Presentation of Groups

Derek Holt
Notes by Florian Bouyer
23rd April 2013
Copyright (C) Bouyer 2013.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license can be found at http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1

Motivation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Preliminaries

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Generators of Groups

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Free Groups

3 Subgroups of Free Groups

4 Presentation of Groups
4.1

4.2

10

Tietze Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1

A Presentation of symmetric group

4.1.2

Presentation of

(Q, +)

Sn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12
13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Groups Acting on Sets (Recap) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

4.2.1

14

Coset Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 Coset Enumeration

15

6 Presentation of Subgroups

19

6.1

Digression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

6.2

Presentation of subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

6.3

The groups

D(l, m, n)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

7 Baumslaq - Solitar Groups

26

8 The Burnside Problem

30

8.1

The Grigorchuk Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

Introduction

1.1

Motivation

This course is about group presentations,

are equations between words in

Example.

X = {x, y}

and

A ,

with

hX|Ri where X
A = X X 1 .

is the set of generators and

R = {x5 = 1, y 2 = 1, y 1 xy = x1 }.

Usually write as

the set of relations which


x, y|x5 = y 2 = 1, y 1 xy = x1 .

hX|Ri denes a group, which is roughly the largest group which is generated by X such that all
R holds in G. In the above example we can show any group G = hx, yi with x5 = y 2 = 1, y 1 xy = x1
most 10 elements, and dihedral group D10 is unique group of order 10. So we can say G
= D10 . The

A presentation
equations in
has at

advantage of this way of dening groups:

1. For many groups, it is the most compact denition, particularly useful for systematically enumerating small
groups.
2. Many groups from algebraic topology arises naturally in this form, so we need to study them.
Disadvantage: In general it is impossible to analyse a group by a presentation.
if

hX|Ri

is nite, trivial or even abelian.

hX|Ri with X, R nite for which we cannot

identity 1G (this is know as the word problem).

exist specic presentations

w (X X 1 )

1.2

decide whether an element

g G,

There

given as

Preliminaries

Notation.
H

If

is a group,

is a normal subgroup of

Ck

is the

For example we cannot decide

It has been proven that there are no algorithm to decide this.

HG
G.

is the cyclic group of order

Innite cyclic group is

is the symmetric group of degree

Ak

is the alternating group degree

so

H C G, {Hgi |i I}

gi

on

G. H G

If

Group homomorphism:

Group monomorphism: If

Group epimorphism: if

Group isomorphism:

Group endomorphism if

Group automorphism: isomorphism with

Aut(G)

forms the quotient group

:GH

is a subgroup of

G. H C G

then

{1, 2, . . . , k}

are right coset representative. Call

then

is a subset of

+)

Sk

H G, G = tHgi ,

k.

(under

then

such that

right transversal

of

in

G.

G/H .

(g1 g2 ) = (g1 )(g2 )

is injection if and only if

is surjection,

{gi |i I}

ker() = {1}

im = H

bijective

= {| : G G

G=H
G=H

automorphism } is a group under composition

The isomorphism Theorem.

1. Let : G H is a homomorphism and K = ker(). Then : G/K im

dened by (gK) = (g) is an isomorphism. So G/K
= im

2. If M G, N C G then M N/N
= M/(N M )
but it is if

ACG

or

BCG

and it is normal if

3. If M N C G with M C G then
Proof.

G/M
N/M

(Recall: if

ACG

= G/N

1. See Algebra II course

A G and B G
B C G.

and

then

AB

not always a subgroup,

2. Dene

: M M N/N

by

(m) = mN .

Then

im = M N/N

and

ker() = M N .

Then the result follows

from the 1st isomorphism theorem (part 1 of this theorem)

: G
ker = N . Then

3. Dene

Notation.

G/M
G/N
N/M by (g) = (gM )(N/M ) (i.e. G G/M N/M ).
the result follows from the 1st isomorphism theorem.

G is a group permutation of
g rather than g(). This means

(non-standard) If

the image of

under

as

Example.

= {1, 2, 3, 4}, g = (1, 2, 3)

gh = (1, 2, 4, 3) while hg = (1, 2, 3, 4).

1.3
Let

(i.e.,
that

h = (3, 4).

and

Then we have

G/M
N/M and

im =

G Sym ). Given , g G then we

gh means g followed by h (not h then g )

Then

2g = 3, 3h = 4

so

2gh = (2g )h = 4.

write

Note

Generators of Groups
A

be a set. A

We allow

l = 0,

Denition 1.1.
1.

word

over

this is the
Let

XG

hXi =intersection

is a nite string

w = a1 a2 . . . al

empty word, which we denote by .

with

a group. We dene

of all subgroups of

X 1 = {x1 |x X}. A = X X 1 .
represent elements of G, it is closed under
hXi = A . The empty word represents 1G

ai A.

The

length

subgroup hXi of G generated by X

that contains

2. Let

with each

We dene

of

is

l = l(w) = |w|.

in two ways:

hXi = HG,XH H

X,

i.e.,

to be the set of all words over

A.

Elements of

concatenation and inversion. So it is a subgroup of

G.

We dene

Lemma 1.2. The two denition of hXi are equivalent

Proof.

Let X G. Let H1 and H2 be hXi according to denition 1. and 2.

g H2 , then g = a1 a2 . . . al , l 0 ai X X 1 . Then since subgroups are closed
inversion, g is contained in any H G with X H . Hence g H1 , i.e., H2 H1 .
But H2 is a subgroup of G containing X , so H1 H2 . Hence H1 = H2 .
If

Example.
2.

1.

G = (Z, +)

and

X = {12, 18}.

Then by denition 2,

under multiplication and

hXi = {12a + 18b|a, b Z} = h6i = 6Z

G = S4 , X = {a, b} with a = (1, 2, 3) and b = (2, 3, 4). Now a, b A4 so hXi A4 (by the
and ab = (1, 3)(2, 4) while ba = (1, 2)(3, 4) and abba = (1, 4)(2, 3). So {1, ab, ba, abba} hXi
3 = |a| | |hXi| so 12| |hXi| ,so hXi = A4 .

1st denition),
so

4| |hXi|

and

Free Groups

These are groups

hX| i

with

R=

with no relations.

V, W are vector spaces, V with basis B . Any map : B W

0 (b) = (b) b B . Free groups have a similar property (but

We dene them using their principal property. If

uniquely determines a linear map

0 : V W

with

all vector spaces have bases, but not all groups are free)

Denition 2.1.
!

F be a group and X F . Then F is free on X if

0 : F G with 0 (x) = (x) x X , i.e the diagram

Let

homomorphism


F

has a unique extension 0 : F G.

i(x) = x x X

commutes. I.e.,
dened by

and any map

:XG

/G
>

for any group

I.e.

= 0

where

i:XF

is the

insertion/inclusion

map

We will prove existence later, rst we prove a few properties.

Proposition 2.2. Let F be free on X . Then F

Proof.

Assume

is free on

and let

= hXi (i.e., X generates F )

H = hXi F .

/H
>


F

/7 F

idF

: X H, i : X F be insertion maps (i.e., i(x) = (x) = x). Then there exists 0 : F H with 0 i = .
0
Let j : H F be insertion map, then j and idF are both extension of j : X F . So by the uniqueness part of
0
the denition we have j = idF . Since idF is surjective, we have j is surjective hence H = F

Let

Proposition 2.3. Let

F1 be free on X1 and F2 be free on X2 . Then F1

= F2 if and only if |X1 | = |X2 |. (In
particular any two free groups on X are isomorphic)

Proof.  :

X1 G is |G||X1 | .
Since each map uniquely determines a homomorphism, we get |G|
= | hom(F1 , G)|. Similarly we nd
|G||X2 | = | hom(F2 , G)|. Now F1
= F2 |hom(F1 , G)| = |hom(F2 , G)| (exercise show this). This means
|G||X1 | = |G||X2 | |X1 | = |X2 |, which is clear if |Xi | are nite. (In fact for innite cardinal numbers
2 = 2 = is independent of the axioms of set theory). In fact it can be proved that for X innite,
F free on X implies |F | = |X| so result is true anyway. (proof omitted).

 :

Let

be any non-trivial nite group (such as

C2 ).

The number of maps

|X1 |

Assume

|X1 | = |X2 |

and let

: X1 X2

be a bijection.

X1

i1

i1 , i2

are insertions. So

i2

extends to

X2

i2

6/ F 2


F1
where

/ X2

: F1 F2
1

i2


F2

/ X1

i1

6/ F 1

i1 1 extends uniquely to : F2 F1 . For x X1 , (x) = i2 (x) = (x) =

i1 (x) = i1 (x) = x. So : F1 F2 extends identity map X1 F1 . So by uniqueness = idF1 .
Similarly we nd = idF2 . So , are isomorphism.
so similarly,

We now prove existence of free groups:

F = hX| i should be generated by X , so elements represented by strings in x, x1 , x X , i.e. elements of A

1
1
where A = X X
. All words should be distinct? Except we want xx
= x1 x = 1. Let X be any set, let X 1
 1
1
1
1
be a set with |X| = |X
| and X X = , denote elements of X by x |x X . Dene (x1 )1 = x x X .
1

1
1
Let A = X X
. A word in A is called reduced if it contains no subwords xx
or x
x for x X . For example
1
1 1
1
1
X = {x, y}, xy xxy y is reduced while xyx xyyx is not

Proposition 2.4. For any set X , there exists a free group FX on X .

Proof.

Dene

, FX .

X 1

A as above, and let FX be the set of reduced words in A . Make FX into as follows.
by concatenating and and deleting any strings xx1 or x1 x in the middle.

and

We dene

Example.

X = {x, y}, = xyx1 and = x1 , then = xyx2 .

= xy x. If = xyx, = x1 y 1 x1 then = .

If

= xyx1 y 1

and

= yxyx

Let

then

, we get 1 by reversing and replacing every letter by its inverse.

Finally we need to show associativity. Let , , FX , let l = ||, m = || and n = ||. When we multiply
, let r be the length of sux of that is cancelled (could have r = 0). Loose prex of length r from , so
|| = l + m 2r. Similarly let s be the length of sux of that is cancelled in , then || = m + n 2s.
We have an identity element,

Case 1. r + s m.
where

b, d

.

Given

do not intersect.
= acd, () = ace. On

The cancelled prex and sux of

are cancelled parts and

|c| 0.

So

Let

= ab1 , = bcd and = d1 e,

= bce, () = ace

the other hand

as required.

Case 2. r +s > m.
Then we have

Then the cancelled prex and sux of

= ad

and

() = ac

e.

= ac1 b1 , = bcd and = d1 c1 e.

= be, () = ac1 e as required.

overlaps. So let

On the other hand

X . Let G be any group and : X F a map. If 0 : FX G

1
is a homomorphism extending we must have (x
) = 0 (x)1 x X . We also must have 0 (a1 a . . . ak ) =
0
0
0
(a1 ) . . . (ak ) a1 a2 . . . ak FX . So is unique. But dening 0 like this, does dene a homomorphism 0 : FX
G which extends . Hence FX is free on X .

So

FX

is a group. We now show that it is free on

Notation.

For a set

X , FX

denotes

FX

as dened in the above proof. (So any free group on

is isomorphic to

FX

by Proposition 2.3)

Denition 2.5.
Example.

1. If

2.

X = {x},

3.

X = {x, y},

FX

Let

be the free group on

X = ,

then

FX = {}

then

FX

|X|

is called the

rank

of

FX

the innite cyclic group.

is big group which is non-abelian.

Lemma 2.6. If F is free on X and : F

Proof.

Then

the trivial group.

FX = {xn |n Z}
= Z,

then

X.

F 0 is an isomorphism, then F 0 is free on {(x)|x X}.

Easy exercise

Proposition 2.7. If

X G, then G is free on X if and only if G = hXi and all reduced words in (X X 1 )

represent distinct elements of G.

Proof.  :

Dene

:XG

by

(x) = x.

surjective and assumption on reduced words being distinct in

isomorphism, so
 

G = hXi

is free on

0 : FX G.
G, implies 0 is

This extends uniquely to

: FX G
in G.

distinct images

G = hXi

implies

injective. Hence

is

is an

X.
X are isomorphic, and there
FX , the reduced words in A ,

by Proposition 2.2. By Proposition 2.3, all free groups on

an isomorphism

So

with

(x) = x x X .

So elements of

exist
have

Proposition 2.8. Any group G is isomorphic to a quotient group of a free group.

Proof.

X G with G = hXi (could even choose X = G). The map : X G extends to 0 :

G = hXi implies 0 is surjective. So by the rst isomorphism theorem G = im(0 )
= FX / ker(0 )

Choose any set

FX G.

Now

Denition 2.9.

w = a1 a2 . . . an A

is called

cyclically reduced,

if

is reduced and either

n=0

or

ai 6= a1
n .

Proposition 2.10. If F is a free group and 1 6= w F , then |w| = , i.e., F has no elements of nite order. (F
is

torsion free

Proof.
n

Let

w 6= ,

so

F = FX .
|w| = .

Let

w F , w 6= 1.

Note if

is cyclically reduced then so is

wn ,

(since

an 6= a1
1 ).

