of oxygen used up to burn the candle (which is practically equal to the volume of
carbon dioxide produced and then absorbed by sodium hydroxide), we subtract the final volume of air
from the initial volume, i.e.
Volume or oxygen used = Initial volume of air final volume of air
3. Repeat the heating and cooling until the volume of air that remains in syringe A is constant. The copper
is heated and cooled several times to ensure that it reacts with all oxygen in the sample of air.
Figure 6.4. Determining the presence and percentage composition of oxygen in air by heating copper
Observations and findings
1. The oxygen in the air reacts with copper to form copper (II) oxide, a black solid
Copper + oxygen copper (II) oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) CuO(s)
brown metal
black solid
2. The final volume of air in the syringe, at the end of the experiment, is less than that of the original
volume. This is because oxygen in the original air has combined with copper
Model results
The volume of air in the syringe at different heating and cooling is as shown below:
Initial volume before heating = 100
Volume after first heating and cooling = 82
Volume after second heating and cooling = 79
Volume after third heating and cooling = 79
The volume of oxygen used up = Initial volume of air before cooling - volume of air after the last heating
and cooling
= 100 - 79
= 21
The percentage of oxygen in air = 21 100
100
= 21%
The presence of carbon dioxide in air
Carbon dioxide is present in air to the extent of 0.03% by volume. The gas is formed during the
combustion of all common fuels wood, coal, coke, natural gas, petrol, diesel, paraffin oil, etc, all of
which contain carbon.
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
It is breathed out as a waste product of respiration by all animals. All sorts of combustion and burning
produce carbon dioxide. The gas produced by all these processes accumulates in air. However, the
amount of carbon dioxide in air remains constant instead of the tremendous quantities released into the
atmosphere. This is because plants take up carbon dioxide. They then convert it into complex starchy
compounds during photosynthesis. The gas also dissolves in ocean water and other water bodies.
The presence of carbon dioxide in air can be shown by passing air through a test tube containing some
limewater (figure 6.5). After a time, the limewater turns milky. This shows the presence of carbon
dioxide.
The reaction involved is as follows:
Ca (OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Slaked lime
The air always contains small quantities of many gases. Such gases include hydrogen sulphide, sulphur
dioxide, as well as dust and other solid particles, especially in industrial areas. These gases are given off
during the combustion of coal, and the fuels resulting from coal.
SEPARATION OF AIR INTO ITS CONSTITUENT GASES
The air we breathe is necessary to keep us alive. It is also a chemical resource. Oxygen is used in steel
making, and nitrogen is used in making fertilizers. To use these gases in this way, they must be separated
from the atmospheric air. Air, as we studied in chapter 5, is a mixture of different gases. The method used
to separate its constituent gases is fractional distillation. The gases have to be liquefied so that the mixture
can be fractionally distilled.
The process of separating the air into its constituent gases is difficult. It cannot be done in the laboratory.
It is only done in industry. The chemical industry needs the gases from the air in their pure form.
The fractional distillation of air involves essentially two stages:
1. First, the air must be cooled until it turns into a liquid.
2. Then, the liquid air is allowed to warm up again. The various gases boil off at different temperatures.
More details are given in figure 6.7
Stage 1: Liquefaction of air
Sulphur: This is a yellow powder. When burnt in air, it gives misty fumes of sulphur dioxide gas.
Sulphur powder + air (oxygen) sulphur dioxide gas
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Copper: When a piece of copper foil in a pair of tongs is held in a Bunsen flame, it becomes red-hot. On
cooling, a black layer of some substance is observed. This black substance is copper oxide. The reaction
occurs thus:
Cooper + air (oxygen) Copper oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
Magnesium: When one end of a piece of magnesium ribbon in tongs is placed in a Bunsen flame, it burns
with a dazzling flame leaving a white ash. This white ash is magnesium oxide.
Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Hydrocarbons: These are substances containing carbon and hydrogen only. The burning of these organic
substances produces carbon dioxide and water vapour as the main products. If oxygen supply is low,
combustion is incomplete and carbon monoxide may be formed.
