Managing Coastal

Resources
Resources and the Environment
Jessica Coote - 27 March 2015

(Apple Images, 2014)

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Aim of Report
With tourism contributing 4.5 Billion Australian Dollars per annum to the Gold
Coast City Council, sustaining the aesthetic beauty of the coastline has become a key
aspect of sustaining Gold Coast beaches (Mullins, 2015). However, beach and sea
processes are having a detrimental effect on any attempt to pursue greater opportunities
in the tourism industry. As part of the Ocean Beaches Strategy, the City of the Gold Coast
is developing the Palm Beach Shoreline Project- this comprehensive strategy aims to
provide permanent protection of the the foreshore at Palm Beach.

Figure 1

GROYNE AT PALM BEACH

(Fieldwork photo, 2015)

The project aims to:

-reduce the vulnerability of the beach and beachfront development to storm damage
-protect, and if practical, enhance the beach amenity for the community
-provide a sustainable, cost effective and integrated solution
-avoid or mitigate adverse environmental and social impacts.
The aim of this report is to investigate the effectiveness of the strategy of Beach
replenishment stabilised by a continuous seawall in achieving the first aim of the Palm
Beach Shoreline Project. This will be done by analysing fieldwork data collected at Palm
Beach and discussing the impact of coastal processes and their management strategies,
then evaluating two management strategies (including the strategy of beach
replenishment stabilised by a continuous seawall).

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

1.2 Location
Palm Beach is an iconic part of the Gold Coast Shoreline. The 3.8 kilometre stretch of
beach located on the southern Gold Coast, is an iconic part of the East Australian Coast,
but is susceptible to extreme beach erosion. A popular tourist destination, Palm Beach is
Figure 2

located between Tallebudgera and Currumbin Creek, and

MAP OF PALM BEACH

85 kms South of Brisbane (The University of Queensland,

2015). Figure 1 depicts the location of Palm Beach. A
beachside suburb, many residences have been built directly
on the dune system, mainly on the fore dune. Therefore
these houses are susceptible to erosion by waves and other
coastal processes (The University of Queensland, 2015).
Cyclone Barbara of 1967 was detrimental to Palm Beach,
with waves thrashing the coastline and eroding up to the

(Google Images)

front line of houses.

The following table provides the approximate number of residents in Palm Beach
from 1954 to 2011. It is clear from the evidence that the population has continued to rise
steadily, with a dramatic increase from 1961 to 1986, and a small dip in the Palm Beach
population in 2006. The great increase in the 1960-80s period saw many residents move
closer to the coastline- this dramatically increased the amount of property at risk of
erosion and storm damage. It is important to note that even with a string of Tropical
cyclones occurring in 1967, this did not deter new residents or where they built.
Palm Beach's census populations have been:
Census Year

Population

1954

660

1961

1491

1986

12,552

2001

13,943

2006

13,494

2011

13,956

(QLD Places)

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

1.3 Data Collection

Fieldwork was conduced on Friday 27th February 2015 at Palm and Kirra Beach on the
Gold Coast, and an additional trip to Point Danger to observe the sand by-pass system.
Whilst at the field locations, the following factors were observed and assessed:
Land Use
Physical Features
Protection Factor
Evidence of Storm Damage
Waves- frequency, estimated length, estimated height and direction.
Human management evident
Width and Angle of the beach
Wind
Some of the numbers involved in the investigation are estimated because limited
resources did not allow for exact calculations to be achieved. A clinometer, compass and
stopwatch were used. Another limitation to the accuracy of the report is that fact that
measurements were only taken during one time period, therefore the beach conditions
could be altered by the time of day, season and local interference from weather. For a more
sound justification and assessment of conditions,a longer research and fieldwork period
would be needed.

