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GeoExploLtda.

GeophysicalAirborneSurvey
ElectroMagneticMethods(EM)

SantiagoChile
Tel(562)3265116
Email:surveys@newsense.com

BacktoHomePage
Dr.W.E.S.(Ted)Urquhart

ElectroMagneticAirborneSurveys
Abstract
ThispaperonairborneElectromagnetic
(AEM)techniquesdealswithanumberof
topicsrelatingtoairborneEMsurvey
systemsandmethods.TheseAEMtopics
include:BasicPrinciples,Transient
AirborneElectromagnetics,Frequency
DomainAirborneElectromagnetics,
AirborneVLFElectromagnetics,Factors
AffectingDetectability,Combined
AEM/MagnetometerSurveys,SurveyData
PresentationandInterpretation.

TableofContents
3.AIRBORNEELECTROMAGNETIC
SURVEYS
3.1BasicPrinciples
3.1aTransientAirborneElectromagnetics
3.1bFrequencyDomainAirborne
Electromagnetics
3.1cAirborneVLFElectromagnetics
3.2FactorsAffectingDetectability

3.3CombinedAEM/MagnetometerSurveys
OtherUsefulLinks
TheBerkeley
Coursein
TheBerkeleyCoursein
Applied
AppliedGeophysics
Geophysics
(EM)
(EM)

3.4SurveyDataPresentation
3.5Interpretation
3.5aOtherInterpretationMethods
Appendix1.TypicalElectricalProperties
SelectedBibliography
ReturntoTableofContents

3.AirborneElectromagneticSurveys
ThegeneralobjectiveofAEM(AirborneElectroMagnetic) SURVEYS istoconductarapidand
relativelylowcostsearchformetallicconductors,e.g.massivesulphides,locatedinbedrockandoften
underacoverofoverburdenand/orfreshwater.Thismethodcanbeappliedinmostgeological
environmentsexceptwherethecountryrockishighlyconductiveorwhereoverburdenisboththickand
conductive.Itisequallywellsuitedandappliedtogeneralgeologicmapping,aswellastoavarietyof
engineeringproblems(e.g.,freshwaterexploration.)
Semiaridareas,particularlywithinternaldrainage,areusuallypoorAEMenvironments.Tidalcoasts
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andestuariesshouldbeavoided.Weatheredmaificflowscanprovidestronglyconductivebackgrounds,
particularlyflowsofTertiaryorQuaternaryage.
Conductivitiesofgeologicalmaterialsrangeoversevenordersofmagnitude,withthestrongestEM
responsescomingfrommassivesulphides,followedindecreasingorderofintensitybygraphite,
unconsolidatedsediments(clay,tills,andgravel/sand),andigneousandmetamorphicrocks.
Consolidatedsedimentaryrockscanrangeinconductivityfromthelevelofgraphite(e.g.shales)downto
lessthanthemostresistiveigneousmaterials(e.g.dolomitesandlimestones).Freshwaterishighly
resistive.However,whencontaminatedbydecaymaterial,suchlakebottomsediments,swamps,etc.,it
maydisplayconductivityroughlyequivalenttoclayandsaltwatertographiteandsulphides.
Typically,graphite,pyriteandorpyrrhotiteareresponsiblefortheobservedbedrockAEMresponses.
ThefollowingexamplessuggestpossibletargettypesandwehaveindicatethegradeoftheAEM
responsethatcanbeexpectedfromthesetargets.
MassivevolcanosedimentarystrataboundsulphideoresofCu,Pb,Zn,(andpreciousmetals),
usuallywithpyriteand/orpyrrhotite.FairtogoodAEMtargets ACCOUNTING forthe
majorityofAEMsurveys.
CarbonatehostedPbZn,oftenwithmarcasite,pyrite,orpyrrhotite,andsometimesassociatedwith
graphitichorizons.FairtopoorAEMtargets.
MassivepyrrhotitepentlanditebodiescontainingNiandsometimesCuandpreciousmetals
associatedwithnoriticorothermafic/ultramaficintrusiverocks.FairtogoodAEMtargets.
Vein DEPOSITS ofAg,oftenwithSb,Cu,Co,Ni,andpyriteinvolcanicandsedimentary
rocks.GenerallypoorAEMtargets.
QuartzveinscontainingAuwithpyrite,sometimesalsowithSb,Ag,Bi,etc.,involcanicor
sedimentary(andpossiblyintrusive)rocks.PoorAEMtargets.
Skarn DEPOSITS ofCu,Zn,Pb,andpreciousmetals,usuallywithpyriteandmagnetite,around
igneousintrusions.FairtopoorAEMtargets.
Conductivetargetscanbeconcealedbyothergeologicalconductors,"geologicalnoise",suchas:
Lateralvariationsinconductiveoverburden.
Graphiticbandsinmetamorphosedcountryrock.
Altered(toclayfacies)maficultramaificrocks.
Faultsandshearzonescarryingappreciablegroundwaterand/orclaygouge.
Magnetitebandsinserpentinizedultramafics.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.1BasicPrinciples
Electromagneticinductionprospectingmethods,bothairborneand(most)groundtechniques,makeuse
ofmanmadeprimaryelectromagneticfieldsin,roughly,thefollowingway:Analternatingmagnetic
fieldisestablishedbypassingacurrentthroughacoil,(oralongalongwire).Thefieldismeasuredwith
areceiverconsistingofasensitiveelectronicamplifierandmeterorpotentiometerbridge.Thefrequency
ofthealternatingcurrentischosensuchthataninsignificanteddycurrentfieldisinducedintheground
ifithasanaverageelectricalconductivity,
Ifthesourceandreceiverarebroughtnearamoreconductivezone,strongereddycurrentsmaybe
causedtocirculatewithinitandanappreciablesecondarymagneticfieldwilltherebybecreated.Closeto
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theconductor,thissecondaryoranomalousfieldmaybecomparedinmagnitudetothe PRIMARY
normalfield(whichprevailsintheabsenceofconductors),inwhichcaseitcanbedetectedbythe
receiver.Thesecondaryfieldstrength,Hs,isusuallymeasuredasaproportionoftheprimaryfield
strength,Hp,atthereceiverinpercentorppm(partspermillion).