Hence

1 1
1
w = a1 a2 . . . ar (ar+1 . . . alr )a1
r . . . a2 a1 where l = |w| and ar+1 6= alr . (Note the
1
whole of w can not cancel like this or w would not be reduced). Hence w =
with cyclically reduced and
6= 1. Then wn = n 1 with n cyclically reduced. Hence wn 6= 1, so |w| = .
In general, we can write

Proposition 2.11. Let F be a free group. Let a, b F , then ab = ba if and only if u F with a = uh , b = uk for
some h, k Z. (i.e., a, b commutes if and only if they are powers of a common element u)
Proof.  :

ab = ba = uh+k
 : Let F = FX , a = a1 a2 . . . al and b = b1 b2 . . . bm . Proof by induction on l + m and without loss of generality
assume l m
0
1
If l = 0, then a = 1 so a = b and b = b , so the result is true with u = b.
Hence we can assume that l > 0. Let r be the length of the sux of a that cancels when calculating ab. So
0 r l and l(ab) = l + m 2r. Since ba = ab, we get l(ba) = l + m 2r, so also get cancellation length r in ba.
Clear since

Case 1. r = 0,

i.e., no cancellation. Here ab = a1 . . . al b1 . . . bm and ba = b1 . . . bm a1 . . . al are equal as words.

l m, ai = bi for 1 i l. So a is a prex of b, hence let b = ac with l(c) = m l. Since ab = ba,
we have b CF (a) = {x F |xa = ax} (the centraliser ). Also a CF (a), since CF (a) is a subgroup of F , so
c = a1 b CF (a). Hence ac = ca. Since l(c) < l(b), we can use induction on ac to get u such that a = uh , c = uk .
h+k
So b = ac = u
and we are done.

Since

Case 2. r = l, i.e., the whole of a cancels is ab.

So

b = a1 c

for some

with

l(c) = m l.

Then we are back in case

Case 3. 0 < r < l.

In this case we have ab = a1 . . . alr br+1 . . . bm = ba = b1 . . . bmr ar+1 . . . al . Since r < l, we

1
bm = al . Since 0 < r, there is some cancellation, so al = b1
1 and similarly bm = a1 . Putting all
1
1
1
1
this together we get al = b1 = a1 = bm , i.e., a = a1 a1
and b = a1 a1 , where l() = l 2 and l() = m 2.
1
1
1
1
h
Now ab = ba a1 a1 a1 a1 = a1 a1 a1 a1 = . So by induction, we have that u such that = u
1 h
1 k
1
k
h 1
and = u . Then a = a1 u a1 = (a1 ua1 ) and b = (a1 ua1 ) , and we are done using a1 ua1

have

a 1 = b1

and

Subgroups of Free Groups

The main result of this section is that subgroups of free groups are free. [Can easily deduce Proposition 2.10,2.11
directly from this]. There exists two algebraic proofs: Schreier and Nielsen. Really need them both for advance
work, but in this course we will just do Schreier's proof. Both are in Johnson's Book. There also exists proofs from
Algebraic Topology.

Denition 3.1.
or

a = b)

A relation

on a set

such that each subset of

is a

well ordering

if it is a total ordering (a, b

A,

we have

a < b,b < a

has a least element

Example. on N is well ordering, but on Z,Q are not.

Axiom. 1. Any set can be well ordered
2. Axiom of choice
3. Zorn's Lemma
These three axioms are all equivalent (using basis set theory) and independent of basic axioms of set theory.
Moth mathematicians assume them.
So we will assume our set

A = X X 1

has a well ordering

(In most of our examples

will usually be

nite, so this is clearly true)

Denition 3.2.
a<b

We dene the

lenlex ordering

of

as follows. Let

a = a1 . . . al

and

b = b1 . . . bm

in

A .

We say

if either:

1.

l<m

2.

l=m

and for some

i<l

we have

a j = bj

for

j<i

but

Exercise.

Check that the lenlex ordering is a well-ordering.

Note.

lex

The

ordering (dictionary) is not a well ordering.

ai+1 < bi+1 .

A = {x, y}

and

x<y

then

{xk y|k 0}

has no least

element.
Lenlex has the following properties (exercise):

v, w A , u < w
Any well-ordering of

Denition 3.3.

Let

A
F

that satises

()

vx < wx
xv < xw

x A ()

can be used in the following theory.

X.

be a group (not necessarily free) generated by

U A then U is called a Schreier transversal of E in F if it is

a1 a2 . . . al U a1 a2 . . . al1 U .
So in particular  U as representative of coset E . Also all

Let

E F

and

A = X X 1 .

Let

a right transversal and it is prex-closed, i.e., if

words inU must be reduced, since otherwise we

would get two dierent words representing the same group element (yxx

U y U)

Proposition 3.4. Every

E F has a Schreier transversal. We can dene one by choosing well-ordering of A

satisfying () and taking least element of each coset Eg as its representative in U .

Proof.

Dene

Ea1 a2 . . . al1

as in the statement.

with

Let

b1 . . . bm < a1 . . . al1 .

a1 a2 . . . al U . If a1 . . . al1
/ U then there exists b1 b2 . . . bm
() b1 . . . bm al < a1 . . . al1 al contradicting a1 a2 . . . al U

By

Example.

Let F = FX and X = {x, y}. Let G = hgi, be cyclic of order 6. By denition of free groups
: F G with (x) = g 2 , (y) = g 3 . Now g = (yx1 ) im(), so im() = G. Take E = ker(). Take
F/E
= G |F E| = |G| = 6. Note Ea = Eb if and only if ab1 E (a) = (b). So a transversal consist
2
2
of 6 elements with distinct images under . Could choose U = {, x, y, x , xy, x y}, then under the elements are
2 3 4 5 7
1, g , g , g , g , g = g . This is a Schreier Transversal (but by guessing it worked). More systematically we can
1 1
compute U using Proposition 3.4 by considering (a) for increasing a under the ordering. A = {x, y, x
, y } need
1
1
ordering on A, say x < x
< y < y . Using lenlex:
w A  x x1 y y 1 x2 xy xy 1 x2 x1 y
(w)
1 g2
g4
g3
g3
g4 g5
g5
g2
g
1
1
delete repeated (w) and get U = {, x, x
, y, xy, x y}

Let U be a Schreier transversal of E in F . For g E , let g be the unique element of Eg U . Now g Eg

gg 1 E (). For u U , x F we have uxx1 is in the same coset as uxx1 in the same coset as u. That is
uxx1 , u Eu U , so uxx1 = u (). Dene Z = {uxux1 |u U, x X}. By (), Z E .

Lemma 3.5. Let Z be as dene above, then Z 1 = S where S = {ux1 ux1

Proof.

g Z 1 ,

Let

then

g = (uxux1 )1 = uxx1 u1 .

S.
g = ux1 ux1

Conversely, let

S.

Then

Let

v ux U .

g 1 = ux1 xu1 ,

let

By

|u U, x X}

() vx1 = u g = vx1 vx1

v = ux1 ,vx = u

by

()

so

g = vxvx1

Notation.

For

u, v A , u =F v

means

u, v

dene same elements of

Proposition 3.6. With the above notation E = hZi

Proof. Let h E so h = a1 a2 . . . al with ai A. Dene u0 =  and ui = a1 a2 . . . al for all 1 i l. So
1
1
h E ul = h = . Now h =F (u0 a1 u1
1 )(u1 a2 u2 ) . . . (ul1 al ul ) since u0 = ul = . We have ui+1 = ui ai
1
1
)(u1 a2 u1 a2 ) . . . (ul1 al ul1 al 1 ) which (by Lemma 3.5) is a product of
by denition of ui . So h =F (u0 a1 u0 a1
1
1
elements of Z and Z
, hence in (Z Z
)

Example 3.7.

With the above notation

is called the

set of Schreier generators

of

(this depends on

U)

Corollary 3.8. A subgroup of nite index in a nitely generated group is itself nitely generated.
Proof. X , U

Example.

are nite, then

|Z| = |X| |U |

hence

is nite.

U = {, x, x1 , y, xy, x1 y}. We now calculate Z .

(u)
u
ux
uy
ux
uy
uxux1
uyuy 1
1

x
y
x
y
1
1
g2
x
x2
xy
x1
xy
x3
1
g4
x1
1
x1 y

x1 y
1
1
3
2
g
y
yx
y
xy

yxy 1 x1
y2
g5
xy
xyx
xy 2
xy 1
x
xyxy 1 x xy 2 x1
g
x1 y x1 yx x1 y 2
y
x1
x1 yxy 1 x1 y 2 x
2
4
1
To nd ux, calculate (ux), nd elements of U with same image under . For example (x ) = g = (x
) and
1
3
1 1 2
1
2 1
1
1
1 2
x U . Hence we have Z = {1, x , yxy x , y , xyxy x, xy x , x yxy , x y x}.
1 1
To express xy
x y E as word in Z Z 1 . We follow the proof of Proposition 3.6.





u3 a4 u1
u2 a3 u1
u0 a1 u0 a1 1 = u1
u1 a2
u1
4
3
2
1
= (xy 2 x1 )1 (yxy 1 x1 )1 (y 2 )
y
y 1
xy x1 y 1
x y 1 y 1 x1

x
x1
Going back to the previous example, we had

Y = {uxux1 |u U, x X, ux 6= ux}.
Y 1 = {ux1 ux1 |u Y, x X, ux1 6= ux1 } We still have E = hY i since Y = Z \ {1}
For the remainder of the section let F be free on X and we assume F = FX . We will prove E is
We don't want

in our generating set.

So dene

We still have

free on

Y.

Lemma 3.9. Let uaua1 Y Y 1 (with u U and a A = X X 1 ). Then in the word uaua1 the letter a
does not cancel.
Proof.
of

Let

u, ua U

so they are reduced words. Hence if

a cancels,

it cancels with nal letter of

u or the rst letter

ua1 .

Case 1.

Let

ua = ua

Case 2.

so
Let

u = a1 a2 . . . al with al = a1 . Then ua = a1 a2 . . . al1 U

uaua1
/ Y Y 1 . This is a contradiction.
ua = a1 . . . al

with

al = a.

ua = ua.

This is again a contradiction.

Remark.

By this lemma the words

Then

uaua1

in

uaa1 = a1 . . . al1 U

by the prex closure condition. This means

. But

uaa1 = u

by

()

so

uaa1 = u

are reduced as words, hence they are distinct, that is dierent

give dierent words.

u, a

Lemma 3.10. Let uaua1 , vbvb

of the underlined a or b cancels.

Proof.

By the last lemma,

Case 1.

all of

ua

Case 2.

all of

1 1

Y Y 1 with uaua1 6=F (vbvb

cannot cancel with

would cancel with

would cancel with

or

ua1 , b

not with

. Then in product uaua1 vbvb

or

vb

neither

. So for one of them to cancel:

or

ua1

ua = a1 . . . al , v = b1 . . . bm . In Case 1. we have l m.
l < m, then ai = bi for 1 i l, so a cancels with bl+1 , i.e., bl+1 = a1 . Hence uaa1 =
a1 . . . al bl+1 = b1 . . . bl bl+1 U . So uaa1 = u ua = ua. Contradiction as before.
1
Next suppose l = m. So ai = bi for 1 i l and ua = v , a = b
. So vb = uab = uaa1 = u. So
1
1 1
1 1
(uaua ) = uaa u = vbvb , contradicting our assumption.
We deal with Case 1. as Case 2. is similar. Let
First suppose

Corollary 3.11. Let

bi = ui ai ui ai 1 Y Y 1 for 1 i l, where bi 6= b1
i+1 . Then in the product b1 b2 . . . bl
none of the letters ai cancel, so b1 b2 . . . bl 6=F 1.

Proof.

This follows immediately.

Theorem 3.12 (Main Theorem). If F is free on X , E F and U a Schreier transversal of E in F then E is free on

the set Y as dened above. Furthermore if U, X are nite, |U | = n and |X| = r, then |Y | = (r1)n+1 = nr(n1).
Proof.

We have

E = hY i

by Proposition 3.6. So by Proposition 2.7 it is enough to prove distinct words in

dene distinct elements of

Y Y 1

E.

1
Y Y 1 with b1 . . . bl =F c1 . . . cm . So b1 . . . bl c1
m . . . c1 =F
1
1
1
1 by Corollary 3.11. Now b1 . . . bl cm . . . c1 is now reduced in Y Y . So we must have bl = cm , bl1 = cm1 etc.
and we get b1 . . . bl = c1 . . . cm (as words), which is a contradiction.
So let

b1 . . . bl , c1 . . . cm

be distinct reduced words in

|U | = n and |X| = r are nite. By the remark above, all elements of Y are distinct, so |Y | = nr t
t is the number of pairs (u, x) with ux =F ux. Let v = a1 a2 . . . al U \ {}. If al = x X then
u = a1 . . . al1 U and ux = v U so ux = ux. Otherwise al = x1 X 1 . Then ux = ux with u = v . So each
v U \ {} gives rise to a (u, x) with ux = ux. Conversely if ux = ux, uxux1 =F 1 then x must cancel against
end of u, or beginning of ux. So this (u, x) arises in one of the two ways above.
So the pairs (u, x) with ux = ux are in 1-1 correspondence with U \ {}, so t = |U \ {}| = n 1. Hence
|Y | = nr (n 1) = n(r 1) + 1.
Now assume

where

Example.
We had

Carrying on the previous example, we have

|hgi| = 6,

so

n = 6, r = 2

and

elements of

where trivial.

|Y | = 7

If |F : E| innite, is Y innite? No,

X = {x, y} and E = hxi, then |Y | = 1.

you can take

Proposition 3.13. Let F be free, E F, |F

Y is innite.

E = {1},

then

|Y | = 0.

Or a slightly less trivial example, let

: E| = and suppose there exists {1} 6= N C F with N E . Then

Proof.