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

Table of Contents
Managing Coastal Resources
Resources and the Environment

1
1

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Aim of Report

1.2 Location

1.3 Data Collection

Table of Contents

List of Figures

2.0 Analysis

2.1 Coastal Processes Evident

2.2 Human Processes

2.3 Impact of Storm Damage

2.4 Identification of Management Strategies

10

3.0 Decision Making

13

3.1 Evaluation of Beach Replenishment stabilised by a continuous seawall

13

3.2 Evaluation of an Artificial Reef

14

4.0 Conclusion

15

4.1 Recommendation

16

4.2 Justification

16

4.3 List of References

16

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

List of Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10

Gryone at Palm Beach

Map of Palm Beach
Erosion near Palm Beach Houses
Transect of Palm Beach
Cyclone Dinah
Palm Beach 1967
Florida Management
Table of Management Strategies
Sand By-pass
Diagram of a Constructive Wave

(Fieldwork Photo,2015)
(Google Images,2015)
(Fieldwork Photo,2015)
(Fieldwork Sketch,2015)
(BOM, 2013)
(Australian Government, 2001)
(USA Geological Survey, 2000)
(Fieldwork Data,2015)
(Fieldwork Photo,2015)
(Worldyword,2011)

2.0 Analysis
MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

2.1 Coastal Processes Evident

Intense low pressure systems off the coast generate large waves and elevated water levels;
these exacerbate natural processes such as erosion, transportation and deposition. Erosion,
defined as the destructive wearing away of the coastline, is particularly enhanced by large
waves(Skinner, Redfern, & Farmer, 2014). The power of the waves thrashing against a
coastline causes weaknesses in the rock to widen- this is called Hydraulic Action.
However there are other types of coastal erosion, including corrasion, corrosion and
attrition (Easton, Leahy, Ramsdale, & Ward, 2010). Eventually sediment is deposited into
the water and transported down the coastline
Figure 3
EROSION NEAR PALM BEACH HOUSES
by longshore drift (Easton, Leahy, Ramsdale, &
Ward, 2010). Created by winds, wave and tidal
energy, longshore drift is the movement of sand
along the coastline, when the direction the sand
moves in depends on the dominant wave
direction (Coastal Watch, 2008). Longshore
drift can be interrupted by human intervention
and management strategies such as groyenswalls, often wooden, built at right angles to the
beach to interfere with the longshore drift and
trap sand to build up a beach. An example of a
groyen was seen during fieldwork at Palm
Beach.
Exacerbation of coastal processes can cause
(Fieldwork photo,2015)
storm damage to residences and human
structures along the coastline. The local dune
system is also an important feature of Palm
Beach, this having a great impact on the level of protection already offered
environmentally. Residents have built on the fore-dunes, the second weakest dune in the
formation, therefore the protection is minimal to the houses behind. This can be directly
above in Figure 3.

2.2 Human Processes

Human actions clearly exacerbate storm damage. An example at Palm Beach is how close
houses have been built to the beach. The pressure of structures on the fore dunes destroys
the dunes underneath, therefore disrupting the system of the beach. Building so close to
the shoreline also disrupts local ecosystems and habitats along the coast. Figure 3
captured during fieldwork was taken facing North North West; it demonstrates the
dramatic erosion along the coastline and how close it is the Palm Beach houses.

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

At Palm Beach the following information was used to create a transect of the beach:
The distance from the back of the beach to the foreshore was 42 metres.
The direction of the waves on the date of fieldwork was West South West. Therefore the
prevailing wind was of a South West direction during fieldwork.
Using a clinometer, the angle of the slope of the beach is -6 degrees.

Figure 4

TRANSECT OF PALM BEACH

(Fieldwork photo)

As demonstrated in the above transect, there is clear evidence of erosion along the
coastline. This shows clearly the immediate risk Palm Beach is of greater storm damage
which, by turn, threatens the Gold Coast.

2.3 Impact of Storm Damage

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

Storm damage on Palm Beach has resulted in severe erosion on the foreshore, destroying
houses along the front part of the beach. Fieldwork photographs shows evidence of
erosion on the front line of the houses on Palm Beach.
Economically, storm damage can cost residents and local councils millions of dollars of
repair. Cyclone Dinah of 1967 culminated an estimated
total financial cost of $250 Million at todays rate (W,
Figure 5
CYCLONE DINAH
2002). Severe erosion impacted houses and businesses
along the Queensland Coast

(BOM, 2013)

Environmentally, coastal processes can sometimes lead

to unusual effects- for example during TC Dinah (1967)
the high water mark rose to 10 m above normal levels
(Australian Government: Bureau of Meteorology, 2015).
This clearly then led to infrastructure being damaged or
even destroyed- the esplanade at Surfers Paradise on the
Gold Coast collapsed from the impact of large waves
(Callaghan, n.d.). Banana and cane crops were wiped
out on the Tweed Coast as a result of TC Dinah, this
thus affecting locals lively-hoods and income.