or

Anomaly=Hs/Hp.
Increasingtheprimaryfieldstrengthincreasesthesecondaryfieldstrengthproportionallybutthe
"anomaly"measuredinppmorpercentremainsthesame.
Figure3.11,from GRANT

andWest,illustratesthegeneralprincipleofelectromagneticprospecting.

Figure3.11:Ageneralizedpictureofelectromagneticinductionprospecting.
Prospectingforanomalouszonesiscarriedoutbysystematicallytraversingthegroundeitherwiththe
receiveraloneorwiththesourceandreceiverincombination,dependingonthesysteminuse.Inthe
caseofairbornesystems,thereceivercoilsareusuallyinatowedbirdandthetransmittermaybealarge
coilencirclingafixedwingaircraft,e.g.INPUTsystems,oroneormoresmallcoilsinthesamebirdthat
housesthetransmittingcoils,e.g.mostHEM(HelicopterEM)systems.
Therearetwodifferentbasicsystemscommonlyusedtogenerateandreceivetheelectromagneticfield:
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transientor"timedomain"systemslikeINPUT,GEOTEMandMEGATEManda/c."frequencydomain"
systemslikemostHEMsystems.
ReturntoTableofContents

TransientAirborneElectromagnetics
Historically,themostcommonlyencounteredsystemofthistypewastheINPUTsystem.Thenewer
systemsGEOTEMandMEGATEM(FugroAirborneSurveys)functioninasimilarwaytoINPUT,Thus
forsymplicitywewillexamineonlytheINPUTsystem.Forthosewhowouldliketoknowmoreabout
thenewersystemspleaselinktoGEOTEM,MEGATEM,orTEMPESTofFugroAirborneSurveys.
IntheINPUTsystemthetransmittingcoil,usuallyencirclingafixedwingaircraft,isenergizedbywhat
is,essentially,astepcurrent.Intheabsenceofconductors,asharptransientpulseproportionaltothe
timederivativeofthemagneticfieldisinducedinthereceiver.Whenaconductorispresent,however,a
suddenchangeinmagneticfieldintensitywillinduceinitaflowofcurrentintheconductorwhichwill
tendtoslowthedecayofthefield.Figure3.12illustratesthissituation.Theswitchingisrepeated
severaltimesasecondastheaircraftfollowsitsflightline,sothatthesignalisvirtually
CONTINUOUS .
Thereceiver"listens"onlywhilethetransmitteris"quiet"sothatproblemsarisingoutofrelativemotion
betweentransmitterandreceiver,becausethereceiveristowedinabirdbehindtheaircraft,arevirtually
eliminated.Moreover,iftheentiredecayofthesecondaryfieldcouldbeobserved,theresponsewouldbe
equivalenttoACmeasurementsmadeoverthewholeofthefrequencyspectrum.Itisimportanttonote
inthisconnection,however,thatnotthedecayfunctionitselfbutonlyitstimederivativecanberecorded
ifacoilisusedasthedetector.Thismeansthattheanomalousfieldswhichdecayveryslowlyare
suppressedinamplitudemorethantheothers,andsincethesearetheveryonesgenerallyassociatedwith
goodconductors,therewouldseemtobeaninherentweaknessinthissystem.Becauseitisdifficultto
preciselysynchronizetheinstantwhenthetransmitterbecomes"quiet"withtheinstantthatthereceiver