Let U be a Schreier Transversal of E in F . Let 1 6= w = a1 . . . al N E . For u U , then Euw =

Euwu1 u = Eu since uwu1 N E . So uw = u 6= uw (as words), so uw
/ U . Choose the least k such that
ua1 . . . ak
/ U . So ua1 . . . ak1 U but ua1 . . . ak
/ U , since U is innite there exists 1 k l and an innite
subset V U with ua1 . . . ak1 U and ua1 . . . ak
/ U for all u V . So let uk = ua1 . . . ak1 for u U then
{uk ak uk ak 1 |u V } is an innite subset of Y . Hence Y is innite.

Example.

Let F be free on X = {x, y}. Let G = hgi innite cyclic. Dene : F G with (x) = (y) = g .So
im() = G and let E = ker(). So |F : E| = |G| = . Since (xi ) = g i , i Z, we can take U = {xi |i Z}. So
ux = ux u U . Then Y = {uyuy 1 |u U } = {xi yxi1 |i Z}.

Presentation of Groups

Denition 4.1.

Let

G = hXi

and

A = X X 1 .

So in free groups, relators are like

Denition 4.2.

relation

of

relator

of

is a word

w A

with

w =G 1.

xyxx1 y 1 x1

is an equation

with

w1 , w2 A .

Denition 4.5.
hX|Ri

is

F/N

is a relation of

F =
FX be the free group on a set X .
N = RF .

Let

with

G = hX|Ri are cosets N w with w A

that w now has three meanings:

So elements of

wN

. But note

1. A word in

Let

w1 w21

is a relator of G

G
Denition 4.3. Let R G. The normal closure R is the intersection of all normal subgroups of G that contain
R, i.e., the smallest normal subgroup of G that contains R.


Lemma 4.4. We have RG = g1 rg|g G, r R


Proof. Denote H1 := RG and H2 := g 1 rg|g G, r R .
1
We must have g
rg N for any N C R with R N . So H2 H1 .
1
For the other way, we have H1 G, R H2 , from the denition g
H2 g = H2 g G, so H2 C G. Hence
H1 H2 .
Both denition are quite related as

w1 = w2

w1 =G w2

if and only if

R F.

where

Then the group dened by the

A = X X.

presentation

Normally we just write

wG

not

2. An element of

3. An element of

w1 =G w2 means w1 , w2 are the same elements of G, i.e., w1 N = w2 N w1 w21 N . For elements r R

we have r N , so r =G 1, hence elements of R are relators of G. They are called the dening relators of G. So we
can think of hX|Ri as the largest group generated by X in which elements of R are relators.


Example. 1. Let X = {x,
y} and R = {x4 , y3 , (xy)2 }. We write hX|Ri as x, y|x4 , y3 , (xy)2 . We can also use
4 2
1
equivalent relations, as x, y|x , y = y
, xy = y 1 x1 .

So

w1 = w
2.
3.

is a presentation is dened to be the same as writing

hX| i = FX (i.e., R = )


x|x , k 6= 0 = hxi / xk
= C|k| .

Presentation is nite if

X, R

w1 w21

The nite cyclic group of order

|k|.

are nite

Proposition 4.6. All groups have presentations and nite groups have nite presentations.
Proof.

Choose X G with G = hXi. Let F = FX be the free group of X . By the denition of free group : X G
(x) = x x X extends to 0 : F G. So G
= F/N where N = ker(). Choose R N such that N = hRi.
Then G = hX|Ri
If G is nite, choose X nite. Then |F N | = |G| =nite so can choose R is nite by Corollary 3.8.


Note. We have chosen R with N = hRi, but we only need N = RG . So usually a smaller set R will work.
with

Fundamental Theorem of Presentation of Groups. Let G = hX|Ri,H any groups and : X H a map. For

x X dene (x1 ) by (x)1 . Suppose that for all r = a1 . . . al A with r R, we have (a1 )(a2 ) . . . (al ) =G 1.
Then extends uniquely to a homomorphism 0 : G H .

Proof.

If

extends at all then we must have

(x1 ) = (x)1

and

(a1 . . . al ) = (a1 ) . . . (al ),

so

is unique is it

exists.
Let

ker().
w F.

X .
Then
 extends to : F H . The hypothesis on
says
 (r) =G 1
r
 R
, so R N =
N C G RF N , so induces a well dened map 0 : R/ RF H by 0 RF w = (w) with
0 extends as required.

be free on

Now
So

10

Note.

The hypothesis on

is also necessary for

to extend to

In general we cannot say much about a group dened by

0 : G H

(exercise)

hX|Ri.
|G| and they use the Fundamental
|H| is the same as the upper bound,

A general approach is to manipulate the relators to get an upper bound on

Theorem to nd an epimorphism
then

:GH

and hence prove

|G| |H|.

If

is an isomorphism.

Example.


G = x, y, |xn , y 2 , (xy)2 with n > 1. Consider w A with w G, so w is a string in x, x1 , y, y 1 .
n
1
Now x R implies x
=G xn1 , so we can replace any x1 in w by xn1 . Similarly, we have y =G y 1 so replace
1
2
y in y . Finally (xy) =G 1 means yx =G x1 y 1 =G xn1 y . So we can replace w by a word of the form xk y l
n
2
with k, l 0. Since x =G 1 and y =G 1 we can assume 0 k < n and 0 l < 2. (This is a normal form for
group elements). So we have that |G| 2n.
For H we choose D2n , with is the rotations and reections of a regular n-gon. Let g = (1, 2, . . . , n) be the
n
2
rotation. Let h = (2, n)(3, n 1), . . . be the reection xing 1. We can see that g = 1 and h = 1. We calculate
2
gh = (1, n)(2, n 1)(3, n 2) . . . , so (gh) = 1. Hence we can apply the Fundamental Theorem to : X H
0
0
0
with (x) = g , (y) = h, hence extends to : G H . Since g, h im( ) we have G = hg, hi im( ), so
0
|G| |H| = 2n. Hence |G| = 2n, so is an isomorphism.
Let

Proposition 4.7. Let

(= X X

G = hXi ,H G and S = ri=1 Hgi for some gi G and g1 = 1. If gi a S a A

) then G = S . If we know |x| is nite for all x X , then enough to assume gi a S a X .

Proof.

Let g G , we want to prove g S . Let g = a1 . . . al , ai A. We use induction on l.

l = 0 then g = 1 = g1 S .
0
If l > 0, by induction a1 . . . al1 = hgi S for some g H, gi . By assumption gi al = h gj S , so g = hgi al =
0
hh gj S
n
1
If all |x| X have nite order (x = 1 x
= xn1 ) , we can write g = a1 a2 . . . al with ai X


Example. G = x, y|x3 , y3 , (xy)2 . Choose H = hyi. We have A5 = hg, hi where g = (1, 2, 3), h = (2, 3, 4). Then
g 3 = 1, h3 = 1, gh = (1, 3)(2, 4), hence (gh)2 = 1. Dene : X A4 by (x) = g and (y) = h. Then by the
Fundamental Theorem extends to : G A4 . Now im() = A4 , so |G| 12.
We want to prove |G| = 12, i.e., |G H| = 4. So we want to nd g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 so we can apply the last proposition.
(gi )
Since (H) = h(2, 3, 4)i = StabA4 (1), (gi ) should be coset representations of (H) in A4 . We want 1
= i, so we
1
can choose g1 = 1, g2 = x, g3 = xy, g4 = xy
. So by Proposition 4.7, we want to prove that gi x, gi y S, 1 i 4
4
3
3
where S = i=1 Hgi . (Since x = y = 1 |x|, |y| are nite)
gi
x
y
1
x Hx
yH
x
x2 = x1 = yxy Hxy
x Hxy
xy
xyx = y 1 H
xy 2 = xy 1 Hxy 1
xy 1 xy 1 x = y 1 xy 1 Hxy 1
x Hx
So G = S, |G| 12, hence is an isomorphism and G
= A4
If

Denition 4.8.
Note that

Example.

The

commutator

[x, y] = 1

Let

is

if and only if

[x : y] := x1 y 1 xy .
xy = yx.

G = hx, y|[x, y]i = hx, y|xy = yxi.

Using

yx = xy ,

we get

G = {xa y b |a, b Z}

. We want to show

a b

x y is normal form for group elements.

Let H
= Z2 , free abelian of rank 2. Then H = hgi hhi = {g a hb |a, b Z} (Writing H multiplicatively). Dene
: X H by (x) = g, (y) = h. Now ([x, y]) = g 1 h1 gh = 1H so extends to : G H . And (xa y b ) = g a hb .

that

Clearly bijection so isomorphism.

Similarly

hx1 , . . . , xn |[xi , xj ] : 1 i < j ni

= Zn

(free abelian of rank

n).

This is also an example of a direct

product, for which we have:

Proposition 4.9. Let

G = hX|Ri , H = hY |Si with X Y = . Let [X, Y ] = {[x, y]|x X, y Y } and

T = R S [X, Y ]. Dene F = hX Y |T i, then G H
=K .

Proof. G H = {(g, h)|g G, h H}.

Dene : X Y G H, (x) = (x, 1), (y) = (1, y). Let r = a1 . . . al

T, ai X Y X 1 Y 1 . If r R, r =G 1 so (r) = (1, 1) = 1GH . Similarly r S (r) = 1GH . If r [x, y]
1 1
then r = x
y xy, x X, y Y so we get (r) = (x1 , 1)(1, y 1 )(x, 1)(1, y) = (1, 1) = 1GH . So extends to
: K G H by the Fundamental Theorem. It is clearly surjective since G = hXi and H = hY i.

11

It remains to show that ker() = 1. Since xy = yx, x X, y Y any element of K can be written as
g = a1 a2 . . . al b1 . . . bm with ai X X 1 and bi Y
Y 1. Then (g) = (a1
. . . al, b1 . . . bm ), so
if g ker()

F
F
F
then a1 . . . al =G 1 and b1 . . . bm =H 1. So a1 . . . al R X
and b1 . . . bm S Y , so both in T XY . So
a1 . . . al =K 1 =K b1 . . . bm .

4.1

Tietze Transformations

Some group presentation clearly isomorphic.

y ).

(eliminate

For example


x, y|x3 , y 2
= x, y|x2 , y 3

or


x, y|y = x2
= hx| i

Tietze Transformation enable us to justify such manipulations of presentations.

Proposition 4.10. Let G = hX|Ri = F/N , N


RF .

1. If r is a relator of G, then G = hX|R {r}i

2. If y / X and w A . Then G
= X {y}|R {yw1 } =: G0 , where the isomorphism induces the identity
on X .

Proof.

1. If

rR

then

2. Since relators in

rN

by denition. So

are also relators of

G0 .


N = (R {r})F .
: X G0
: G G0 .

So the map

so by the Fundamental Theorem it extends to

0 : X {y} G by 0 (x) = x x X and 0 (y) = w.

(y) (w1 ) = ww1 = 1 (since w is a word in (X X 1 ) ).
0
0
Fundamental Theorem, it extends to : G G.
Dene

0 : G0 G0
X of G. So by the

Look at
and

and

0 : G G,

with

(x) = x x X

satises

(r) =G0 1,

0 (r) =G 1 r R, and 0 (yw1 ) =

maps relators of G0 to 1G . So by the

Again
So

X {y} of G0
= 1G , so both

they both extends the identity map on generators

= IG0

uniqueness of the Fundamental Theorem, we have

and

isomorphism.

Denition 4.11.
R+ :

We dene four types of

Tietze Transformation

on

G = hX|Ri.

X +:

hX|Ri by hX|R {x}i


G
G
Remove a relator: If there exists r R with (R \ {r})
= R , then replace hX|Ri by hX|R \ {r}i

1
Add a new generator: For any w A , replace hX|Ri by isomorphic group X {y}|R {yw
}

X :

Remove a generator: If there exists

Add a relator: If

R :

sR

is a relator of

do not contain

or

G,

then replace

r R

, then replace

with

r = yw1

y X , such that w
hX \ {y}|R \ {r}i.

for some

by isomorphic group

and all other

This is mostly used in combinators.

Example.


G = hX|R
{r}i, r =G 1 r1 =G 1, so G = X|R {r, r1 } . Now r1 =G 1 r =G 1,
1
so r is redundant, so G = X|R {r
} . Call these two moves R , replace relator by inverse


1
2. Similarly G = hX|R {r}i = X|R {g
rg} (since r = 1 g 1 rg = 1 for any g G). So can use R
1
to replace relator by conjugate. Often used for cyclic conjugates. Replace xyz by yzx (= x
(xyz)x).
1

1
Whenever some generator y or y
appears just once in some relators we can use R
followed by X
to
eliminate y .


2
3
1 1
3. x, y, z|(xz) , (yz) , xyz . We can eliminate x using xyz =G 1 z = y
x . Since x = y 1 x1 we have
1. Let

(xz)2 = 1

(xy 1 x1 )2 = 1

xy 2 x1 = 1

y 2 = 1

y2 = 1

R to replace (xy)2 = 1 by y 2 = 1. Similarly

(yz)3 = 1

2
x, y, z|y 2 , x3 , zxy . Now we can apply X to get G
x,
y|y
, x3
=

so can use

x3 = 1 .

Examples 1-3 were to illustrate how we use them, while Examples 4-5 are real examples.

12

So by

R , G =

4.

5.

hx,
yxyxyi
= yxyxy, a = xyi, now use RX to eliminate y
= x1 a, so G
=

y|xyxyx =1
 =X +
hx, y, a|xyxyx
2
1 3
2
2

1 5

+
x,
a|aax
=
x
aaa
x,
a,
b|a
x
=
x
a
,
b
=
xa
.
Eliminate
x
=
a
b
by
RX
,
G
a,
b|b
=
b
a
=
=
=
X


a, b|b2 = a5 .


