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Rocks

Basic definitions
Rock: a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals or glass.

Igneus Rocks: all rocks that form by cooling and/or crystalization


of molten material within the crust or at the Earths surface.
Sedimentary Rocks: all rocks formed by deposition and
consolidation of mineral grains and those formed from precipitation
of minerals from solution in water. The grains and solutions derived
from the breakdown of pre-existing rocks at the Earths surface.

Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks

The Earth can be


considered as being
made up of a series of
concentric spheres, each
made up of materials
that differ in terms of
composition and
mechanical properties.

Metamorphic Rocks: all rocks formed when pre-existing rocks are


subjected to high temperatures and/or pressure and interaction with
chemically active fluids.

Igneous rocks make up the


majority of the Earths crust.

Sedimentary rocks dominate


the Earths surface.

The temperature increases


from the surface of the
crust to the centre of the
core (7000 degrees C).

Igneous Rocks
All rocks that form from cooling of a mass of molten rock
(melt or magma).
Includes crystalline rocks (interlocking mineral crystals)
and glasses (lacking crystalline minerals).

Phaneritic: mineral grains can be seen with the unaided eye.


Aphanitic: mineral grains cannot be seen with the unaided eye.

Coarse-grained igneous rocks are formed as intrusive


rock bodies:
They crystallize relatively slowly within the Earths crust.

Igneous Rock

First order classification: based on average crystal size


(termed texture).

Fine-grained igneous rocks are formed as extrusive rock


bodies:

Coarse-grained: 1 mm or larger.

They crystallize relatively quickly at or very near the


surface of the Earth.

Fine-grained: less than 1 mm.

Magma that is extruded to the Earths surface is called


lava.
Many lavas crystallize so quickly that there is no time for
the organized structure of crystals to develop.

In general, the size of the crystals depends on the rate of


cooling; the slower the rate of cooling the larger the
crystals that form.

Gas trapped in the magma


when it cools quickly forms
bubbles that remain after
cooling and solidification; the
resulting void spaces in the rock
are termed vesicules

The texture of such rocks is termed glassy and the rocks


lack discrete minerals.

Obsidian is an igneous rock


that cooled very quickly at the
Earths surface and displays a
glassy texture and conchoidal
fracture.

Pumice is a glassy igneous rock that


is characterized by many small
vesicules.

Additional terms related to crystal size:

The worlds largest crystals: gypsum crystals found in caves near


a zinc and silver mine in Mexico.

Pegmatite: very coarsegrained igneous rock with


crystals exceeding 2.5 cm
in size.

Porphyritic: large crystals set


in a matrix of finer crystals.

The large crystals are termed phenocrysts.

Igneous rocks are classified more precisely on the basis of


the relative proportions of their minerals.
Silicic or Felsic rocks: white, grey or pink in colour;
rich in quartz, potassium feldspars and sodium
plagioclase feldspars and biotite/muscovite.
Intermediate rocks: salt and pepper for coarsegrained rocks, dark grey for fine-grained rocks; rich
in amphiboles and calcium plagioclase feldspars.
Mafic rocks: dark grey to black in colour; rich in
calcium plagioclase feldspars and pyroxene.

Ultramafic rocks: green to black in colour; rich in


olivine.

Igneous rock names based on texture and composition.

Coarse-grained

Fine-grained

Granite

Rhyolite

Silicic or
felsic
Diorite

Andesite

Intermediate
Gabbro

Basalt

Mafic

Peridotite

Ultramafic

Komatiite

Crystallization from Magma


The melting or crystallization temperature depends on:
Magmas begin deep within the crust or the upper mantle
where temperatures are high enough to melt rock.
Geothermal Gradient:
the rate of increase in
temperature with depth
beneath the Earths
surface.
On average:
3 C per 100 m depth.

The pressure exerted on the material


(which depends on the depth of burial).
The amount of water that is present within
the magma.
The chemical composition of the magma.

the world's deepest mine,


3,585 m below surface at
the East Rand mine, SA.

Melting/Crystallization temperature increases with depth


beneath the Earths surface (if the rocks are dry) due to
the increase in pressure with depth.
Melting of dry rocks will
normally not occur beneath
continents because
temperature do not become
sufficiently high.