BEGINS to"listen",itisnearlyimpossibletorecordtheentirefunction.Thisisequivalenttobeing
unabletorecordmanyofthelowerfrequenciesintheacspectrum.Thshouldbenoted,however,thatin
thepastseveralyears,significantprogresshasbeenmadeinmeasuringtheearlytimeresponse.

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Figure3.12:AsketchoftheINPUTtransientairborneEM SYSTEM operation.Theprimaryfieldisa

stepfunctionandthereceiverrecordsthedecayofthefieldafterthetransmitterstopstransmitting.
(GrantandWest1965)
Typically,thetimederivativeofthedecayfunctionismeasuredusingfromsixtotwelvedifferenttime
delaysfromtheinstantthattransmitterstopstransmittingbeforerecordingthesignalreceived.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.1bFrequencyDomainAirborneElectromagnetics
Historically,allhelicopterborneelectromagnetic(HEM)systems,whereofthistype.Thereareanumber
ofnewersystemsthatemploythetransienttechniquesimilartotheINPUTsystembutthesewillnotbe
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discussedhereastheyareasyetnotwidelyused.
InthetypicalfrequencydomainhelicopterEM SYSTEM (HEM)boththetransmittingcoilsetandthe
receivercoilsetarehousedinarigidboomor"bird"thatistowedbeneaththehelicopter.Commonly,
thisboomisfromthreetofivemeterslongandcontainsfromtwotosixcoilpairs.Usually,halfofthe
coilsineachofthetransmittersetandthereceiversetare"coaxial",i.e.anaxisnormaltotheplaneof
thecoilspassesthroughthecentreofbothcoils.Thesecondhalfofthecoilsetsarenormally"coplanar",
beingequivalenttoboththetransmittingandreceivingcoillyingflatontheground.Othercoplanar
orientationshavebeenusedoccasionally.Adiagramofthissystemisshowninfigure3.13.Forclarity,
theboomisshownoversizedinthisdiagram.Notethestabilizingairfoilattachedtooneendofthebird.

Figure3.13:SketchofatypicalHEM SYSTEM

configuration.

Thissystemoperatesinpreciselythemannerdescribedinsection3.1.Thereceivermeasurestheinphase
andoutofphase,orquadrature,ofthesecondaryfield,expressedinppmoftheprimaryfield.Aswewill
discussintheinterpretationsection,thetwodifferentcoilorientationsprovidedatathatisusefulin
discriminatingbetweendikelikeconductorsthathaveconsiderableverticalextentandmaybeore
bodies,andhorizontalsheetlikeconductorsthataresimplyconductiveoverburden.Thetwocoil
orientationsalsoprovideadditionalinformationaboutthegeometryofthetargetbody.Asisillustratedin
thediagram,thesystemincludesasecondbirdcarryingamagnetometer.Themagneticdataisoften
usefulindiscriminatingbetweenmetallicandnonmetallicconductorsandtoassistininterpretingthe
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geologicalsettingoftheconductor.SometimesaVLFreceiverisalsoincluded.