2n ). Introduce
For l, m, n 1 dene D = (l, m, n) =
x, y|xl , y m , (xy)n . (Note that D(2, 2, n)

= D

1
l
1 m n
1
then eliminate y = x
a. So x, a|x , x a) , a . Replace x by x , x, a|xl , (xa)m , an =

a = xy

x, a|xl , (xa)m , an = D(l, n, m). We also have clearly D(l, m, n)
= D(m, l, n). Since (m, n) and (l, m) generate S3 on {l, m, n} we have D(l, m, n)
= D(l0 , m0 , n0 ). For any permutation l0 , m0 , n0 of l, m, n (so we can
assume l m n if we want to)

The following is a basic result, but less useful than it appears because is practice we might not know in whether

hX|Ri
= hY |Si.

Therefore it does not enable you to decide this. (It has been proved to be undecidable in general)

Proposition 4.12. Let G

= hX|Ri
= hY |Si. Then by using a sequence of Tietze Transformation, we can transform

hX|Ri to hY |Si.

Proof. G
= hX|Ri
= hY |Si.
elements of

Think of

X, Y as subsets of G. Think of X, Y as subsets of G. G = hXi = hY i,

(Y Y 1 ) and vice versa. Write this X = X(Y ), Y = Y (X), so

so

can be written as words in

G
= hX|Ri

= hX|R(X)i

= hX Y |R(X) {Y = Y (X)}i

X+

= hX Y |R(X) {Y = Y (X)} {X = X(Y )}i

R+

= hY |R(X(Y )) {Y = Y (X(Y ))i

= hY |R(X(Y )) {Y = Y (X(Y )) S(Y )i

R+

= hY |S(Y )i

4.1.1 A Presentation of symmetric group Sn

Sn

acts on

{1, 2, . . . , n}.

Lemma 4.13.
Proof.

Let

i = (i, i + 1),

for

1 i n 1.

Sn = hi |1 i n 1i

Well known.

What are the relations?

(equivalently

i j = j i )

for

i2 = 1, (i i+1 )3 = 1
|i j| > 1.
We have

since

i i+1 = (i, i + 2, i + 1).

Finally

(i j )2 = 1

Proposition 4.14. Let

Gn = hX|R1 R2 R3 i with X = {x1 , . . . , xn1 }, R1 = {x2i |1 i n 1}, R2 =

{(xi xi+1 ) |1 i n 2} and R3 = {(xi xj )2 |i < j, |j i| > i}. Then Gn
= Sn with isomorphism xi 7 i .


Note. This presentation denes a Coxeter group. The general denition of them is x1 , . . . , xn |x2i , (xi xj )mij 1 i, j n
with 2 mij and mij = mji . The case n = 2 gives the Dihedral groups. They include Weyl groups studied
in Lie Algebra. Out presentation for Sn is the Weyl group of type An1 .
3

Proof.

By the Fundamental Theorem, the map

surjective by Lemma 4.13. So

Claim:

: xi 7 i

extends to a homomorphism

: Gn Sn ,

which is

|Gn | |Sn | = n!.

|Gn | n!

(which will prove the result)



n. The case n = 1, 2, 3 there is nothing to show (S3 = x1 , x2 |x21 , x22 , (x1 x2 )3 )

So assume |Gn | n! and we prove |Gn+1 | (n + 1)!. Dene H = hx2 , . . . , xn i Gn+1 . The relations of Gn
are satised by generators of H (renumbered as x1 , . . . , xn1 ). So by induction |H| n!. So we want to prove
|G : H| n + 1. Note (H)
= Sn is the stabilizer of 1 in Sn+1 . So if g0 , . . . , gn coset representation we want
(g0 ), . . . , (gn ) to map 1 to 1, 2, . . . , n + 1. So we can choose (gi ) = 1 . . . i . Then 1(gi ) = 11 ...i = i + 1. Dene
g0 = 1, gi = x2 x2 . . . xi , i.e., gi = gi1 xi . Dene S = ni=0 Hgi , it is enough to prove S = Gn . So by Proposition 4.7
it is enough to prove gi xj S i, j .
Use induction on

Case 1. j > i + 1 : We have gi xj = xj gi S

(since

xj H )
13

Case 2. j = i + 1:

We have

gi xj = gi+1 S

Case 3. j = i:

We have

Case 4. j < i:

We prove by induction of

Base case:

gi xj = gi1 S
ij

that

gi xj = xj+1 gi S

since

xj+1 H .

ij = 1 ( i 2 and j = i1). gi xj = gi2 xi1 xi xi1 = gi2 xi xi1 xi = xi gi2 xi1 xi = xi gi = xj+1 gi

Induction step: If

i=j>1

gi xj = gi1 xi xj = gi1 xj xi = xj+1 gi1 xi = xj+1 gi

then

So we can apply Proposition 4.7 to get

Gn = S ,

hence

|Gn : H| n + 1,

hence

|Gn | (n + 1)!.

Hence

is an

isomorphism.

4.1.2 Presentation of

(Q, +)

(Q, +) is not nitely generated. To see this let H = hg1 , . . . , gk i (Q, +). Then gi = mi /ni for some
mi Z and ni Z>0 . Elements of H all have denominators at most lcm(n1 , . . . , nk ), so we cannot have H = Q.
(Q, +) is generated by {1/n|n Z>0 }. Also by {1/n!|n Z>0 } since any m/n = m(n + 1)! 1/n!

The group

Proposition 4.15. Let G = hxi (i Z>0 )|xnn = xn1 (n > 1)i. Then G
= (Q, +).
Note. G is multiplicative, while (Q, +) is additive
Proof.

(xn ) = 1/n!. Then (xnn ) = n/n! = 1/(n1)! = (xn1 ). So by the Fundamental

Theorem extends to homomorphism : G (Q, +) surjective, since (Q, +) is generated by {1/n!}.
We now need to prove ker() = 1. Given generators xn , xm of G, n > m, xm is some power of xn so xn xm =
xm xn . So G is abelian. So for each g G, g = xk11 xk22 . . . xknn for some n, ki Z. Since xjj = xj1 for j > 1, we
j
k
k
k
can replace xj by xj1 and assume 0 kj < j for j > 1 (and kn 6= 0). So (g) = 1 + 2 + + n . Suppose
1!
2!
n!


kn1
+ knn = m + knn = 0 with m Z. But if n > 1 then
1 6= g , (g) = 0 (i.e., g ker()). So (n 1)! k1!1 + + (n1)!
kn
n

/Z

4.2

Dene

since

: {xi } (Q, +)

0 < kn < n.

Hence

by

n = 1, g = xk11

and

(g) = k1 = 0,

hence

k1 = 0

and

g = 1.

So

ker() = 1.

Groups Acting on Sets (Recap)

G acting on a set , we write g
dene an action as a homomorphism : G Sym() where we write
g
of ]. The kernel of the action ker() = {g G| = }. An

only if, G = im(). An action is transitive if there is a single orbit ,

We use right actions (as opposed to left actions used in Algebra II) For a group

g G on . We can
(g) [(g) is a permutation
action is faithful if ker() is trivial, if and
g
i.e., , g G, = .
Two actions 1 : G Sym(1 ), 2 : G Sym(2 )
()2 (g) = (1 (g) ) g G.

for the action of

instead of

are

equivalent

if there exist a bijection

: 1 2

with

4.2.1 Coset Actions

G be a group, H G. Let = {Hg : g G} be the set of distinct right cosets. Dene action of G on by
(Hk)g = Hkg (by right multiplication). So (g) : Hk Hkg , check that (g), (g 1 ) are inverses of each other,
k1 k2
so (g) Sym(). It is clearly a homomorphism. Given Hk1 , Hk2 , (Hk1 ) 1
= Hk2 , so it is transitive.

Let

ker()

{g G|Hkg = Hk k G}

{g G|kgk 1 H k G}

=
=

{g G|g k 1 Hk k G}
\
k 1 Hk

=:

CoreG (H)

kG

This is the largest normal subgroups of

contained in

H.


1 CoreG (H) H H G G.

14

So

H CG

if and only if CoreG (H)

= H.

So we have

Coset Enumeration

(Todd - Coxeter 1930)

G = hX|Ri with X, R nite and a nite set Y A generating H = hY i G. Algorithm tries to prove
that |G : H| is nite and to compute the coset action of G on the cosets of H . If |G : H| is innite it will not halt.
If |G : H| is nite it will succeed but there is no upper bound on the time taken.
At any time we have a set of positive, = {i1 , . . . , in } positive integers, which represent cosets of H in G. For

each i there is an associated word. For each i there is an associated word ai A , i , ai where i =coset
Hai . We always have 1 , a1 = . So 1 = H . For i , x A, ix may or may not be dened. If dened ix .
(This means Hai x = Haj where ix = j ). We always have
Given

(R1)
For

ix = j

if and only if

a1 a2 . . . ak A

jx1 = i.

with

ai A.

with

i ,

ia1 . . . ak

Then

(ia1 . . . ak1 )ak

is dened recursively to

provided everything is

dened.

(R2)

If

i , ai A

then

1ai

is dened and equal to

i.

ix is not dene then we can choose some j > 0, j

/ , replace by {j}
aj = ai x. So 1aj = 1ai x = ix = j (Hence (R1) and (R2) remains true)


Example. Let G = x, y|x2 , y3 , xyxy and H = hxyi.
If some

and dene

ix = j, jx1 = i

and put

1. We have a table with a single row for each generator of

each elements of

Start with

1
x

y
1

(from

2
3

2x1 = 1, 1y 1 = 2:

Deduction

2y = 1

(from

(a)), 2x = 1

(b)

y
1
2

1
2

1
2

1
Denitions:

1
2

1y = 3.

2
1

Deductions:

y
2

3y = 2

(from

1
2
(c)), 3x = 3

(from

(d))

y
2

x
1

= {1, 2, 3}, 3 , y .

x
_

(a)

x
2
1

3. Now let

so

x
1
2

y
1

= {1, 2}, 2 , x. Denitions 1x = 2,

(b)). (Note _ stands for, by denition)

2. Now let

For each relator, we have a table with one row for

H.

= {1}, 1 , .

(a)

x
2

(b)

1
3

y
1
2
3

2
3

y
3

(c)

1
2

y
2
3
1

x
1
2
3

1
2
,3

y
2
1
3

x
1
3
2

(d)

y
2

3
1

2
3

ix is dened for all i , x A. All tables are complete, so the process stops. We have shown that |G : H| = 3
i ia dening an action of G on = {1, 2, 3} dened by x 7 (1, 2), y 7 (1, 2, 3). So : G Sym(),
2
hence im() = Sym(3) which has order 6. Hence |G| 6. Since H = hxyi with (xy) = 1, |H| 2, hence |G| 6.
So |G| = 6.
Now

with

We also have:

(R3)

If

i , ai , j , aj

and

ix = j ,

then

Hai x = Haj .

15

Proposition 5.1.
Proof. ix = j

(R3)

remains true during the process.

is either a denition or a deduction. If it is a denition then we dene

aj

so to make (R3) true.

So assume that it is a deduction, from a row of a table.

Case 1.

From row

x1

of relator

x2

x1 x2 . . . xs ,

of a relator table.

xt = x
xt+1
...
xs
Can assume by induction that
ix = j j
all dened
k
0 0
0
(R3) is true for all equations i x = j that are know prior to deduction of ix = j . So Hak x1 . . . xt1 = Hai ,
Haj xt+1 . . . xs = Hak . So Haj xt+1 . . . xs x1 . . . xt1 = Hai . Hence x1 x2 . . . xs =G 1 xt+1 . . . xs x1 . . . xt =G 1
(cyclic conjugate). So Hai xt = Haj xt+1 . . . xs x1 . . . xt+1 xt = Haj
k

...

all dened

Case 2.

deduced

k = 1 and Hak = H .
x1 x2 . . . xs H .

Deduction as above, but from a subgroup generator, so

1
Hai x = Hai xt = Hx1 . . . xt = Hx1
s . . . xt1 = Haj ,

since

So

x1 x2 . . . xs H .

As

Theorem 5.2. Suppose the process terminates with H = hyi G = hX|Ri. Then there exists an action of G on
with i(x) = ix = j ix = j . The action is equivalent to the coset action of G on right cosets of , with
equivalence , with (i) = Hai for i .

Proof.

ix are dened. So dene (x) : by i(x) = ix = ix, for all x A. Now

(R1) says (x
) = (x) , so Sym(). The fact that relators tables are full, says exactly that all relators r,
k (r) = k for all k . So (r) is the identity and by the Fundamental Theorem extends to : G Sym().
Dene : {Hg : g } by (i) = Hai with i , ai . Show that is a surjection. Let g G, g = x1 x2 . . . xs
(for xi A) . 1g = 1x1 x2 . . . xs = i for some i . By (R3), Hg = Hai with i , ai . So (i) = Hai = Hg . So is
When the process stops all

indeed a surjection.
Now to show is injective. Suppose (i) = (j) (i , ai , j
1
ai aj = y1 . . . yt with yi Y Y 1 . From subgroups tables,
1ai = 1aj i = j by (R2).
By (R3) we have

Example.

Let

ix = j Hai x = Haj .


G = x, y|x3 , y 4 , (xy)2 = D(3, 4, 2)

Next dene

x
2
3
1

Next dened

x
1
2
3
4
5

is an equivalence of actions.