Water, under pressure, substantially reduces the melting


temperature.
The greater the pressure that is exerted on the water the
lower the melting temperature.
In the presence of water
melting will take place
beneath continents.

Melting/crystallization temperature varies widely


depending on the composition of the magma.

The melting temperature increases with decreasing quartz


to 1300 C for pure K-spar.

Complete melting of a mixture of potassium feldspar (Kspar) and quartz occurs at a minimum of 1000 C when
there is 42% Quartz and 58 % K-spar.

The melting temperature increases with decreasing K-spar


to over 1500 C for pure Quartz.

Some magmas begin within the mantle as semisolid masses.


The melting or crystallization temperature depends on:

The pressure exerted on the material


(which depends on the depth of burial).

Even though the temperature is very high the extreme


pressure inhibits melting.
These masses may slowly rise towards the crust due to
convection within the mantle.

The amount of water that is present within


the magma.
The chemical composition of the magma.

At a depth of about 50 km from the Earths surface


pressure is low enough to allow melting to form a magma.
The rising plume of magma remains hotter than the
ambient mantle, retaining heat from greater depths.

The plume rises into the overlying crust and continues to


migrate upwards.
It continues to cool as it moves through the crust.

Higher in the crust temperatures are lower and the magma


cools and crystallizes into a body of igneous rock.

The temperature at which a mineral crystallizes from a


magma depends on its composition.

If it doesnt cool within the crust it reaches the surface to


form a volcano.

Bowens Reaction Series describes the sequence in which


minerals will crystallize with decreasing temperature in
the magma or melt.

The rock type that forms from the crystallization of a


magma depends on:

When a rock heats up the minerals melt in the reverse


order to Bowens Reaction Series.

The initial composition of the magma.


The stage at which the minerals crystallized.

The wide variety of igneous rocks is due to three primary processes:


1. Crystal settling and magmatic differentiation.
2. Assimilation of host rock.
3. Magma mixing.

Time 2.
As the first crystals begin to form in the magma (olivine) they
remove iron and magnesium from the magma, changing the
composition of the magma as the crystals settle to the bottom of the
magma chamber.

1. Crystal settling and magmatic differentiation.


Time 1
While the magma body is first
emplaced into the crust it has an
initial composition.
The first igneous rocks may be
mafic rocks with abundant iron
and magnesium.

Time 3
As successive minerals crystallize, following Bowens series, the
composition of the magma continues to change or differentiate.

2. Assimilation of host rock: if the rock into which the magma has
intruded is melted by the high temperatures, its inclusion in the
magma will change its composition; the rock type that forms will
similarly change.

Over the period of crystallization of the magma the types of


igneous rock change due to the changing chemical composition of
the magma.
The last rocks to
form with have a
felsic or silicic
composition,
reflecting the
composition of the
differentiated
magma.

3. Magma mixing: if two magmas with different compositions


become mixed, the resulting magma will have a different
composition and different rocks will crystallize from it.

Igneous Structures
Volcanoes are structures that are produced by extrusive
igneous activity (when magma is extruded to the surface).
Plutons are solitary masses of igneous rock within the crust.

Over millions of years the surface of the crust is


eroded away.

When many plutons are emplaced into the crust they


coalesce to form a larger structure called a batholith.

If the surface rocks are softer than the igneous rocks of


the pluton it will form a topographic high as it resists
erosion.

Batholiths form extensive masses of igneous rock that


may become exposed at the surface following erosion of
the land surface.

Exposed batholiths form broad uplands when they are


exposed by erosion.
Mt. Evans Batholith, Colorado

Mt. Rushmore is likely the best known batholith!

Smaller intrusive structures commonly extend away from


major bodies such as batholiths and plutons.
Dikes cut across layered strata that they intrude.
Sills intrude along planes that are parallel to associated
strata.

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Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks include those that are made up of
discrete particles of minerals or rock fragments (termed
clastic sedimentary rocks) and those made up of
interlocking crystals (termed chemical sedimentary rocks).

A vertical dike forms a


resistant ridge of igneous rock
that intruded softer
sedimentary rocks.