Figure3.14showsaphotographofoneofatypicalHEMsystemsbeinglaunchedfor SURVEY
operations.Thissystemincludescoaxialandcoplanarcoilpairstomeasuretheelectromagneticfieldat
fourfrequenciessimultaneously."Clicking"themouseoverthepicturewillenlargethepicture(27kb).
Figure3.14:ThetypicalHEMbirdconfigurationbeinglaunchedfor SURVEY operations.Notethat
thissystemalsoincludesamagnetometerbirdbetweenthehelicopterandtheEMbird.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.1cAirborneVLFElectromagnetics
WithVLFsystemstheprimaryfieldissuppliedbypowerfulradiotransmittersusedformilitary
communicationsandnavigation.Thereceiverusuallyconsistsofacoilandsupportingelectronicstowed
inabird.Figure3.15showsthepositionsofcurrentVLFEMtransmittersandapproximaterangesof
reception.

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Figure3.15:ThelocationsandrangesofVLFEMtransmittingstations.
Becausetheavailablefrequenciesarehigh(1522Khz)thesystemsareparticularlysusceptibleto
geologicnoise.Also,becausethetransmittersarecontrolledbythemilitary,theymaynotalwaysbe
operatingfortheentireperiodthata SURVEY isinprogress.Theyarealsolimitedintermsof
availableprimaryfielddirectionswhichwillnotalwaysbewellcoupledwiththefavorablegeologic
strike.
Note:Anumberofthestationsshownintheabovepicturearenolongeroperating.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.2FactorsAffectingDetectability
Thereareatleastsixfactorsthatdeterminewhetherornotaparticularconductorwillbedetectablewith
anyEMsystem.

1.Signaltonoiseratio:
Inpractice,becauseof"systemnoise"(Ns)and"geologicalnoise"(Ng),theabilityofasystemto
recognizeandmeasureananomalyislimitedbythe"signaltonoise"ratio:
Signaltonoise=Hs/(Ns+Ng)
BecauseHsandNgareproportionaltotheprimaryfieldstrengthHp,andNs,infrequencydomain
systems,usuallycontainselementsproportionaltoHp,thereislittletobegainedbyincreasingthe
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primaryfieldpower.IntimedomainsystemsNsisnotgreatlyaffectedbyHp,soextrapowerdoesresult
inincreasedsignaltonoise.Attemptstoincreasethesignaltonoisearesometimesmadebyincreasing
thedistancebetweenthetransmitterandreceiver.ThisresultsinroughlythesameHsandNgbutoftena
lowersystemnoiseNs.Howeverthelongerbirdrequiredtoachievethisismorepronetoflex,andthus
mayactuallydisplayincreasedsystemnoiseNs.Inaddition,thelargerbirdisheavierandmoredifficult
tohandleandthusmayreducesurveyproductivity,increasingcost.InconductiveareasNgmaybe
higher,therebyoffsettinganyadvantageoflowerNs.

2.Penetration
ThepenetrationofanAEMsystemisitseffectivedepthofexploration.Commonly,thisistakento
includetheelevationofthesystemaboveground,asthisisalsoaffectedbylocalenvironmentandflying
conditions.
Ingeneral,systemswithlargetransmitterreceivercoilseparation,usuallyreferredtoasTxRx,have
greaterpenetrationthanthosewithsmallseparations.Penetrationiscloselyrelatedtosignaltonoise,as
thesystemthatproducesalargeranomalyfromagivenconductorcan,of COURSE ,lookfurtherinto
theground.Penetrationisusuallydefinedasthemaximumdepthatwhichalargeverticalsheetwill
producearecognizableanomalyofatleasttwicetheamplitudeofthesystemnoise.

3.Discrimination
ThediscriminationofanAEMsystemistheabilityofthesystemtodifferentiatebetweenconductorsof
differentphysicalpropertiesorgeometricshapes.Discrimination,particularlybetweenflatlyingsurficial
conductorsandsteeplydippingconductors,isvitallyimportant.Gooddiscriminationcanbeachievedin
HEMsystemsbyusingseveralfrequenciesandbothcoaxialandcoplanarcoilpairs.

4.Resolution
ResolutionreferstotheabilityofanAEMsystemtorecognizeandseparatetheinterferingeffectsof
nearbyconductors.Asystemthatdoesthiswellalsoproducessharpanomaliesoverisolatedordiscrete
conductors.Resolutiongenerallyincreaseswithdecreasingflightelevationandcoilseparation.Typically
theHEMsystemshavebetterresolutionthanthefixedwingtimedomainsystems.