H = hyi,

and

so we have one subgroup table

y
=

1x = 2, 2x = 3

x
1
2
3

Starting table of the relators:

Hence

, aj ), then Hai = Haj , so ai a1

H = hyi. So
j
1
y1 ...yt
= 1. Hence
1yi = 1 yi Y . So 1ai aj = 1

x
=

3
1
2
3y = 4

and

x
=

2
3
1
5

Finally dene

3
1
2

y
1
2
3

1
2
3

y
1
3

y
1

y
1

x
1
2
3

1
2
3

2
3
1

y
=

1
2
3

4y = 5
y
1
2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5

y
1
3
4
5
2

y
1
4
5
2
3

y
1
5
2
3
4

5x = 6

16

x
1
2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5

2
3
1
5

y
=

x
3
4
1
2

y
1
5
2
3
4

1
2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5
6

2
3
1
5
6
4

x
=

3
1
2
6
4
5

y
1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
3
4
5
2
6

1
4
5
2
3
6

1
5
2
3
4
6

x
1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
5
6

y
=

2
3
1
5
6
4

x
3
4
1
2
6
5

y
1
5
2
3
4
6

1
2
3
4
5
6

|G : H| = 6 and since |H| 4,

|G| 24. We can also show |G| 24 by the map : G S4 with (x) = (1, 2, 3), (y) = (1, 3, 2, 4) and
(xy) = (1, 4). This easily shows that im() = S4 so |G| 24, hence G
= S4 . So is an isomorphism.

Then we are done as all tables are complete and all denition have been made. So
we have

Coincidences:
k 6= i).

If we nd

Example.

Haj = Hak

Let

Haj
with

and


G = a, b|a1 ba = b3 , b1 ab = a3

and

H = hai.

b1

b1

b1

b1

Dene

b1

b1

b1

b1

2
Dened

a1

a1

a1

b1

b1

b1

a1

a1

a1

1
1

b1

2
3

b1

1b1 = 3

a1

a
=

1b = 2

a1

Then the subgroup table is just

Setting up the table:

a1

ix = j where we already know ix = k with k 6= j , (or kx = j for

Hak (respectively Hai , Hak ) are equal. This is a deduction j = k .
k > j , then we replace all k by j in tables which often leads to more coincidences.

Sometimes we get a deduction

This means coset

But we are deducing

a1

2b = 1,

2
but

3b = 1,

b1

so

2 = 3.

b1

b1

b1

Hence replace

b1

by

b1

a1

a1

a1

1
2
3

2
b1

a
=

a1

a1

a1

We get |G : H| = 2 and b (1, 2) and a id.

|H : G| = 2 we have H C G, so b2 H = hai .So b2 a = ab2 (since H is abelian). Hence a1 ba = b3
1 2
implies a
b a = (a1 ba)2 = b6 , but a1 b2 a = b2 , we get b6 = b2 and hence b4 = 1. By symmetry a4 = 1, so
|H| 4and |G| 8. To prove
|G| 8, let H be the multiplicative group
2 2matrices

 of complex

 generated
0 1
i 0
0
1
i
0
2
2
1
1
by g =
and h =
. Then g = h = I2 and g
=
and h
=
. We have
1 0
0 i
1 0
0 i




0 i
i 0
g 1 hg =
g =
= h3 . Similarly h1 gh = g 3 . So we get : G H , since |g| = 4 and h
/ hgi,
i 0
0 i
|H| > 4, since |H| | |G| |8 we must have |G| = |H| = 8, so is an isomorphism. This group is called the quaternion
Q8 .
So we didn't need the last row, and the table is complete.

Since

It can be shown that (R1),(R2),(R3) remain true after processing coincides. So Theorem 5.2 is still true.
We have not discussed how we can decide which new denition to make. By hand the natural choice is to ll
small gaps in tables to get deductions. But this can result in long relations being ignored, which could be bad.
There are two main systematic strategies used in programming.
1. Choose the rst
dene cosets

Hai

for which

ia

is undened for some

is order of increasing

ai

a A = X X 1

in the lenlex order.

17

and dene it. This means we

2. Go through relator tables in order lling in gaps as you go (even for long gaps)
Generally 1.

is better for work by hand. Also 2. leads to many more coincidences, but it is easier to program and

runs fast on computers for routine examples. Another advantage of 2. is that each row of each relator table only
needs to be scanned once while with one 1. need to keep revisiting row. It is important that strategy satises

(R4)

i , a A, ia

will eventually be dened.

(R4) is satised with 1 but not necessarily with 2 so we must occasionally use 1 (xx

Theorem 5.3. If |G : H| is nite and denition strategy satises

Proof.

With a coincidence

representing
Let

Hai

all

ia

meaning

Hai = Haj ,

It is in

then it will eventually nish.

Hak .

From then on,

i,

so numbers in

and remains there.

(Note: We have no way of knowing during the run whether a

if it would not change any more however long the process ran.)

is nite. Then once all elements that will ever be in

are dened and in

, x1 x)

we eliminate larger number

can only decrease so must eventually stabilise as

be the set of stabilised numbers in

number is in

Case 1.

i = j, i > j

(R4)

with

i , a X .

At that point,

are in , then stabilise. By (R4) eventually

= (since all elements of can be reached by

denitions from cosets) and the process stops

Case 2. is innite.

It is still true that

ia

are eventually dened and in

(R3) still all hold. So Theorem 5.2 applies to action of

|| = |G : H|

contradicting

|G : H|

on

nite.

18

for all

i , a A

by (R4). (R1), (R2),

so this action is equivalent to coset action. Hence

Presentation of Subgroups

6.1

Digression

Denition 6.1.
Note that

For

[g, h] = 1

Denition 6.2.

The

i.e., the subgroup of

There exists
have

g, h G,

[a, b][c, d]

we dene the

if and only if

commutator

gh = hg .

Also

of

g, h

to be

[g, h] = g 1 h1 gh.

[g, h]1 = [h, g].

Commutator Subgroup (or Derived Group ) of G denoted [G, G] (or G0 ) is the group h[g, h]|g, h Gi.

generated by the commutators.

where not all elements of

[G, G]

are commutators, for example in the free group on

a, b, c, d

we

is not a commutator.

Denition 6.3.

A subgroup

of

is

characteristic

if

(H) = H Aut(G)

(write

H charG)

g G the map cg : G G dened by h 7 g 1 hg is in Aut(G), we have H charG implies H C G.

Note that for Aut(G) we have ([g, h]) = [(g), (h)]. So permutes the set of commutators so [G, G]charG
(and hence [G, G] C G).
We have G/[G, G] is abelian since g, h G, [g, h] [G, G] so [g, h] = 1 in G/[G, G].
Since for

Theorem 6.4. For any N C G, we have G/N is abelian if and only if [G, G] N
Proof.

We have

G/N

abelian

[gN, hN ] = 1 g, h G

[g, h] N g, h G

h[g, h]|g, h Gi N

[G, G]

Proposition 6.5. Let G = hX|Ri, then G/[G, G]

= hC|R Ci where C = {[x, y]|x, y X}
Proof.


F be free on X , N = RF ,M = (R C)F . So G = F/N and let G = hX|R Ci = F/M . Since
[x, y] M x, y X the generators of G all commutes. Hence G is abelian. By the third isomorphism theorem we
Let

have

G
F/N
=
G = F/M
=
M/N
M/N

[G, G] M/N .

M = g 1 kg|g H, k R C for k R we have g 1 kg N . So M/N is generated by the elements g 1 kgN ,

g F, k C . So g 1 kg is a commutator, hence so is g 1 kgN . So M/N is generated by commutators, hence
M/N [G, G].
Hence M/N = [G, G], and so G/[G, G]
= G/(M/N )
= G.


Example. If G = x, y|x2 , y3 , (xy)6 , then G/[G, G] = x, y|x2 , y3 , (xy)6 , [x, y] .
which is abelian. So

6.2

Presentation of subgroups

G = hX|Ri , H = hY i with X, R, H, |G : H| all nite. We describe the Reidemeister - Schreier algorithm to

H . Recall, let U be a Schreier Transversal of H in G, u G, u =coset representation of u.
1
Then Z = {uxux
|u U, x X, ux 6= ux} is a Schreier Generator of H .
This method gives presentation of H with generators of Z . A variant gives a presentation on user supplied
generating set Y , this is more complicated.
The method requires coset representation of G on right cosets of H . Theorem 5.2 says that coset enumeration
Let

derive a presentation of

gives this. But in our rst example, we just work it out without coset enumeration. We describe the process while
working through the example.

19


Let G =
x,y|x2 , y 3 , (xy)6 = D(2, 3, 6). We dene H = [G : G], as we saw
G/H
= 

Example.

before
2 3
6
6
6 6
2
3
x, y|x , y , (xy) , xy = yx . In G/H the relator (xy) = x y = 1, so it is redundant. So G/H
x,
y|x
,
y
,
xy
=
yx
=
=
C2 C3
C
by
Proposition
4.10.
So
|G
:
H|
=
6
.
We
will
write
down
the
coset
action
(
which
is
the
same
as
the
= 6
regular representation of G/H ).
Dene : G Sym(6) by (x) = (1, 2)(3, 4)(5, 6) and (y) = (1, 3, 5)(2, 4, 6). [We use the facts that |(x)| =
2, |(y)| = 3, (x) and (y) xes no points, and the fact (x)(y) = (y)(x)] So we have (xy) = (1, 4, 5, 2, 3, 6),
(xy)4 = (y), (xy)5 = (x). So im() = h(xy)i, hence | im()| = 6. Since it is abelian we have G/ ker()
= im(),
so [G : G] ker(). Hence |G/H| = |G/ ker()| = 6, so ker() = H .

Exercise.

Show

is equivalent to coset representation on cosets of

down as
x1 y 1
2
5
1
6
4
1
3
2
6
3
5
4

Write action of

1
2
3
4
5
6

x
2
1
4
3
6
5

y
3
4
5
6
1
2

a table:

Scan the rows, and underline new numbers, regard the underline of numbers as denitions of these numbers.
(Its important to do this even if you have denitions already from coset enumerations, since otherwise might not
get Schreier transversal). So we have the denitions:

1x = 2, 1y = 3, 1y 1 = 5, 2y = 4

and

2y 1 = 6.

We are also

going to underline (twice) the inverse of the denitions:

1
2
3
4
5
6

x
2
1
4
3
6
5

y
3
4
5
6
1
2

x1
2
1
4
3
6
5

y 1
5
6
1
2
3
4

2x = 1, we get associated Schreier generators. Things of the entries

ux = ux, Schreier generators uxux1 . Call these a, b, c, . . . so that uxux1 = a implies ux = aux.
becomes 2x = a 1, with a a Schreier generator.
x
y x1 y 1
1
2
3
2
5
2 a1 4
1
6
3 b4 c5
4
1
4 d3 e6
3
2
5 f6 1
6
3
6 g5 2
5
4
For the other entries, such as

from

{a, b, c, d, e, f, g} = Z . Recall
2x = a1 implies 1x1 = a1 2.
x
y
x1
y 1
2
3 a1 2
5
a1 4
1
6
b4 c5 d1 4
1
d3 e6 b1 3
2
f 6 1 g 1 6 c1 3
g5 2 f 1 5 e1 4

So we have
example

1
2
3
4
5
6

that

Z 1 = {ux1 ux1

|u U, x X},

are of the
So

2x = 1

so we can ll these in. For

Now all entries are either underlined or have a letter.

Theorem 6.6. Let G = hX|Ri = F/N with F free on X and N


= RF . Let H = E/N G. Let U be a Schreier
Transversal of E in F
(or equivalently
of H in G, since we are using the same letters x X to denote elements of

G and F ). Then N = S E where S = {uwu1 |u U, w R} (so |S| = |G : H| |R|}.


F
Proof. N = RF , with RF = {gwg 1 |g F, w
R}
 .
Each
 g =F hu with h E, u U . So R =
1 1
E
F
E
{h(uwu )h |h E, w R, u U } = S . So N = R = S
20

Corollary 6.7. Let Y be the set of Schreier generators of H in G (or equivalently of E in F ). Then H
= hY |S(Y )i
where S(Y ) is the set S = {uwu1 |u U, w R}, but rewritten as words in (Y Y 1 ) .
Idea of Proof. E
presentation of

to

S(Y ).

is free on

H = E/N .

SE

by the previous theorem.

So

hY |S(Y )i

is a

(Warning this is not a formal proof, because we've not justied the change of generators

The correctness depends on

So looking at row

N =

by Theorem 3.12, and

being a Schreier transversal, otherwise

of relator table tracing it through using table gives us

hY |S(Y ) Y = X(Y (X))i)

1
2
3
4
5
6

2
a1
b4
d3
f6
g6

a1
a2
bd3
db4
f g5
gf 6
2
relators from w = x are a, a, bd, db, f g, gf .

If rows of table are cyclic conjugate then so are the resulting relators,

so only need one of them.

1
2

3
4

c5
e6

c1
e2

Note that the rest of the rows (3 to

2
y

d3

dcf a3

are cyclic conjugates. The tracing for

dc5
y

def a1

6)

is as follows:

dcf 6

dcf 2

dcf a1
y

dcf ab4

1(xy)6

dcf abe6

dcf abeg5

Note that all numbers arise in the above row, so all other rows gives cyclic conjugates of same relators. Usually
the resulting presentation of

can be simplied

H = ha, b, c, e, d, f, g|a, bd, f g, c, e, dcf abegi

= hb, d, f, g|bd, f g, df bgi

= b, f |b1 f bf 1

= hb, f |bf = f bi

eliminating relators on their own

eliminating

d, g

using

d = b1 , g = f 1

= Z2
So

G = D(2, 3, 6)

Example.

is innite, since

[G : G]
= Z2

(Question 3 from 2011 Exam). Let

(and we say

|G/[G : G]| = 6


G = a, b|a3 , b5 , (ab)2 = D(3, 5, 2)

and let


H = b, ab1 ab2 a1 .