Individual grains in clastic rocks are surrounded by


cement (normally of calcite, dolomite or quartz)
Igneous Rock

Clastic Sedimentary Rock

Image by Dr. Roger Bain.


http://enterprise.cc.uakron.edu/geology/natscigeo/Lectures/igneous/volcano2.htm#intrusions

Weathering, transport and deposition of sediment


Thin sections are 30 micron (30/1000 mm) thick slices of rock
through which light can be transmitted.
Click here to see how a thin section is made.
http://faculty.gg.uwyo.edu/heller/Sed%20Strat%20Class/SedStratL1/thin_section_mov.htm

Sedimentary rocks: composed of


the products of weathering of
source or parent rocks.
Weathering: the process by
which a rock breaks down when
exposed at or near the Earths
surface.
Physical or mechanical
weathering involves the physical
breakdown of the source rock.
Frost wedging, unloading
expansion, thermal expansion,
biological activity.
Solid particles are produced.

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When a granitic pluton is deep


within the crust it is compressed by
the great weight of overlying rock.

Frost wedging produced the


scree or talus at the base of this
mountain in the Northwest
Territories.

When erosion of the land surface


exposes the pluton the weight is
removed and it expands.

As it expands it exfoliates like the


skin of an onion into sheets of rock.

Tree roots can grow into the


fractures in rocks. As they
grow they exert considerable
pressure and cause the
fractures to expand.
Eventually the roots may
break the surface rocks
entirely into large boulders.

Chemical weathering takes place when the source rock undergoes


chemical reactions with surface water in contact with it.

Chemical weathering produces:

Solutions.
Stable mineral grains (e.g.,
quartz) as detrital grains.
New minerals grains (e.g., clay
minerals, oxides).

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The resistance of igneous minerals to chemical weathering is similar


to the Bowens Reaction Series.
The most stable minerals are those that crystallize last (quartz, kspar and muscovite).
Minerals that crystallize under high temperature are more prone to
chemical weathering.

Solid grains may be transported by:


Rivers
Wind
Glaciers
Ocean currents
Volcanic explosions
Solutions are transported
largely by rivers.

Clastic sediment: made up of the


solid products of weathering.

Deposition takes place when


medium ceases to move the
particles.
Clastic sedimentary rocks
include:
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Shale

Clastic sediment becomes a sedimentary rock following


compaction and cementation.
Compaction involves the pushing together of the particles by the
weight of overlying sediment that is subsequently deposited.
Cementation involves the precipitation (crystallization) of minerals
that are in solution in waters flowing through the sediment.
The precipitate forms a cement in the void spaces between particles
and binds them together.

Calcite and quartz are


common cements in
sedimentary rocks.

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Chemical sediment: made up of material that is transported in


solution.
Chemical sediment is deposited
when material in solution is
precipitated

Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of their average


grain size.

Sediment Name

Rock Name
(particle shape)

Gravel

Conglomerate (rounded)
Breccia (angular)

Sand

Sandstone/Arenite

Silt

Siltstone/Lutite

Clay

Claystone/shale

Precipitation may take place:


Due to changes in water
chemistry.

Average Grain Size

> 2 mm

Due to evaporation (e.g., halite).


Due to shell production by
organisms.
Many limestones are made up of
calcite produced by organisms.

Conglomerate is made up of
well-rounded gravel.

2 0.0625 mm

0.0635 -0.004 mm
<0.004 mm

Sandstone:
Individual grains can be seen with the naked eye.

Breccia is characterized by
angular gravel.
Siltstone is very fine-grained
but feels gritty to the touch.
The shape of the gravel indicates
that it has not traveled far from
where it formed.

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Shale is smooth to the touch and weathers into thin flat slabs.

Chemical sediments are classified on the basis of their chemical


composition.
Halite (NaCl) and Gypsum (CaSO4 +H20) form by precipitation of
salt water.
Ions dissolved in water form crystals as the water evaporates.
Halite accumulations in
Death Valley

Halite
hopper
crystal

Gypsum formed in a playa lake.


Limestone (CaCO3) forms most commonly by the accumulation of
whole and/or broken shell material.
Dolomite (MgCO3) commonly forms from limestone when a
magnesium ion replaces the calcium ion bonded to the carbonate
ion.

Gypsum rosettes

Limestone and dolomite


are commonly very
fossiliferous.

