Time Response of

a Prototype First-Order System

One of the simplest systems is that represented

by a first-order differential equation. Such a
system is known as a first-order system. There
are many examples of first-order systems.
Speed control of a DC Motor.

Electrical first-order system

R

vi

vi vo iR
C

vo

dvo
iC
dt

Taking Laplace transforms, assuming zero initial

conditions, and eliminating i result in

Vi (s) Vo (s) RCsVo

Vo ( s)
1
1

Vi ( s) RCs 1 Ts 1

Vi (s) Vo (1 RCs )
Time constant T RC

A Prototype First-Order System

Mathematical Model

1 Ts

dct
T
cs r t
dt
C s
1
s

Rs Ts 1

Impulse Response
1
Ts 1

R(s)

C (s)

If the input is a unit impulse, then R(s) 1

leading to C ( s) 1

Ts 1

Taking the inverse Laplace transform gives

1 t / T
c(t ) e
T

Impulse Response
1 t / T
c(t ) e
T

1
T

Unit-Step Response
R(s)

1
Ts 1

C (s)

In this case, for a unit-step input R( s) 1

s

Hence the output becomes

C ( s)

1
1
T
1
1


s(Ts 1) s Ts 1 s s 1 / T

giving the time-domain response

c(t ) 1 e

t / T

dc t
1 T1t
1
|
e
|
t 0
dt t 0
T
T

Unit-Step Response
c(t ) 1 e

t / T

ess 1 h 1 1 0
% 0
0.982

0.865
0.632

0.950

3T (5%)
ts
4T (2%)

Ramp Response
R(s)

1
Ts 1

If the input is the unit ramp

then

C (s)
r (t ) t

1
R( s ) 2
s

leading to

1
1 T
T
C ( s) 2
2
s (Ts 1) s
s s 1/ T

The time-domain response becomes

c(t ) t T Te

t
T

Ramp Response
The response consists of a transient part and a
steady-state part, and in the steady state the output
lags the input by a time equal to the consist T .

c(t ) t T Te

t
T

Spring-mass-damper
second order system
F (t ) force
x(t ) represents the position of the mass
k

d 2x
dx
m 2 f
Kx F (t )
dt
dt

F(t)
m

Assuming zero initial conditions,

taking Laplace transforms

f
x(t)

ms 2 X ( s) fsX ( s) Kx( s) F ( s)
X ( s)
1

F ( s) ms 2 fs K

A Prototype Second-Order System

Mathematical Model
r (t )

R(s)

d 2c t
dt 2

n2
s ( s 2 n )

Damping ratio

2n

dc t
dt

n2c t n2r t

c(t )

C (s)

n2
C ( s)
2
R( s) s 2 n s n2

Natural undamped frequency

The characteristic equation

s 2 2 n s n2 0

A Prototype Second-Order System

For a unit-step input
the output becomes

1
R( s)
s

n2
1
C s s Rs 2

s 2 n n2 s

2
2

1
1
1
1
n
n
ht L C s L 2
L

s
s

s
s

s
s
n
n
1
2

c1
c2
1
L

1 c1e s1t c2 e s2t

s s1 s s2 s
1

C1

n2
( s1 s2 ) s1

s 2 2 n s n2 0

C2

n2
( s2 s1 ) s2

s1,2 n n 1
2

A Prototype Second-Order System

s1,2 n n 2 1 a n 2 1
Root

d n 1 2

a n
Root

cos

a is
n the real part of the roots
d n 1 2 is the imaginary part of the roots

A Prototype Second-Order System

s1,2 n n 2 1
>1 (overdamped)

s1, 2 n n 2 1

=1 (critically damped)

s1, 2 n

0<<1 (underdamped)

s1, 2 n j n 1 2

=0 (undamped)

s1, 2 j n

-1< <0 (negatively damped)

s1, 2 n jn 1 2 ( n 0)

A Prototype Second-Order System

j

s1

s2

(a)

s1 s2

(d)

s 2
(b)