First we start with coset enumeration.

Subgroup Table:

b
=

b1

a
1

a
5

b
=

a1

b
5

Relator Tables:

a
=

And the Table of Denitions and Deductions we made on the way:

Denitions
Deductions

1b = 1

1a = 2, 2a = 3
3a = 1, 2b = 3

3b = 4, 4a = 5
5b = 2
21

5a = 6
6a = 4,6b = 5,4b = 6

1
=

a
2
3
v1
5
6
y4

1
2
3
4
5
6

Now we make a table to dene

b
t1
u3
4
w6
x2
z5

and

a
v 1 3
1
2
1
y 6
4
5

b
t1 1
x1 5
u1 2
3
z 1 6
w1 4

Call the Schreier generators,

t, u, v, w, x, y, z .

Now we trace the relators:

1
4

2
5

3
6

(No need to do

v1
y4

2, 3

as they appear in rst row, and no need to do

5, 6

as they

appear in the second row)

1
2

t1
u3

t 1
u4

t 1
uw6

t5 1
uwzx2

t 1
uwz5

(No need to do

3, 4, 5, 6 as they appear in the second

row)

1
2
5
6

2
3
6
y4

u3
4
z5
yw6

uv1
5
z6
ywy4
4 as well)

in the second row, so ignore

uvt1
x2
z25
(yw)2 6

(No need to do 3, as

3a

appears in the rst row.

4a

appears

Hence we have that


t, u, v, w, x, y|v, y, t5 , uvwzx, uvt, x, z 2 , (yw)2


t, u, w, z|t5 , uwz, ut, z 2 , w2


t, w, z|t5 , t1 wz, z 2 , w2


t, w|t5 , w2 , (w1 t)2


t, w|t5 , w2 , (wt)2

= D(5, 2, 2)
D10
=
So

|H| = 10,

and since

|G : H| = 6

we have

|G| = 60,

hence

D(2, 3, 5)

is nite. In fact

D(2, 3, 5)
= A5
= PSL2 (5).

Example. An
presentation
on given generators of subgroups (not examinable)

example of computing


G = x, y|, x3 , y 5 , (xy)2 , and H = xy, x1 y 1 xyx

keep a, b in tables while doing coset enumeration.

Let

this,

Generators:

x
1

y
=

x1
a1

y 1

x
=

. Label generators of

y
b4

H , a = xy , b = x1 y 1 xyx.

x
b3

b1

Relators:

a1

ab1 4

ab1 3

ab1 5

ba1 2

b1

b4

b2 4

b3 4

ba1 2

b1

ab1 5

(ab1 )2 5

(ab1 )3 5

ba1 2

b1

22

b1 3

b1 5

b1 4

a1 2

For

x
1

a1

a2

a2 = 1

ab1 5

b1 4

b4

b3

b1

ab1 5

Denitions and Deductions:

Denitions
1x = 2, 2x =

3
3y 1 = 4
3y = 5
Deductions
3x = 1,2y = a1 4x = b4, 1y = b1 4 5y = ba1 2,5x = ab1 5
relators
a2 = 1
b3 = 1, (ab1 )3


2 3
1 3
So we have H = a, b|a , b , (ab
) = a, b|a2 , b3 , (ab)3 = D(2, 3, 3) which has

order

12.

So

|G| = 60.

Dealing with coincidence with this method is much harder and has additional technicalities.

Proposition 6.8. Let G = hX|Ri with X, R nite and |R| < |X|, then G/[G, G] is innite and hence so is G.
Proof. Let C = hti ,|t| = be the innite cyclic group. Consider a map : X C , let X = {x1 , . . . , xm },
(xi ) = ti for some i Z. By the Fundamental Theorem, extends to : G C if (r) = 1 r R. Note
that (r) = 1 r R if and only if the associated system of homogeneous linear equation in 1 , . . . , n as solution
1 2 3 1
21 +42 +23
then (r) = t
, so (r) = 1 if and only if 21 + 42 + 23 = 0).
(for example if r = x2 x1 x3 x2 x1
If |X| < |R|, then we have fewer equations than variables, so by Linear Algebra, there exists a non-zero solutions
1 , . . . , m Q. Multiply by a constant to get a solution i Z. So there exists a non-trivial homomorphism
: G C with im() C , so im() is innite. So G/ ker() is innite and abelian, hence [G, G] ker(), so
G/[G, G] is innite.

Lemma 6.9. Let H G, = {Hg|g G}, coset action of G on . Then for any g G, Hk we have
(Hk)g = Hk if and only if g H . That is StabG (Hk) = H .
Proof.

We have

(Hk)g = Hk ,

if and only if,

kgk 1 H ,

if and only if,

Theorem 6.10. Let

g k 1 Hk = H = Hkg

since

H C G.

G = hx1 , . . . , xr |w1m1 , w2m2 , . . . , wsms i where i=1 m1i r 1. Assume also that there is a
group P and a homomorphism G P in which |(wi )| = mi for 1 i s. Then G is innite.

Proof.

Ps

im() = P . If P is innite then G is clearly innite, so assume P is nite

H = ker() so |G : H| = n is nite. Apply Reidemeister - Schreier to get H = hE|S(Y )i, where |E| =
(r 1)n + 1 by Theorem 3.12. |S(Y )| = |G : H||R| = ns, so |S(Y )| > |E|. By we can eliminate cyclic conjugates
mi
form S(Y ). Consider row c for the relator table for wi
wi . . .
wi
...
wi
c = c1
v2 c2 . . . vmi cmi
vc1
l
l
so v is a relator. Since |(wi )| = mi by assumption, (wi ) 6= 1 for l < mi , so wi
/ H for 1 l < mi . So by
Assume

Let

wl

cj we have cj i 6= cj for 1 l < mi . So in the row for c, the coset numbers c1 , c2 , . . . , cmi
are all dierent, so these mi rows just give cyclic conjugates of relator v for c1 . So we only need to keep n/mi of
Ps
mi
1
relators from wi . So can reduce to presentation of H with (r 1)n + 1 generators n
i=1 mi relators which by
assumption is less than n(r 1). So by Proposition 6.8, we have H/[H, H] is innite, so G is innite.


Example. Let G = D(2, 4, 5) = x, y|x2 , y4 , (xy)5 . We have 21 + 14 + 15 < 1, so to prove innite we need to
nd : G P . Can look for permutations, a = (1, 2), b = (2, 3, 4, 5) then ab = (1, 3, 4, 5, 2). So can take
P = h(1, 2), (2,
3, 4, 5)i = S5

P 1
3 3 3
3
3
3
,then
Let G = x, y, z, |x , y , z , (xy) , (yz) , (xz)
mi = 2 3 1. So for P , take P = ha, b, ci where
a = (1, 2, 3), b = (4, 5, 6) and c = (7, 8, 9). So G is innite.
Lemma 6.9, for any coset

6.3

The groups D(l, m, n)


l m
n
2 2 2
l
m
n
The groups D(l, m, n) = x, y|x , y , (xy)
. Assume 2 l m n. Let G = a, b, c|a , b , c , (ab) , (bc) , (ac)
.
The subgroup hab, bci has index 2 in G and is isomorphic to D(l, m, n) (easy proof with Reidemeister - Schreier). G
is a 3 generators Coxetor group and can be studied as reection groups. Take the triangular tessellation of plane
(Euclidean, elliptic or hyperbolic) using triangles with angles /l, /m, /n. Then a, b, c are reections in sides of some
xed triangle. It can be proved that group generated by a, b, c is isomorphic to group G dened by presentation.
The three cases are:

23

Elliptic Case

When 1/l

(2, 3, 5) = A5 .

+ 1/m + 1/n > 1.

The only cases are

(2, 2, n) = D2n ; (2, 3, 3) = A4 ; (2, 3, 4) = S4

and

So they are all nite. The plane is the surface of a sphere, so the tessellation is nite. (For

picture look at Triangle Groups)

Euclidean Case
(2, 3, 6).

When 1/l + 1/m + 1/n

= 1.

This is the normal plane and the only cases are

(3, 3, 3), (2, 4, 4)

and

The groups act regularly (transitive, trivial stabiliser) on triangles

Hyperbolic Case

When 1/l

+ 1/m + 1/n < 1.

The plane is the hyperbolic plane.

So it is not hard to prove (using some hyperbolic geometry) that

D(l, m, n) is innite if and only if 1/l + 1/m + 1/n 1.

+ 1/m + 1/n > 1 cases as examples.

But we will prove this algebraically. We have already considered all 1/l

Theorem 6.11.
Proof.

D(l, m, n) is innite when 1/l + 1/m + 1/n 1.

By Theorem 6.10, it is enough to nd a group

containing elements

x, y with |x| = l, |y| = m and |xy| = n.

l = 5, m = 7and n = 9 we can take

We can always nd nite permutation with these orders. For example, with

x = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), y = (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) then xy = (1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 3, 5). It is hard to describe in general this process.
In fact we construct P as a quotient group of matrices. Let K be a eld of characteristic not 2. Let SL2 (K)
be as usual the multiplicative group of 2 2 invertible matrices with entries in K and determinant 1. Let Z =

 

1 0
1 0
{
,
}, note 1 6= 1 since char(K) 6= 2. Then Z C SL2 (K) (in fact Z is the centre of SL2 (K).
0 1
0 1
Dene PSL2 (K) = SL2 (K)/Z .


1 0
Lemma 6.12. 0 1 is the only element of order 2 in SL2 (K)


a b
Proof. Let
= A with ord(A) = 2. Then A2 = I implies a2 + bc = bc + d2 = 1, so b(a + d) = c(a + d) = 0
c d
2
hence either b = c = 0 or a + d = 0. If a + d = 0, then d = a, but det(A) = ab bc = 1 implies a bc = 1
2
2
2
contradicting a + bc = 1 (using 1 6= 1). So b = c = 0 and hence a = 1 = d , hence either a = d = 1 or
a = d = 1

Lemma 6.13. If A SL2 (K) with ord(A) = 2r for some r 1 then order of AZ in PSL2 (K) is r
Proof.

Since

ord(A) = 2r

then

ord(Ar ) = 2.

So

Ar =

1 0
0 1


Z

As
/ Z

and

for

1 s < r,

so the result

follows.


a b
S , then Tr(A) = a + d and the characteristic polynomial of A = (a x)(d x) bc =
c d
x2 (a + d)x + (ad bc) = x2 Tr(A) + 1. So when Tr(A) 6= 2 we have distinct eigenvalues.
Let

A =

Lemma 6.14. Let A, B S and Tr(A) = Tr(B) 6= 2. Then ord(A) = ord(B)

Proof.

Tr(A) = Tr(B) implies A and B have the same characteristic polynomial and
L of K ) are distinct, so by Linear Algebra, A, B are similar, i.e., there
P 1 AP = B . So A, B are conjugate in SL2 (L). So ord(A) = ord(B).
Now

an extension eld
that

eigenvalues (possibly in
exists

P SL2 (L)

such

Lemma 6.15. For all

l, m, n 2 and assume that K contains primitive (2l)th , (2m)th and (2n)th root of unity.
Then there exists A, B S with ord(A) = 2l, ord(B) = 2m and ord(AB) = 2n.

Proof.

0
2l, 2m
 4 wehave + 6= 2 and


1
1
+ 6= 2. (Note root of unity and + = 2 then = 1). So let A =
and B =
1 1
0 1
1
for some . Then Tr(A) = +
, so by Lemma 6.14 ord(A) = 2l. Similarly ord(B) = 2m for any K . Now



th
1
AB =
. Let be a primitive (2n)
root of unity. By Lemma 6.14 if Tr(AB) = +
, then
+ 1 1
ord(AB) = 2n. So we just choose = + 1 1 1 .
Let

be primitive

Now by Lemma 6.13, in

required group

(2l)th

and

PSL2 (K)

(2m)th

roots of unity respective. Since

element

AZ, BZ, ABZ = (AZ)(BZ)

and Theorem 6.11 follows from Theorem 6.10.

24

have orders

l, m, n.

So we have the

If we choose

K = C,

then

hAZ, BZi

will usually be innite. Can we nd a nite group

with elements

, .

Theorem 6.16. Let l, m, n 2, then there exists a nite group P , with , P and || = l, || = m, || = n.
Proof.

To prove this we just need a nite eld

(2n)

root of unity. Recall that for each prime power

th

K,

such that charK

q=p

6= 2

and containing primitive

, there exists a unique nite eld

(2l)th , (2m)th and

Fq of order q with

q 1. So Fq will have the required roots of

2l, 2m, 2n divides q 1. By Theorem of Dirichlet (from Number Theory), there exists innitely
many primes p 1 mod 2lmn. But we don't actually need this theorem, if we choose any odd prime p, coprime
e
e
to 2lmn and let e be the order of p in U (2lmn) (unit group), then p 1 mod 2lmn. So choose q = p .

characteristic

p,

and the multiplicative group

Fq \ {0}

is cyclic of order

unity if and only if

25

Baumslaq - Solitar Groups


G(m, n) = x, y|y 1 xm y = xn , m, n 6= 0. G(2, 3) was the rst example (1962) of a nitely generated nonHopan group, i.e., there exists 1 6= N C G with G/N
= G. Easy to nd non-nitely generated example. The
groups with m = 1 have an easier structure. So we will consider those rst. Note that the case m = n = 1 is the
free abelian group, so we assume n > 1.