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Primary Sedimentary Structures


The reaction of limestone to hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3 + 2H+ Ca2+ + CO2 (gas) + H2O

Many clastic rocks, limestones and dolomites display structures that


formed at the time that the sediment was deposited.
Sun cracks: formed when previously wet muds dry out to form a
polygonal pattern of cracks.
Modern sun cracks

Wave ripples are straight-crested, symmetrical mounds of sand that


form when waves act on the water above a deposit of sand.
They indicate that the sediment
was laid down in an environment
that was influenced by waves (a
lake or sea).

Sun cracks on an ancient sandstone

Current ripples are asymmetric in cross section and have short,


curved crests.
The upstream side has a gentle slope whereas the downstream side
is steep.

Wave ripples on a vertical rock face.

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Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when pre-existing rocks are subjected to
high temperatures and/or pressure and interaction with chemically
active fluids.

Metamorphic Grade is reflected by Index minerals: minerals that


form under a limited range of pressures and temperatures.

Original minerals may not be stable under the changed P/T


conditions so new minerals form that are stable.

Metamorphic Grade: a
measure of the degree to which
a rock has changed during
metamorphism.

Types of Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism: occurs when rocks become buried within the
crust due to subsequent deposition.

Contact metamorphism: takes place when an igneous intrusion heats


up the rocks into which it intrudes.
Only rocks near the intrusion are affected.

As they are buried deeper the temperature and pressure increases.

Metamorphism begins at
temperatures above 200 C (about 8
km depth).

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The type of rock that forms with contact metamorphism varies with
the composition of the original rock and the distance from the
intrusion (cooling away from the intrusion).
The zone of contact metamorphism is termed a metamorphic aureole.

Sandstone

Quartzite

Limestone

Marble

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Regional Metamorphism:

Under a directed pressure crystals that grow will grow more readily
in the direction that is perpendicular to the applied force.

The most common metamorphic rocks; formed over extensive areas


due to high temperatures and pressures associated with the
interaction between tectonic plates.
Unlike burial metamorphism, pressures have a preferred direction.
Foliation: the tendency in regional metamorphosed rocks to have
minerals that are preferentially oriented parallel to each other.

A directed pressure may


align minerals into an
orientation that is
perpendicular to the
applied force.

Pressure and temperature ranges for


different types of metamorphism.

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Burial and Contact metamorphic rocks


are not foliated and include:

View pictures of the metamorphic rocks described below at:


http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/meta.htm
A site created by Pamela J.W. Gore of Georgia Perimeter College

Quartzite: metamorphosed sandstone.

Marble: metamorphosed limestone.


Hornfels: a general term for low pressure
metamorphic rocks.

Foliated rocks formed by Regional Metamorphism (in order of


increasing metamorphic grade):

Schist: a metamorphic rock with


abundant large micas minerals up to
several millimetres across.

Slate: produced by low grade


metamorphism of shale.

Phyllite: characterized by a silky sheen


due to the presence of very fine grained
muscovite.

Gneiss: (pronounced "nice") - a banded


rock characterized by alternating layers
of dark and light minerals. The dark
layers commonly contain biotite, and the
light layers commonly contain quartz
and feldspar.

Pamela Gore points to the similarity


of the sheen to frosted eye shadow
and notes that many cosmetics have
ground up muscovite to produce
such a sheen.

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Folded gneiss on Greenland

Igneous Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks

Migmatite: a very high grade


metamorphic rock that is
intermediate between metamorphic
and igneous rocks (i.e., they have
undergone partial melting).

The geologic cycle

The geologic cycle.

A concept that relates the three rock types through


processes that act in their formation.

Weathering: the breakdown of a rock exposed at


the Earths surface.

Involves:
Cooling of magma (to form igneous rocks).

Transport of weathering products (e.g., by


rivers).

Heat and pressure inside the earth


(metamorphism or melting to form a new magma).
Uplift of buried rocks by tectonic processes (e.g.,
mountain building).

Deposition of transported material (as loose


sediment) to where it can no longer be
transported.

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The geologic cycle.


Burial and compaction: covered by subsequent
deposition and pushed into close contact due to the
weight of overlying sediment.
Cementation: the binding together of
sedimentary particles by minerals that act as a
cement.

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