5.ConductivityWidthAperture
AllAEMsystemsare,tosomeextent,aperturelimited.Belowacertain"responsefactor",which
includestheconductivityanddimensionsoftheconductor,theanomalyproducedbythesystemwillbe
belowtherecognitionlevel.Attheupperendoftheresponsefactor,somesystemsarelimitedandothers
arenot.Theonesthatarenotlimitedsometimesceasetobemultichannelsystemsandlosetheir
discrimination.TimedomainsystemslikeINPUTareaperturelimited.

6.LateralCoverage
Inadditiontopenetration,thelateralcoverageofanAEMsystemisimportantbecauseitdictates,to
someextent,themaximumdistancebetweensurveylines,whichinturnaffectsthecostofexploration.
Alternatively,atagivensurveylinespacing,asystemwithgoodlateralcoveragewillhaveabetter
chanceofdetectingaconductorthatliesbetweentwosurveylines.Likepenetration,lateralcoverage
generallyincreaseswithincreasingcoilseparation.
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ReturntoTableofContents

3.3CombinedAEM/MagnetometerSurveys
Ingeneraltherearethreestepsinvolvedinplanningasurveyofthistype.Wewilloutlinethesestepsand
thengiveafewexamplesofhowtoplan THESURVEY .

Step1.DefinetheTargetandGeologicalEnvironment

Target

Definingparameters

Largemassivesulphidelens
Smallmassivesulphidelens
Veinsorotherdiscontinuous
mineralization
Shearzoneorfracturehostednon
conductors

Type,attitude,strikeandcomposition.
Type,shape,attitudeandcomposition
Type,extent,strikeandmineral
assemblage.
Type,strike,alteration,watercontent

Geologicalenvironmentcriteria.
Depthandconductivityoftheoverburden.Considertheunderlyingbedrockgeology,residualor
transportedsoil,andtheQuaternaryhistoryofthearea.
Theconductivityofthebedrockandthepresenceofbedrockconductors.
Thestrikeanddipoftheformations.
Thepossiblepresenceofmagneticbodies.
Thedepthrangetotheconductorsof INTEREST .

Step2.DetermineFactorsAffecting SURVEY Performance

Thetopographyandphysiographyofthearea:
Istheareaflatorhilly?Onlyahelicoptercanmaintainrequiredgroundclearancesafelyinhilly
terrain.
Theextentandheightoftreecoverwilleffectflightelevation.
Presenceofculturalfeatureslikepipelinesorotherconductorsandorinterferencefrompower
linesmaybeimportant.
Determineaccesstotheareaandtherequiredlogistics.Thesefactorswillaffect SURVEY
productionandthereforecost.
Mobilizationtoandfromthearea:howfarandhowlong?
Ferrydistancefrombasecampto THESURVEY area(s).
Theshapeandsizeof SURVEY block(s).Linelength,spacingandthetotalkilometeragewill
affectsurveyproductionandthereforecost.
Presenceofobstructionssuchaspowerlinesortowersthatmycauseasafetyriskforlowflying
aircraftand/orbirdandcableassembly

Step3. SELECT theAEM SYSTEM

ThefollowingareexamplesofdifferenttargetsinthreeareasinCanada(SeminarpresentedbyDr.N.
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Paterson).Thetarget,andtopographic/physiographicconditionsalsodifferbetweentheseareas.

Target1:
AlargestrataboundvolcanogenicCuZnsulphidebodysomewhereina1000km2areainnorthwest
Quebec.Thick(30to60meter),partlyconductiveoverburdencoversacountryrockthatisamixtureof
felsicandintermediatemetavolcanics,greywacke,quartzite,bandedironformation,intrusivegraniteand
minorgabbro.TheareaisflatandswampyandtheonlyaccessisfromMattagami,150km.away.The
areaistobeflowninsummer.
AEMsystemrequirements:
Goodpenetration.
Tolerancetoconductiveoverburden.
Gooddiscriminationbecausegeologicconductorssuchasgraphite,sulphideandironformationare
likely.
Goodlateralcoverageandaperturearedesirable.
Lowflyingcostifpossible.
Appropriatesystems:
HelicopterEM:willrequireaflycampandgasolinedump.Mayberelativelyexpensive,
especiallyifthelinespacingmustbereducedbecauseoflimitedlateralcoverageofthesystem.
Thissystemwillproducethebestdiscriminationbetweengraphiticandsulphideconductorsand
hasgoodsurficialtobedrockdiscrimination.
INPUT:hasthenecessarycharacteristicsbutcouldhaveaproblemwithatmosphericnoiseinthe
summermonths.A400meterlinespacingwouldbeappropriatesocostwouldberelativelylow
butdoesnothaveasgooddiscriminationastheHEMsystem.