Candle wax is a hydrocarbon. When it burns in air, the carbon and hydrogen of the wax react with the
oxygen of the air to give carbon dioxide and water vapour respectively.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
Coal: Coal is a solid fuel that will burn in air to give the following products:
Coal ash + soot smoke + gases (carbon dioxide and steam)
6.2.3. Application of combustion in real life
1. The combustion of a natural gas is an important source of energy for homes and industry. Natural gas
is mainly methane. Its complete combustion produces carbon dioxide and water vapour.
CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Substances like methane, which undergo combustion readily and give out large amount of energy, are
known as fuels.
2. There are some reactions where fuels and other substances burn to produce a flame. These are
combustion reactions. There are also other combustion reactions (exothermic) where no flame is evident.
The most important of these is the crucial biochemical reaction that releases energy in our body cells
called cellular respiration.
Our bodies need energy to make possible the reactions that take place in our cells. These reactions allow
us to carry out our everyday activities. We need energy to stay alive. We get this energy from food.
During digestion, food is broken down into simpler substances. For example, the carbohydrates in rice,
potatoes and bread are broken down to form glucose. The combustion of glucose with oxygen in the cells
of our body provides energy.
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
6.3. RUSTING
6.3.1. The concept of rusting
Rusting is the name given to the oxidation of iron or steel in damp air. It is also called corrosion. Rust is
hydrated iron (III) oxide. It is a soft, crumbly solid and hence weakens the structure of iron and steel.
During rusting, iron reacts with oxygen to form brown iron (III) oxide
Iron + oxygen iron (III) oxide
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s)
At the same time the iron (III) oxide reacts with water to form hydrated iron (III) oxide (or rust):
Iron (III) oxide + water hydrated iron (III) oxide (rust)
Nails in tube 1 will rust. Nails in tubes 2 and 3 will not rust.
Reasons
In tube 1, nails are in contact with both water and air (oxygen). In tube 2, the water has been boiled to
expel the dissolved air. In addition, any air above the water is prevented from dissolving in boiled water
by a layer of oil. So, the nails are completely shielded away from air. Therefore, rusting is impossible. In
tube 3, nails are in contact with air only. The moisture present in air is absorbed by anhydrous calcium
chloride. Any moisture that might have been absorbed by the anhydrous calcium chloride is prevented
from reaching the nails by a tuft of cotton wool. The cotton wool also absorbs some moisture directly
from the air. Therefore, tube 3 will always carry dry air (moisture-free air). Hence, no rusting of iron nails
occurs.
This experiment demonstrates the fact that for iron to rust, both water and air (oxygen) must be present.
If one of these conditions is controlled, no rusting can take place.
Similarity between rusting and burning
Chemically, rusting and burning are similar processes in that they both require oxygen.
Consider the burning of magnesium to give magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
In this process, magnesium combines with the oxygen of the air to form magnesium oxide.
During rusting, iron combines with oxygen of the air in the presence of water to form brown hydrated
iron (III) oxide, "rust."
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s)
In addition, the two processes, burning and rusting, are exactly similar in that they both generate heat.
The only difference is in the time required for each of the two processes to take place. During rusting heat
is given out, but without being noticed because of its slower rate of production. Burning produces
noticeable heat and light.
6.3.3. METHODS OF PREVENTING RUSTING
We have learned that for iron to rust there must be direct contact between the iron and both water and
oxygen from the air. Therefore, in order to stop rusting we must protect iron from either water (moisture)
or oxygen (air) or both. The following are some of the methods used to prevent iron from rusting:
Painting
Painting the iron article creates a waterproof and airproof cover over the surface of the iron. This method
is widespread for objects ranging in size from ships and bridges to garden gates. Paints that contain lead
or zinc are mostly used. These paints are especially good for preventing rusting. For example, "red lead"
paints contain an oxide of lead, Pb3O4.