1
Consider G = (1, n) = x, y|y
xy = xn . Dene xr = y r xy r for any r Z (so x0 = x and x1 = xn ).
Let

Lemma 7.1. We have xnr = xr+1 for all r Z. More generally xnr
Proof. xnr = (y r xy r )n = y r xn y r = y r y 1 xyy r = xr+1
.
r
Second statement is by induction on

Let

So

xr = xn

. But not

= xr+k , k 0.

x1 = yxy 1

is not a power of

x.

N = hxr |r Zi .

Corollary 7.2.
Proof.

k.

xs is a power of xr , so [xr , xs ] = 1.


Corollary 7.3. N = xG C G


Proof. Recall xG = g 1 xg|g G . For any r, xr = y r xy r xG , so N = hxr i xG .
1
For the other direction, we need to prove that for all g G, we have g
xg is a product of the xr . Write g as
1
1
a word in x
, y
. We do a prove by induction on length of the word.
1
If Length is zero, then g is the identity, so g
xg = x = x0
1, 1
1
Let g = wa with a {x
y }. Then g xg = a1 (w1 xw)a , which by induction is a1 (xr1 . . . xrk )a. If
a = x1 then a1 xr a = xr for all r, hence g 1 xg = w1 xw and we are done. If a = y 1 , then y 1 xr y = xr+1 and
yxe y 1 = xr1 , so we still get g 1 xg = product of xr .

G/N = G/ xG
, which is what we get if we add relator x to presentation of G. That is G/ x
=

Now

1
n

x, y|y xy = x , x = 1 = hy| i innite cyclic. So we have N is abelian (but not nitely generated) and G/N innite
1
cyclic, so G is metabelian group. We need a norm form for group elements. Using xr y = yxr+1 , xr y
= y 1 xr1
1
k 1 1
we can move y, y
to the left of a word to get in the form g = y xr xr . . . . Since xs is a power of xr for each
1
2
s > r, each xri is a power of xr with r = min ri . So we get g = y k xsr for some s Z. Since xnr = xr+1 we can
assume that n - s.
If

s > r,

N is abelian.

Example.

Let

then

n = 3, g = yxyxy 1 = y x0 y x0 y = yy x1 y 1 x1 = yyy 1 x0 x1 = yx41 .

|{z} |{z}
| {z }

Proposition 7.4. Each g G has a unique expression as yk xsr with k, r, s Z and n - s.

Proof.

Let

Dene

H = GL2 (Q)
: {x, y} H

2 2invertible
 matrices with
n 0
and (y) =
. Then
0 1




1/n 0
1 0
n 0
1
(y xy) =
0 1
1 1
0 1



1/n 0
n 0
=
1 1
0 1


1 0
=
n 1

(= multiplicative group of
by


1
(x) =
1

0
1

=
So by the Fundamental Theorem,

(x)n

extends to a homomorphism

: G H.

Now

(xr )

= (y r xy r )
 r

n
0
1
=
0
1
1


1 0
=
nr 1
26

 r
0
n
1
0


0
1

entries in

Q)

So

(y k xsr )


k 
s
n 0
1 0
0 1
nr 1
 k


1
0
n 0
snr 1
0 1
 k

n
0
snr 1

=
=
=

So for distinct

r, k, s

with

s - n,

the distinct elements


Note
subgroup

(N )

is generated by

{sn |s Z, r Z}

(xr ) =

1
nr

y k xsr

have distinct images under




0
1
|r Z =
1
snr



0
|r, s Z
1

.
which is isomorphic to the

a
of (Q, +), which is the set of rationals
b such that primes dividing

b are those dividing

n.
Now we move onto the general case


1
(x) =
1



n/m
0
, (y) =
1
0


0
,
1

but

G(m, n)

with

m, n 2.

We still have

: G GL2 (Q)

dened by

is not a monomorphism.

Digression HNN (Higman, Neumann, Neumann)extensions

Let

H = hX|Ri

hz1 , . .
. , zk i , hz10 , . . . , zk0 i be isomorphic subgroups of H with isomorphic zi 7 x0i .
1
is G = X, y|R, y
zi y = zi0 . It can be proved for example that: The natural map

be a group and

The associated HNN extension

H G dened by X X is a monomorphism.
G(m, n) is HNN extension, z1 = xm , z10 = xn

so

hz1 i , hz10 i

are both innite cyclic, and

H = hx|i.

HNN are used

in proof of unsolvability of word problem for group presentations. Also used for constructing examples with strange
properties. Such as innite groups in which all non-identity elements are conjugate.

G(m, n). (This generalises easily to arbitrary HNN extensions).

xm y = yxn and xn y 1 = y 1 xm to move y, y 1 to the left whenever possible. In a subword xk y , we
k
t+mu
write k = t + mu with 0 t < m. Then x y = x
y = xt yxnu . Similarly for xk y 1 we can write k = t + nu
k 1
t 1 mu
with 0 t < n and get x y
= x y x . So doing this as much as possible brings the word into the form
g = xt1 y u1 . . . xtr y ur xv where:
We look for a normal form for group elements in

We still use

1.

ti , ui , v, r Z

2.

ti 6= 0

3.

ui 6= 0

for all

4.

ui > 0

then

0 ti < m

5.

ui < 0

then

0 ti < n

for all

and

r>0

i>1

and

t1 = 0

if

r=0

Note that 1. ,2. and 3. we could do in any groups, while 4. and 5. we can impose using substitutions above arising
from group relators. We conjecture that this is a normal form for group elements.

Theorem 7.5. Each g G has unique expression satisfying

Remark.

1. -5.

above.

This method of proof can be used in general to prove that a conjectured normal form for a group really

is a normal form. Useful if there is no representation of the group that can be used. We construct a representation
as group of permutations of set of normal forms, which will be equivalent to regular group action.

Proof.

Let

be the set of words satisfying 1. -5.

normal form of

G on . First want an
, a {x1 , y 1 } we want a

We construct an action of

generators which should correspond to multiplying on the right. So for

a.

27

action of
to be the

 = xt1 y u1 . . . xv as above, let = xt1 y u1 . . . xtr1 y ur1 or =  is r 1. Let t = tr , u = ur (with t = u = 0

r = 0). So = xt y u xv , write v = am + b, 0 b < m, and v = cn + d,0 d < n, then we dene
For

if

x
x

xt y u xv+1

xt y u xv1

t u b
an

b 6= 0
x y x yx
t u+1 an
x y
x
b = 0, u 6= 1

t+an
x
b = 0, u = 1

t u d 1 cm

d 6= 0
x y x y x
t u1 cm
x y
x
d = 0, u 6= 1

t+cm
x
d = 0, u = 1

(a) : for a {x1 , y 1 }.

(x), (x1 ) and (y), (y 1 ) are inverse
1
(y)(y 1 ) = I , i.e., (y )y = . (The proof

We dened maps
prove that

Case 1.

This is Case 3 for

Case 2.

This is Case 2 for

(y )y
(y )y

. We get

(y )y

(or Case 3 if

To prove
maps.
for

(y

(a) Sym()

(a) is a bijection), we
(x), (x1 ). So we prove
y
Consider 3 cases for

(that is

This is clear in the case

1

)y =

is similar).

= xt y u xb+am = .

u = 0 with r = t = 0).

(y )y

In either case we have

= xt y u xam =

Case 3.
=y

If

t 6= 0

1 am

this is Case 1 for

. Hence

=x
1

an

and

(y )y . Then we have (y )y
y y 1
so ( )
= y 1 xam = .

= xt y 1 xam = .

If

t = 0,

then

r = 1

so

)y = ). So (a) Sym() for a {x1 , y 1 }. To

use the Fundamental Theorem to prove extends to an action on , i.e., : G Sym(), we have to check
m
n
(y)1 (x)m (y) = (x)n , equivalently (x)m (y) = (y)(x)n . So we must check x y = yx . Again
y
split into the three cases for

So we have that

(y )y

Case 1. = xt y u xam+b
.
n
t u b

(a+1)n

x y x yx

yx

Case 2. = xt y u xam .

in all cases (similarly for

So

(y

= xt y u x(a+1)m+b ,

so we are still in Case 1 for

Hence

So

Case 3. = xt y 1 xam .

x = xt y u x(a+1)m

So

and we are still in Case 2. Hence

ax = xt y 1 x(a+1)m

and we are still in Case 1. Hence

= xt y u+1 x(a+1)n = yx

= xt+(a+1)n = yx

G on . Let be a normal form word. Then it is easy

represented by to  , we get  = . So distinct element ,
 6= =  ) we must have 6=G and we are done.

So by the Fundamental Theorem, we do have an action of

to see that applying the group element
have distinct images under

(since

Same kind of proof can be used more generally to get normal form for HNN extensions.


G = G(2, 3) = x, y|y 1 x2 y = x3 and r = x1 y 1 xyx1 y 1 xyx1 = [x, y]2 x1 .
1 1
form. x
y = x2 x3 y 1 = x2 y 1 x2 . So

Now let
normal

We want to put

into

= x1 y 1 xyx1 y 1 xyx1
= x2 y 1 x1 yx1 y 1 xyx1
= x2 y 1 xyx4 y 1 xyx1
= x2 y 1 xyx2 y 1 x3 yx1
= x2 y 1 xyx2 y 1 xyx7

Denition 7.6.

A group

is

non-Hopan

if there exists

Theorem 7.7.

1 6= N C G

such that

G/N
=G

G(2, 3) is non-Hopan. (In general G(m, n) is non-Hopan if and only if there exists primes p, q
with p|m,q|n and p - n, q - m)

28

Proof.


G = G(2, 3), r = [x, y]2 x1 = x2 y 1 xyx2 y 1 xyx7 6= . So r 6=G 1. Let N = rG ,so N 6= 1.
presentation of G/N , we just add r as extra relation to G. So


G/N
= x, y|y 1 x2 y = x3 , x = [x, y]2

= x, y, w|y 1 x2 y = x3 , x = w2 , w = [x, y]
+
*
1 4
6
2

y, w|y w y = w , w = [w , y]
=
| {z }
Let

w=w2 y 1 w2 y


y, w|y 1 w4 y = w6 , y 1 w2 y = w3


y, w, |y 1 w2 y = w3

= G
since

y 1 w2 y = w3

implies the relation

y 1 w4 y = w6 .

29

To get

The Burnside Problem

Burnside 1902: Given a nitely generated group

with all elements having nite order (i.e.

a torsion group), is

nite? (Certainly true for Abelian groups by the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups)
The general answer is no: In 1964 an example was given by Gringorchuk
Harder question is: Given a nitely generated group

upper bound on the order, equivalently assume there exists

The answer is no for large enough

n (n 8000?).

with all element having nite order, and there is an

g n = 1 for all g G. Then is G nite?

yes for n = 2, 3, 4, 6. So there are still a lot

such that

The answer is

of

which is unknown for.

p, there exists Tarski Monsters : G = hx, yi

G are hgi for g G.

For large enough primes

and only subgroups of

Denition 8.1.

We dene the

r, n

is

B(r, n)

innite and

B(2, 5).
G with r generators and g n = 1 g G.

The answer is Yes, done by Zelmanov (1990?), there exists largest nite quotient

Theorem 8.2.
Let

for all

gG

Equivalently

have largest nite quotient.

|RB(2, 5)| = 534 , |RB(3, 5)| = 52282

Proof.

gp = 1

nite. Not known for

Restricted Burnside Problem: Is there a largest nite group

B(r, n)

Burnside Group B(r, n) as follows: B(r, n) = hx1 , . . . , xr |wn = 1 w A i

The above question is now for which

does

with

and

RB(r, n).

In particular

|RB(2, 7)| = 720416 .

B(r, 2) is abelian of order 2r

G = B(r, 2), g, h G.

Consider

(gh)2 = ghgh = 1

but

g 2 h2 = gghh = 1.

So we get

gh = hg

and

is

abelian.
So


G = x1 , . . . , xr |x2i , [xi , xj ]
= hx1 i hxr i
= C2r

(by Proposition 4.9)

Cauchy's Theorem. If G is a nite group p||G| with p prime, then G has an element of order p
Proof.

S = {(x1 , . . . , xp )|xi G, x1 x2 . . . xp = 1}. Since xp = (x1 . . . xp1 )1 , we can choose x1 , . . . , xp1

p1
arbitrarily so |S| = |G|
. Hence p||S|. Note (x1 , . . . , xp ) S implies (x2 , x3 , . . . , xp , x1 ) S . So we have an
action of cyclic group hgi = Cp on S with g (x1 , . . . , xp ) = (x2 , . . . , xp , x1 ). So orbit of action has size 1 or p (since
p is prime). Now an orbit of size 1 will be (x, x, . . . , x), xp = 1. There exists at least one of these x = 1. But since
p||S| we have p|number of orbit of size 1. So there exists x 6= 1 with xp = 1.
Let

Theorem 8.3.
Proof.

B(r, 3) is nite of order at most 33

r1

Induction on

r.

