Construction

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At temperatures below about
250 C PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are used. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are
used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve,
often made of a metal alloy which is chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting
and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath
must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.

Wiring configurations
Two-wire configuration

The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is only used when high
accuracy is not required, as the resistance of the connecting wires is added to that of the sensor,
leading to errors of measurement. This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. This
applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.

Three-wire configuration

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire configuration can be used.
Using this method the two leads to the sensor are on adjoining arms. There is a lead resistance
in each arm of the bridge so that the resistance is cancelled out, so long as the two lead
resistances are accurately the same. This configuration allows up to 600 meters of cable

Four-wire configuration
The four-wire resistance configuration increases the accuracy of measurement of
resistance. Four-terminal sensing eliminates voltage drop in the measuring leads as a
contribution to error. To increase accuracy further, any residual thermoelectric voltages generated
by different wire types or screwed connections are eliminated by reversal of the direction of the 1
mA current and the leads to the DVM (Digital Voltmeter). The thermoelectric voltages will be
produced in one direction only. By averaging the reversed measurements, the thermoelectric
error voltages are cancelled out.[citation needed]

Classifications of RTDs
The highest accuracy of all PRTs is the Standard platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs).
This accuracy is achieved at the expense of durability and cost. The SPRTs elements are wound
from reference grade platinum wire. Internal lead wires are usually made from platinum while
internal supports are made from quartz or fuse silica. The sheaths are usually made from quartz
or sometimes Inconel depending on temperature range. Larger diameter platinum wire is used,
which drives up the cost and results in a lower resistance for the probe (typically 25.5 ohms).
SPRTs have a wide temperature range (-200 C to 1000 C) and approximately accurate to
0.001 C over the temperature range. SPRTs are only appropriate for laboratory use.
Another classification of laboratory PRTs is Secondary Standard platinum Resistance
Thermometers (Secondary SPRTs). They are constructed like the SPRT, but the materials are
more cost-effective. SPRTs commonly use reference grade, high purity smaller diameter
platinum wire, metal sheaths and ceramic type insulators. Internal lead wires are usually a nickelbased alloy. Secondary SPRTs are limited in temperature range (-200 C to 500 C) and are
approximately accurate to 0.03 C over the temperature range.
Industrial PRTs are designed to withstand industrial environments. They can be almost as
durable as a thermocouple. Depending on the application industrial PRTs can use thin film
elements or coil wound elements. The internal lead wires can range from PTFE insulated
stranded nickel plated copper to silver wire, depending on the sensor size and application.
Sheath material is typically stainless steel; higher temperature applications may demand Inconel.
Other materials are used for specialized applications.

Applications

Sensor assemblies can be categorized into two groups by how they are installed or interface with
the process: immersion or surface mounted.

Immersion sensors take the form of an SS tube and some type of process connection
fitting. They are installed into the process with sufficient immersion length to ensure good
contact with the process medium and reduce external influences. [16] A variation of this style
includes a separate thermowell that provides additional protection for the sensor. [17] These
styles are used to measure fluid or gas temperatures in pipes and tanks. Most sensors have
the sensing element located at the tip of the stainless steel tube. An averaging style RTD
however, can measure an average temperature of air in a large duct. [18] This style of
immersion RTD has the sensing element distributed along the entire probe length and
provides an average temperature. Lengths range from 3 to 60 feet.

Surface mounted sensors are used when immersion into a process fluid is not possible
due to configuration of the piping or tank, or the fluid properties may not allow an immersion
style sensor. Configurations range from tiny cylinders [19] to large blocks which are mounted by
clamps,[20] adhesives, or bolted into place. Most require the addition of insulation to isolate
them from cooling or heating effects of the ambient conditions to ensure accuracy.
Other applications may require special waterproofing or pressure seals. A heavy-duty underwater
temperature sensor is designed for complete submersion under rivers, cooling ponds, or sewers.
Steam autoclaves require a sensor that is sealed from intrusion by steam during the vacuum
cycle process.
Immersion sensors generally have the best measurement accuracy because they are in direct
contact with the process fluid. Surface mounted sensors are measuring the pipe surface as a
close approximation of the internal process fluid.

History
The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase their electrical resistance with
rising temperature was first described by Sir William Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871
before the Royal Society of Great Britain. The necessary methods of construction were
established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn and Wein between 1885 and 1900.

Standard resistance thermometer data[edit]

Temperature sensors are usually supplied with thin-film elements. The resistance elements are
rated in accordance with BS EN 60751:2008 as:
Tolerance Class Valid Range
F 0.3

-50 to +500 C

F 0.15

-30 to +300 C

F 0.1
0 to +150 C
Resistance thermometer elements can be supplied which function up to 1000 C. The relation
between temperature and resistance is given by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation,

Here,
is the resistance at temperature T,
is the resistance at 0 C, and the
constants (for an alpha=0.00385 platinum RTD) are

Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance changes almost linearly
with the temperature.
For positive temperature, if we resolve the quadratic equation we obtain the following
relationship between temperature and resistance:

If we now consider a four-wire configuration with a 1mA precision current source we

obtain the following relationship between temperature and measured voltage

Values for various popular resistance thermometers

Values for various popular resistance thermometers
Temperature Pt100
in C
in

Pt1000
in

PTC
in

NTC
in

NTC
in

NTC
in

NTC
in

NTC
in

Typ: 404 Typ: 501 Typ: 201 Typ: 101 Typ: 102 Typ: 103 Typ: 104 Typ: 105
50

80.31

803.1

1032

45

82.29

822.9

1084

40

84.27

842.7

1135

50475

35

86.25

862.5

1191

36405

30

88.22

882.2

1246

26550

25

90.19

901.9

1306

26083

19560

20

92.16

921.6

1366

19414

14560

15

94.12

941.2

1430

14596

10943

10

96.09

960.9

1493

11066

8299

98.04

980.4

1561

31389

8466

100.00

1000.0

1628

23868

6536

101.95

1019.5

1700

18299

5078

10

103.90

1039.0

1771

14130

3986

15

105.85

1058.5

1847

10998

20

107.79

1077.9

1922

8618

25

109.73

1097.3

2000

6800

15000

30

111.67

1116.7

2080

5401

11933

35

113.61

1136.1

2162

4317

9522

40

115.54

1155.4

2244

3471

7657

45

117.47

1174.7

2330

6194

50

119.40

1194.0

2415

5039

55

121.32

1213.2

2505

4299

27475

60

123.24

1232.4

2595

3756

22590

65

125.16

1251.6

2689

18668

70

127.07

1270.7

2782

15052

75

128.98

1289.8

2880

12932

80

130.89

1308.9

2977

10837

85

132.80

1328.0

3079

9121

90

134.70

1347.0

3180

7708

95

136.60

1366.0

3285

6539

100

138.50

1385.0

3390

105

140.39

1403.9

110

142.29

1422.9

150

157.31

1573.1

200

175.84

1758.4