As oxygen and water cannot reach the iron, it does not rust. However, if the paint layer is scratched off
rusting may occur. So, regular repainting is necessary to keep this protection intact.
Oiling and greasing
The oiling and/or greasing of the moving parts of machinery forms a protective film, preventing rusting.
Moving parts cannot be painted since the paint layer can be easily scratched off during movement. Again,
the treatment must be repeated to continue the protection.
Plastic coating
Steel is coated with plastic for use in garden chairs, refrigerators, bicycle baskets, dish racks, etc. The
plastic PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a trade name for polychloroethene, is often used for this purpose. Plastic
is cheap and can be made to look attractive.
Electroplating
Electroplating is the coating of one metal with a layer of another metal by means of electrolysis, where the
metal to be coated is the cathode and the coating metal the anode.
An iron or steel object can be electroplated with a layer of chromium or tin to protect against rusting. A
tin can is made of steel coated on both sides with a fine layer of tin. Tin is used because it is unreactive
and non-toxic. However, if protective layer is broken, then the steel beneath will begin to rust. So, proper
handling of tin-plated items is needed.
Galvanizing
An iron object may be covered with a layer of zinc. This is called galvanizing. Even if the zinc is scratched
to expose the iron, the iron does not rust. This is because zinc is higher in the reactivity series than iron.
So, zinc reacts with water and oxygen in preference to iron.
The zinc layer can be applied by several different methods. These include electroplating or dipping the
object into molten zinc. When an iron or steel article is dipped into molten zinc and then removed, it
becomes coated with a thin layer of zinc. The zinc forms a protective coat over the surface of iron. This
process is used for dustbins, car bodies, barbed wires and motorway crash barriers.
Sacrificial protection
This is a method of rust protection in which blocks of a metal more reactive than iron are attached to the
iron surface. Zinc and magnesium are more reactive than iron. When blocks of zinc or magnesium are
attached to the hull of a steel ship or oil rig, it corrodes in preference to iron. This is called sacrificial
protection because the zinc or magnesium is sacrificed to protect the iron. When the blocks are nearly
eaten away, they can be replaced by fresh blocks. Underground gas and water pipes are connected by
wire to blocks of magnesium to obtain the same protection.
It is not necessary to cover the whole surface of a steel article with the more reactive metal for sacrificial
protection to work. A ship may have magnesium blocks riveted to its hull every few metres to prevent
rusting of the whole hull.
Figure 6.9. Blocks of zinc (or magnesium) attached to the hull of a ship
Alloying
Alloys are mixtures of metals. For example, iron can be mixed with small quantities of much less reactive
metals to form an alloy called stainless steel. Stainless steel contains iron mixed with chromium, nickel and
manganese. Stainless steel does not rust. It also has a very attractive appearance. It is used to make
cutlery and kitchen equipment.
Use of silica gel
Silica is a common name for silicon dioxide (SiO2). Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, highly porous form of
silica made synthetically from sodium silicate. Despite its name, silica gel is a solid. It is used as a
desiccant, which absorbs moisture to prevent rusting of iron items or articles. Most often, a small bag of
silica gel is put inside bags or boxes used for storing or carrying iron items to absorb any moisture that
may cause rusting.
6.4. FIREFIGHTING
Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A fire fighter fights these fires to prevent
destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical profession that
requires training and education in order to become proficient.
6.4.1. Classification of fire
Before starting to fight the fire, it is important to know the size and type of the fire that you are going to
put off. The kind of firefighting material you are going to use will also depend on the type of fire in
question. Fires are classified based on the type of burning materials.
1. Class A fires
These are the fires in which the burning materials are ordinary combustible materials such as paper,
wood, cardboard, coal, rubber, clothing, furniture and most plastics. Water is the best extinguisher for
these fires. However, any other type of extinguisher, except carbon dioxide, may be used.
2. Class B fires
These fires involve flammable liquids such as petrol, kerosene, oil, alcohol, ether, vanishes, etc. For small
fires, a fire blanket or sand may be used. If the fire is large, use foam, dry powder or carbon dioxide
extinguisher. Water should not be used on class B fires because the burning material, being lighter than
water, will just float and spread the fire further.