Target2:
AlargestrataboundmassivePbZnbodyin150km2areaintheYukon.Verysteeptopography.Little
overburdenexceptinvalleys.Hightreecover.Countryrockisphyllite,argillite,shist,intermediate
volcanicsandgranite.Theareais130km.fromRossRiver,Yukonand25kmfromaprivateairstripat
Anvil.Theareaistobesurveyedinsummer.
AEMsystemrequirements:
Gooddiscriminationandresolutionbecausetheexpectedgraphiticconductorsareimportant
markers.
Goodsensitivitytopoorconductors.Thisrequiresthathighfrequenciesbeavailable.
Goodperformanceinsteepterrain.
Adequatepenetrationofatleast75meters.
Flightlinesareshortsotheaircraftmusthavegoodturnaroundcapability.
Becausethe PROGRAM issmall,mobilizationcostsmustbelow.
Appropriatesystems:
MulticoilHelicopterEMwithatleastonefrequencyover3000Hzhasallofthenecessary
characteristics.Thistypeofsystemcanbe INSTALLED inalocalhelicopterarepreferablein
ordertoreducemobilizationcosts.150mlinespacingisappropriate.
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Target3:
SmallCuZnsulphidelensessomewhereina500km2kilometreareaofnorthwestNewfoundland.The
bedrockisintermediatemaficmetavolcanicswithsomeultramaficintrusivesandminormetasediments.
Theterrainismoderatelyhillycoveredby1020meterhightrees.Thereislittleoverburdenandwhat
thereis,isvirtuallynonconductive.Thereisgoodaccesstovillagesintheareabyroadandthenearest
airstrip,Cornerbrook,is120km.away.Theareaistobeflowninwinter.
AEMsystemrequirements:
Goodresolutionbecausethemineralizationis,typically,insmallpods,ofteningraphitichostrock
andsometimesassteeplydippingpipes.
Goodresponsetopoorconductors.Typicalmassivesulphideconductanceintheareais13mhos.
Thehostrockandtheoverburdenarerelativelynonconductive.
Goodlateralcoverageisrequiredbecausetheconductorsareofirregularstrikeanddip.
Adepthofpenetrationofabout75metersisadequate.
Appropriatesystems:
AmulticoilhelicopterEM SYSTEM withatleastonefrequencyover3000hzand,perhaps,
withVLF.InthiscasetheVLFmayaddaperture,lateralcoverageandpenetration,andhelpto
discriminatebetweenlong(formational)andshort(lenstype)conductorsatverylowadditional
cost.Thesystemcanbebasedinavillageinthearea.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.4SurveyDataPresentation
Inadditiontoadigitaldatafile,theresultsofanAEMsurvey,thedata,ispresentedinavarietyof
formats.SomecontractorsonlypresenttheEManomalylocationsplottedontheflightpathmaps,
togetherwithacodingindicatinganomalystrengthsandcertainparametersderivedbycomputer
modelingtheanomalysourcesasverticalsheets.Beforetheadventofpersonalcomputerswiththeir
interactivedisplaycapabilities,stackedprofilesoftheEM,altimeter,magnetic,andsometimes,spheric
noisedatausedtobeacommonformofdatapresentation.However,becausehandlingthelargeamount
ofpaperinvolvedwasalwaysanoneroustaskandmostexplorationistscannowdisplayprofiles,using
theircomputer,directlyfromthedigitaldatabase,itisnolongercommontoproducehardcopyprofile
displays.