11

|B(1, 3)| = 3 = 33
3
1 1 1
Let
Note for g, h G = B(r, 3) we have (gh) = 1 implies ghg = h
g h . Let H = hx1 , . . . , xr1 i
3r2
1
G. By induction, we know H is nite with |H| 3
. For any g = G let g = u1 z
u2 . . . z 1 um with ui H and
3
z = xr (so z = 1). Do this with the smallest m. If we had zuz we can turn that into u1 zu1 which reduces m.
1
1
So we have that z and z
must alternate in the word. Note also that zuz
vz = zuzzvz = u1 z 1 u1 v 1 z 1 v 1
1
vzw uz 1 vz 1 z 1 w uv 1 zv 1 z 1 w, so
reduces m. So we have m 3 and hence G is nite. Also uz
elements of G are
For

r = 1,
r > 1.

g = u1

we clearly have

(we have

g = u1 x1 u2

|H|

of them)

(we have

g = u1 zu2 z 1 u3

2|H|2

(we have

of them)

|H|3

of them)

|G| |H| + 2|H|2 + |H|3 . By Cauchy's Theorem, we have |H| = 3m for some m. So |G| 3m + 2 32m + 33m <
r1
33m+1 . But |G| is also a power of 3, so |G| 33m . By induction m 3r2 so |G| 33 .




r
r
m(r)
3
In fact |B(r, 3)| = 3
where m(r) = r +
2 + 3 = O(r ). The bounds agree for |B(1, 3)| = 3 and |B(2, 3)| =
33 . But |B(3, 3)| 39 when in fact |B(3, 3)| = 37 .
i
1
r+1
Let G be a group, dene lower central series (G) as follows: (G) = G and
(G) = [G, r (G)]. G is of
C+1
C
nilpotent class C if
(G) = 1 ( (G) 6= 1), so note that Class 1 means abelian. [Note G nite and G nilpotent

So

30

is the same as all Sylow subgroups normal).

B(r, 3)

is nilpotent of class 3.

r
r
r
| 2 (G)| = 3(2)+(3) , | 3 (G)| = 3(3)

and

4 (G) = 1.
We can also dene the derived series of

(r+1) (G)

for all

r 0. G

as follows,

G(0) = G and G(r+1) = [G(r) , G(r) ]. We have G(r)

r if G(r+1) = 1 and G(r) 6= 1. Nilpotent groups are

is soluble/solvable of derived length

soluble.

B(r, 4) are nite, order 2k(r) for some k(r). No know formula known fro k(r). WE have k(1) =
4, k(2) = 12, k(3) = 69, k(4) = 422 and k(5) = 2728. B(r, 4) is nilpotent and soluble but its derived length tends to
as r tends to .
The groups

Theorem 8.4.

B(r, 4) is nite for all r 1

This will follow from:

Theorem 8.5. Let G = hK, zi with K G, K nite, z 2 K and g4 = 1 for all g G. Then G is nite.
Proof of Theorem8.4 (using Theorem 8.5).

We do this by induction on r .
r = 1, we have |B(1, 4)| = 4


2
Let r > 1, G = hx1 , . . . , xr i, let H = hx1 , . . . , xr1 ithen H is nite by induction. So let L = H, xr . Then
applying Theorem 8.5 with K = H and z = xr , we have L is nite. Then apply Theorem 8.5 again to K = L and
z = xr to get that G is nite.
For

Proof of Theorem 8.5.

z 2 K , we have z 2 K , since z 1 = zz 2 with z 2 K , we see that in a word we

1
can replace powers of z by z or z times an element of K . So for any g G we have g = u0 zu1 z . . . um1 zum with
ui K and u1 , . . . , um1 6= 1. Do this with m as small as possible.
1 1 1 1 1
1
4
0
0
Since (ui x) = 1 for 1 i m 1 we have zui z = ui z
ui z ui = u1
for some u K . This does
i zu zui
1
1
0
not reduces m, but it replaces ui1 by ui1 ui . Also g = . . . ui1 zui z = . . . ui1 ui zu z . . . . So if ui1 = ui
then we reduce m.
1
If m 3, we can replace um2 by element in the set Um2 = {um2 , um2 um1 }. Since um1 6= 1, elements of
Um2 are distinct and non-trivial, since otherwise we could reduce m.
1
Similarly if m 4, we can replace um3 by elements in the set Um3 = {um3 , um3 t
, t Um2 }. All such
elements are distinct, since t are distinct and non-trivial so |Um3 | = 1 + |Um2 | = 2. None are trivial or we could
reduce m.
1
So by induction if m i + 1, we can replace umi by any elements of Umi = {umi , umi t
, t Umi+1 }.
By induction the elements are distinct and non-trivial. So |Umi | = i.
So i = |Umi | |K| 1, putting i = m 1, gives m |K|. So we have a bound on m. Hence G is nite as
P|K|+i
i
i+1
we get |G|
words with m = i. Using Geometric Series argument, we
i=0 |K| , since there are at most |K|
|K|+2
have |G| |K|
.
Since

Umi , we can get |G| |K||K| when |K| 4. This gives a

4 (44 )
very bad inaccurate bound on |B(r, 4)|, e.g., |B(2, 4)| (4 )
= 22048 but |B(2, 4)| = 212 .
B(2, 6) is nite, but the proof is longer and works by induction by splitting z 6 into square and a cube. Note
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
for n = 5, we cannot split up, zuz = u
z u z u z u which increases number of z , so no techniques for
By working harder and using proven properties of

reducing word length.

8.1

The Grigorchuk Group

First example of an innite, nitely generated group in which all elements have a nite order. All elements have
order

2k

but exists such elements for all

k.

(So it doesn't prove any

31

B(r, n)

innite)

Let

be innite rooted binary tree

layer 0

ll
lll

layer 1 :21 vertices

l
lr
llr

rl

lrl

layer 2 :22 vertices

rr

layer 3 :22 vertices

lrr

.
.
.

layer n : 2n vertices
At every vertex label

v,

there is a copy

An automorphism of

Tv

of

rotted at

v.

is a permutation of vertices that maps edges to edges. It must x root vertex since this

has just two neighbours, all other have three. So it must x the set
of vertices at level 1 - so either xes
layer

for all

n 0.

Let

idT

and

{l, r}

of neighbours of roots, i.e. xes the set

or interchange them. By easy induction it xes the set of vertices at

be the identity map of

and

interchanges the corresponding vertices in

Tl

and

Tr

o
a
i.e.

/
a

T = (l, r)(ll, rl)(lr, rr)(lll, rll) . . .

G to be constructed is dened as G = ha, b, c, di
specifying their actions on Tl and Tr which is as follows:
Tl
Tr
b aTl cTr
c aTl dTr
d ITl bTr
The group

by

=
with

a = T , b, c, d

This is a recursive denition. More explicitly

b
b
Tl

c
Tl

d
ITl

b
Tl
..

..

..

c
c
Tl

d
ITl

b
Tl

c
Tl
..

32

all x

and

so can be dened

 d
d
ITl

b
Tl

c
Tl

d
..

ITl
..

a2 = 1. Since for b, c, d
all vertices lie in a subtree Tv , which action is aTv or idTv we must have b = c = d = 1. Furthermore these
actions of (b, cd) on Tv are (, , I), (, I, ) or (I, , ), we must have bc = d on all such subtrees. So bc = d, in
fact {1, b, c, d} is a Klein 4 groups and G = ha, b, ci.
Consider aba: Tr Tl Tl Tr , so aba acts as aTr on Tr .
So the recursive denition allows us to calculate actions of

b, c, d

on any vertex. Clearly

action on

b
c
d
aba
aca
ada

Tl

action on

a
a
id
c
d
b

Tr

image under

c
d
b
a
a
id

(a, c)
(a, d)
(id, b)
(c, a)
(d, a)
(b, id)

Lemma 8.6. Let H = hb, c, d, aba, aca, adai ,then |G : H| = 2. In fact H is the stabiliser Gl of l and r
Proof.

H Gl , a
/ Gl so a
/ H , hence |G : H| > 1.
G = ha, b, ci and S = H Ha, g1 = 1, g2 = a
a
b
c
g1 a Ha
bH
cH
g2
1H
ab = (aba)a Ha ac = (aca)a Ha
So S = G.
Clearly

So it is enough to prove

G = H Ha.

We use

Proposition 4.7. So

Dene a homomorphism

Proposition 8.7.
Proof.
If

Let

1 , 2

:H GG

by

(h) = (action

of

on

Tl , action

of

on

Tr ).

G is innite
G G onto its direct factors, then a, b, c, d im(1 ) (and also in im(2 )).
im(1 ) |G|, but domain 1 = H and |H| < |G| which is a contradiction.

be projections of

was nite, then

Proposition 8.8. Every g G has nite order (a power of 2)

Proof.

Let g G. Write g as a word of length k , so g = g1 . . . gk with gi {a, b, c, d}. We use induction on k

k = 0: g = 1 which is ne
k = 1, then g = a, b, c or d and g 2 = 1
k > 1: If bc is a subword, we can replace by d, similarly bd is replaced by c and cd by b. So a, and a letter in
{b, c, d} alternate in word. Since conjugate elements have same order, if g1 = gk then |g| = |g2 . . . gk1 | which is a
power of 2 by induction, so we can assume g1 6= gk . If for example g1 = b and gk = c, then bgb = g2 . . . gk1 d which
is shorter, hence we can assume a is at one end and b, c or d at the other, and by conjugating by a, we can assume
g1 = a. So g = ax1 ax2 . . . axn where k = 2n and xi {b, c, d}.

Case 1. n

Case 2. n

g = (ax1 a)x2 (ax3 a)x4 . . . (axn1 a)xn . So g h. A product of generators of H , of length n,

wi are words of length n < k = 2n. So by induction |w1 |, |w2 | are powers of 2, and hence
clearly injective, so |g| is a power of 2.

is even:

(g) = (w1 , w2 )
|(g)|. But is

where

so
so

g 2 = (ax1 a)a2 (ax3 a)x4 . . . (axn a)x1 (ax2 ) . . . (axn1 a)xn . So each xi and
2
2
each axi a occurs once in product. Hence |g | = 4n with 2n bracketed terms in H , (g ) = (g1 , g2 ), g1 , g2 G, with
|g1 | = |g2 | = 2n. So cannot immediately apply induction to g1 , g2 . So we get three more cases
is odd:

(g
/ H),

then we have

33

1. If some

xi = d,

then

(xi ) = (1, b) and (axi a) = (b, 1) so there is a 1

2, hence so does g 2 , hence so does g .

in words for

g1 , g2 .

So

|g1 |, |g2 | < 2n

by

induction have order power of

2. If some

|g1 |, |g2 |
3. All

xi = c,

x i = b,

hence so is

Example.

then

are power of

Let

(xi ) = (a, d)
2, so is g

in which case

(axi a) = (d, a).

and

(xi ) = (a, c), (axi a) = (c, a)

So both

and by case 2.2 we have

g = ab, g 2 = (aba)b,

so

(ca)2 = c(aca)

and

and by case 2.1 we have

|g1 ||g2 |

are a power of 2, and

ac

((ca)2 ) = (a, d)(d, a)(ad, da), (ac)2 = (da, ad)

g4 =

(ca)

so

=
2

(ca)

ad

da

da

ad

(ad2 ) = ((ada)d) = (b, 1)(1, b) = (b, b) = ((da)2

g8 =

ad

da

da

ad

b
Since

(g 2 ) = (c, a)(a, c) = (ca, ac)

ca

Finally

involve a

|g|

g2 =

We have

g1 , g2

b2 = 1,

we have

g 16 = 1,

so

|g| = 16.

Note

b H , (b) = (a, c).

Theorem 8.9.

G has elements of order 2n for all n 0.


Proof. Let g = ab, let x = g 2 , (x) = (ca, ac). Let K = xG = g 1 xg|g G . So xc = cxc K, (xc ) = (cxc) =
(a, d)(ca, ac)(a, d) = (ac, dab).
xxc K , (xxc ) = (ca, ac)(ac, dab) = (1, x). Conjugating by a we get (x, 1) K . Hence for all g G we have

h=

g
for some

g0 .
h1 xh =

g 1 xg

, this is true for all

g G.

Since


K = g 1 xg|g G ,

K
1

we have

and

1K
1

34

and

etc.

K has elements of
|h| = 2n . By above

We now prove
let

hK

with

2n

order

for all

n 1.

This is true for

h=

n = 0, 1, 2, 3 (|x| = 8).

For induction,

, we saw that

g8 =

?(c)

so

g 8 hg 8 =

so

(hg 8 )2 = hg 8 hg 8 =

Since

|h| = 2n

by assumption, so

|(hg 8 )| = 2n ,

so

|hg 8 | = 2n+1

1
1

1
1

h
completing the induction.

G = hXi, X nite. Let g = a1 a2 . . . an with ai A = (X X 1 ) . For g G, dene length of |g| to be

n with g = a1 . . . an , i.e., the length of the shortest word for g (it depends on X ). Dene the growth
function G,X : Z0 Z0 by G,X (n) = |{g G||g| n}| (i.e., the ball of radius n around 1).
Pn
i1
For free group of rank k , |x| = k , Gk (n) = 1 + 2k +
= O((2k 1)n ), its an exponential
i=2 (2k)(2k 1)
function of n. So G has exponential growth (this property is independent of X )
k
Let G = hg1 , . . . , gk |[gi , gj ] = 1i, free abelian group of rank k . Then G,X (n) = O(n ), polynomial in n. We say
G has polynomial growth (again this property is independent of X )
Let

the minimum

Theorem 8.10 (Hard (Gromov) ). Let G be nitely generated, G has polynomial growth if and only if there exists
H G with |G : H| nite and H nilpotent.

Grigorchuk's group was the rst example with intermediate growth, that is
but less than all exponential functions in

n.

35

G,X

less than all polynomial in

n,