3. Class C fires
The burning material involves flammable gases e.g. hydrogen, acetylene, coal gas, butane, methane,
propane, etc. The best extinguishers to use in fighting against these fires are foam, dry powder or carbon
dioxide extinguishers. It is important to turn off the gas supply, and spray water on the gas tank to cool it
down.
4. Class D fires
The burning material is a metal. Alkali metals such as sodium or potassium may catch fire when they
come in contact with water and oxygen. At high temperatures, many metals react with oxygen
vigorously. Fires that involve burning metals should not be extinguished by water. This is because the
burning metal can react with water to give hydrogen (another potential fuel). The appropriate
extinguisher to use is foam or dry powder extinguisher.
5. Class E fires
These fires involve electrical equipment such as appliances, wiring, circuit breakers and outlets. You may
use carbon dioxide or dry powder extinguisher to put off these fires. Never use water as it can conduct
electricity and give an electric shock. Also remember to switch off power from the mains.
6. Class F fires
The burning material is cooking oil or fat. A cooking oil fire in the kitchen can be extinguished by
covering the pan with a fire blanket or damp cloth. Foam, dry powder or carbon dioxide extinguishers
also work by cutting off the air supply to the fire. For large fires, wet chemical extinguishers are
recommended.
6.4.2. Choosing fire extinguishers
Before choosing the best fire extinguishers for fighting different types of fires it is crucial to identify the
type of burning materials first, and hence the type of fire such as:
Class A: Solids such as paper, wood, clothing, rubber, etc
Class B: Flammable liquids such as paraffin, petrol, oil, spirit, alcohol, etc.
To extinguish fire, it is necessary to remove one or more of the three components of combustion. Any fire
needs a fuel, oxygen (air) and heat to keep it going. Remove any one of them and the fire will go out.
These components are as shown in the fire triangle below.
vapourization of water absorbs the heat; it cools the smoke, air, walls, objects etc, which could be used as
further fuel.
6.4.5. Types of portable fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are classified according to the type of chemicals they contain
1. Liquid carbon dioxide extinguisher
This extinguisher contains liquid carbon dioxide. The liquid is contained in a metal container. When the
safety pin is removed, carbon dioxide evaporates as solid "snow" (carbon dioxide sublimes). The snow
settles on the fire and suffocates it.
2. Soda-acid extinguisher
This extinguisher has a metal case containing soda (aqueous sodium carbonate or sodium hydrogen
carbonate). In the metal case there is a glass bottle containing a concentrated acid (sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid). There is a knob attached to the top of a metal case. Hitting this knob breaks the acid
bottle thus bringing the acid and the soda into contact. The two react to give carbon dioxide, e.g.
NaHCO3 (aq) + HC l (l) CO2 (g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
The gas forms bubbles with the solution, thereby forming foam which is forced out of a jet of the case.
The foam is directed to the fire where it covers the burning liquid, excluding all air from reaching the fire.
Some extinguishers are made in such a way that turning them upside down brings the soda and acid into
contact and the reaction proceeds as stated above.
Type
Chemical composition
of agent
Suitable for
Unsuitable for
APW (Airpressurized
water)
Class A
Dry chemical
(DC)
Class A, B,
C and E
CO2
Halon
Non-flammable carbon
dioxide gas under
extreme pressure
Class B, C
and E
Bromochloro-difluoromethane
Class A and
E
Proteins and
Class A and
B
Class E
Potassium acetate
Class F
Class E
Mono-ammonium
phosphate with a
nitrogen carrier
Class A,
Class B and
C
Powders of NaCl, Cu or
graphite under extreme
pressure
Class D
Class A, B, C, E and F
Foam
fluoro-proteins
Wet chemical
(WC)
ABC
Specialist
powder
(SP)
5. When a fire gets out of control, notify the nearest fire brigade.