1
j

n 1 2
0

s2

n 1 2

s1

s1

n 1 2

n 1 2

(c) 0 1
j

s1
n

s2

(e) 1 0

(f)

s1 s 2

Roots of the characteristic equation of the prototype second-order system

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
0<<1 (underdamped)
s1, 2 n jn 1 2 a jd
n2
C ( s)
s( s 2 2 n s n2 )

c(t ) 1

e nt
1 2

sin 1 2 nt arccos

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
0<<1 (underdamped)
c(t ) 1

e nt
1

sin 1 2 nt arccos

Maximum Overshoot
0<<1 (underdamped)
c(t ) 1

e nt
1

sin 1 2 nt arccos

tp

d n 1 2

c(t p ) 1 e
%

/ 1 2

c(t p ) c()

c ( )
/ 1 2

100%

100%

Maximum Overshoot
0<<1 (underdamped)

% e

/ 1 2

100%

100
90
80

Typical values:

70

60

0.5
0.7

50
40
30
20
10
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

%
16%
5%

Percent overshoot as a function of damping ratio for the step response of

the prototype second-order system

Settling time
0<<1 (underdamped)
c(t ) 1

e nt
1

sin d t
1

e nt
1

upper bound

e nt

lower - bound

1 2
e nt
1

0.05

nt s ln 1 2

ts

ts

3.5

( 0.8)

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
tr

0<<1 (underdamped)

tp

2
d
n 1
3) %

If <0.8, then

c(t p ) c()
c ( )

ts
ts

3.5

n
4.5

(0<<1)

100% e

1 2

100%

(0 1)

( = 5%)
( = 2%)

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
To keep % less than a fixed value,
Must have (%).

To keep tr less than a fixed value,

Must have n n min.

To keep ts less than a fixed value,

Must have 3.5
n

ts

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system

Putting these constraints together will yield an

allowable region for the poles

Note: The allowable region is a guide.

After a system is designed, the
performance will have to be evaluated.

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
>1 (overdamped)
The characteristic equation

s 2 2n s n2 0

2
The two roots can be expressed as s1,2 n n 1
2
2

1
1
1
1
n
n
c t L C s L 2
L

2
s s1 s s 2 s
s 2ns n s

c1
c2
1
L

1 c1e s1t c2e s2t

s s1 s s 2 s
1

where

C1

n2
( s1 s2 ) s1

C2

n2
( s2 s1 ) s2

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
>1 (overdamped)

ts

(6.45 1.7)

Maximum Overshoot

=c() 5%

0.7

% 0

No overshoot .No oscillation

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
=1 (critically damped)

s1, 2 n
c s s

n2

1
c t L C s 1 1 t e n
n

t s 4.75 n

c() 5%

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system
=0 (undamped)
s1, 2 j n

c t 1 cos nt

continuous oscillation

The unit-step response of

a prototype second-order system

Addition of a Zero
to the Forward-Path Transfer Function
r (t )

e(t )

1 Td s

u (t )

R(s)

n2
s ( s 2 n )

c(t )
C (s)

The closed-loop transfer function:

(1 Td s)n2
(1 Td s)n2
C ( s)

2
1
R( s) s 2 2( T ) s 2 s 2 d n s n2
d n
n
n
2

The improved damping ratio:

1
d Td n
2

(Td 0)

Addition of a Zero
to the Forward-Path Transfer Function
The closed-loop transfer function:
(1 Td s)n2
(1 Td s)n2
C ( s)

2
(Td 0)
2
1
R( s) s 2 2( T ) s 2 s 2 d n s n
2

n2
n2
C ( s) 2
R( s) Td s 2
R( s )
2
2
s 2 d n s n
s 2 d n s n
R(s)

C1 ( s)
n2
s 2 2 d n s n2

Td s

C (s)

Since multiplying by s is the same as differentiating in

the time domain
dc1 (t )
c(t ) c1 (t ) Td
dt

Addition of a Zero
to the Forward-Path Transfer Function
C1 ( s)

2
n

1
s 2 2( Td n )n s n2
2

dc1 (t )
c(t ) c1 (t ) Td
dt

1
s

(1 Td s)n2
1
C ( s)

1
s 2 2( Td n )n s n2 s
2

n2
1
C0 ( s) 2

s 2 n s n2 s

c0 (t )

c(t )

c(t )

c1 (t )
dc1 (t )
Td
dt

The effect of the speed feedback

r (t )

e(t )

u (t )

R(s)

n2
s ( s 2 n )

c(t )

C (s)

Kt s

n2
C ( s)
2
R( s) s (2 n K tn2 ) s n2
The improved damping ratio:

1
2

t K t n