TypicallycontractorspresentEMdataintwoprincipleformats:
Asprofilemapsshowingtheinphaseandquadraturecomponentsofcomplimentarycoaxialand
coplanarfrequencypairsplottedascolouredprofilesontheflightpath.Thismapalsoshowsthe
locationsofsignificantEManomaliesdisplayedusinganiconcodeto INDICATE the
CALCULATED conductivitythicknessproductofthesourceassumingthatitisavertical
sheet.Theprocessof"picking"andmodelingtheseanomalieswillbedescribedinmoredetailin
theinterpretationsection.
Asacolouredmapoftheapparentresistivitywithembeddedcontourscalculatedfromthecoplanar
orcoaxialEMdata.Thismapshowstheapparentgroundresistivityassumingthegroundtobeof
uniformconductivitybothlaterallyandvertically.Thesemapsarehelpfulinoutliningconductive
overburdenandshowingdiscretebedrockconductors.Actualvaluesofresistivitybearlittle
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relationtothetrueresistivitiesoftheoverburdenorbedrockfeatures.

Figure3.41illustratesatypicalsuiteoffinalmapsofboththemagneticdataandtheEMdata,including
theinterpretationmap,thatsurveycontractorwoulddeliverafterthe COMPLETION ofa
combinationMagneticHEMsurveyoperationsandtherequiredcompilationandinterpretationphasesof
dataanalysis.Movingthemouseoverthepictureswillallowyoutoseedifferentpresentations.
"Clicking"onthevisibleversionwillproduceanenlargement.

Figure3.41:AtypicalInterpretationmapthatresultcombinedHEMandmagnetic SURVEY
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ReturntoTableofContents

3.5Interpretation
Mostsurveycontractorslimittheirinterpretationtoasystematicanalysisofthemorepromising
anomaliesusingaverticalsheetastheconductormodel.Thisisnormallydone,usinga
COMPUTERPROGRAM ,afterthelocalbaselevelforestimatinganomalyamplitudeshasbeen
carefullydetermined.Anomalyselectionisdoneby,judiciously,usingtheshapeofcalculatedmodelsof
variousconductors,verticalsheets,flatlyingsurficialsheets,etc.similartotheonesshowninfigure3.5
1.

Figure3.51:AsketchillustratingthetheoreticalHEManomaliescausedbysimpleconductorshapes.
Whenmultipleconductorsare PRESENT ,theshapesillustratedwillbemodifiedbyneighbouring
anomalies.
Nomogramsexist,suchastheoneillustratedinfigure3.52bywhichsimilaranalysiscanbemadefrom
profiledata.Bothproceduresproduceestimatesofconductance,calledtheconductivitythickness
product(whichistheproductoftheconductivityofthetabularsourceanditsthickness),andthedepthto
thesourcefromthesensor.Thesensorheight,asrecordedbytheradaraltimeter,isthensubtractedfrom
thedepthtogiveanapparentdepthbelowground.
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Somecontractorshavedevelopedinteractivecomputerprogramsthatallowstheinterpreterto"pick"the
anomaliesdirectlyfromadisplayonthecomputerscreenandimmediatelyseetheresultsofthe
conductance/depthcalculation.Thispermitstheinterpretertoalterboththemapscaleandtheprofile
datascalequicklyto INSURE thatallfeatures,regardlessofamplitude,arefullyassessed.

Figure3.52:Anomogramusedtoestimatetheconductivitythickness PRODUCT
source.

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anddepthtothe

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Figure3.53:Thisprofilemap SHOWS

atypicalbedrockconductoranomaly.

Infigure3.53,notethattheanomalyhasacharacteristicsignature.Thepositivecoaxialresponse(the
redlinefortheinphasecomponentandtheblueforthequadrature)ismirroredbyalowinthecoplanar
response(maroonforinphaseandtealforquadrature).
Figures3.54and3.55illustratethesignaturesofasurficialconductorandofaconductorwhich
containssignificantmagnetitecontent.Notethatthesurficialconductorisbroadandlacksthehigh
coaxial/lowcoplanarresponseoftheverticalsheetanomalyinfigure3.53.Themagnetiteresponseis
negativeintheinphasecomponent.

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Figure3.54:TypicalsignatureofanHEManomaliesduetonearsurface"surficial"material.Notethat
thequadratureresponseofthecoaxial,(blue),andcoplanar,(teal),profilesarenearlyidenticalwhile
thereisnoinphaseresponseforeithercoilpairs.

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Figure3.55:TypicalHEMresponseofaconductorthatcontainsasignificant AMOUNT
magnetite.

of

Infigure3.55:Notethatboththecoaxialandcoplanarinphaseresponseisstronglynegativewhilethere
islittleornoquadratureresponsefromeithercoilpair.
Whiletheprocessdescribedabovedoesproduceveryuseful INFORMATION abouttherelative
importanceofvariousanomaliesintheEMdata,ithasseverelimitationsincluding:
Theassumptionofverticaldip:Iftheconductorisnonvertical,itsapparentdepthwillbe
underestimatedbuttheconductanceestimatewillnotbegreatlyaffected.
Theassumptionofsemiinfinitesize:Thedepthestimatetendstobetoogreatandtheconductance
toolow.
Theassumptionofnonconductivehostrockandoverburden:Iftheconductorisincontactwitha
conductivehostrockoroverburden,thequadratureanomalywillbeenhancedandthedepthand
theconductancewillbothbeunderestimated.Iftheconductorunderlies,butdoesnotcontactthe
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conductiveoverburdenthedepthandconductancewillbothbeoverestimated.
FailuretocorrectlyremovelocalEMbackground:IftheresidualeffectoflocalEMbackground
hasshiftedtheassumedEMbaselevelusedinthe CALCULATION ,thedepthestimateswill
betoolowandtheconductanceunderestimated.
Presenceofmagnetite:suppressionoftheinphaseanomalybymagneticsusceptibilityinthecase
ofconductorsinmagneticenvironmentswillleadtounderestimatingconductanceandwildlineto
linevariationsintheestimate.
ReturntoTableofContents

3.5aOtherInterpretationMethods
Forreasonssimilartothosesuggestedinthesectiononmagneticinterpretation,detailedinterpretationof
specificanomaliesonamapisalmostalwaysdonebytheexplorationmanagerspersonnel.Manyof
thesemethodsrelyontheapplicationofsophisticatedmodelingalgorithms.Figure3.56showsan
exampleofanHEMmodeloftwoconductiveplatesinonesuchmodelingprogram.

Figure3.56:A CALCULATED

theoreticalcoaxialinphaseelectromagneticresponseoftwodipping
conductivedikes.
ReturntoTableofContents

Appendix1:TypicalElectrical PROPERTIES ofEarthMaterials.

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Rock,Mineral,etc.

Conductivity
(mohs/meter)

Resistivity(ohm
meters)

Bornite

330

3x103

Chalcocite
Chalcopyrite

104
250

104
4x103

Galena
Graphite

500
103

2x103
103

Marcasite

20

5x102

Magnetite
Pyrite

17x1042x104
3

5x1056x103
0.3

Phrrhotite
Sphalerite

104
102

104
102

IgneousandMetamorphic
Rocks

107102

100107

Sediments
Soils

1055x102
1030.5

20105
2103

FreshWater
SalineOverburden

5x1030.1
0.15

10200
0.21

SaltWater

520

0.052

SulphideOres
GraniteBedsandSlates

10210
1021

0.1100
1100

AlteredUltramafics
Waterfilledfaults/shears

1030.8
1031

1.25103
1103
ReturntoTableofContents

SelectedBibliographyAirborneElectroMagneticSurveys
GRANT F.S.andWest,G.F.,1965,InterpretationTheoryin APPLIED
HillBookCompany.

Geophysics,McGraw

Fraser,DouglasC.,1976,ResistivityMappingwithanAirborneMulticoilElectromagnetic SYSTEM
:Geophysics,vol.41,no.1(Fedbruary1976).
Fraser,DouglasC.,1979,TheMulticoilIIAirborneElectromagnetic SYSTEM
no.8(August1979).

:Geophysics,vol.44,

Paterson,NormanR.,1982,UseofAirborneE.M.(AEM)inExplorationforBedrockConductors,in
MiningGeophysicsWorkshop.,Paterson GRANT andWatsonLimited.
Paterson,NormanR.,1982,ProspectingbyCombinedAEM/Magnetometer SURVEYS ,inMining
GeophysicsWorkshop.,PatersonGrantandWatsonLimited.
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