Socially, beaches provide an area of recreation and aesthetic beauty. Images of white sand
and crystal oceans are replaced by rubbish, plants and general detritus piled on the
coastline after storms. In 1967, several severe tropical cyclones collided with the Gold
Coast shoreline- including TC Dinah, Barbara, Dulcie, Elaine and Glenda. 8 million cubic
metres of sand was eroded from the beaches and threatened the backing Gold Coast
roads, houses and hotels (Coastal watch, 2008).The cyclones of 1967 did bring home to
people the vulnerability of this coast unless some measures were taken to improve what
was here in the way of protection and development (Coast, 2013). Generally most
residents have a positive attitude towards the protection of beaches and coasts in their
immediate area. Citizens of the Gold Coast have a
good understanding of coastal processes- in
PALM BEACH 1967
Figure 6
particular erosion and the effect it may/does
have- however some are unwilling to provide
their own services and money to help protect the
beaches; they view it as a force of nature that
should not be stopped.
Because many residences and local businesses are
situated on the front line of the beach, this has
created an enhanced environment for erosion to
(BOM,2015)
occur.
In relation to the immediate threat to Palm Beach,
storm damage has had a great impact on the houses and beaches of the southern Gold

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

Coast. Shown in Figure 5, Palm Beach suffered severe erosion during the tropical cyclones
of 1967. This coastal damage has been encouraged by ongoing recreational use and the
growing population of coastal apartments and residences along the Palm Beach coastline.

2.4 Identification of Management Strategies

Figure 7

FLORIDA MANAGEMENT

There are various management strategies that countries

suffering sever storm damage put in place. The Gold
Coast- a coastal resort city whose urban environment has
evolved through a series of human interventions on the
natural shoreline, is reliant on a perceived high quality
environment which in turn is reliant on continuing
maintenance (Cooper, J.A.G., 2012). There are currently
several management strategies in place on the Gold
Coast in an attempt to cope with the impact of coastal
processes. All beaches located on the Gold Coast are
currently under some sort of management plan (Mullins,
2015). Figure 7 highlights the dramatic change along an
American Coastal state (Florida) after various
management strategies were placed in practise to combat
several erosion.
After the cyclones of 1967, an assessment of Gold Coast
beaches known as the Delft Report of 1970 was created to
guide coastal management on the Gold Coast for over 30
(USA Geological Survey, 2000)
years. The report, which remains highly influential in the
management of the coastline to this day, recommended
an extensive sand nourishment regime across all beaches,
as well as highlighting the importance of dune formation through these nourishment
works, and shielding them from wind erosion with native vegetation and sand-catching
fences (Gourlay,1996).
The operations of dredging on the Tallebudgera and Currumbin creeks and the
construction of rock groynes and seawalls was also under taken as a result of the Delft
Report. An option which has not been implemented at Palm Beach but one that could be
extremely beneficial is the implementation of an artificial reef. Created with man-made
materials, artificial reefs increase habitat available for marine life, and enhance
recreational amenities (Griffith Univsity, 2005) . A reef as been implemented at
Narrowneck, North of Palm Beach, with great success.

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

10

In terms of Palm Beach specifically, the local council has had a mixed response in regards
to the idea of a seawall and sand replenishment on their beach- some arguing that the wall
will provide great and successful protection to the front line of houses- others arguing that
it will destroy the local and relaxed nature of the healthy beach environment.

Figure 8

TABLE OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ON THE GOLD COAST

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

11

Management strategy

What is it

Example on the Gold

Coast

Other Information

Groynes

Groynes are walls, often

wooden, built at right
angles to the beach to
interfere with the
longshore drift an trap
sand, building up the
beach.

Two groynes have been

constructed-one at Kirra
Beach and another at
Miles Street
( Queensland
Government, n.d.).

As a result, the width of

the beach has increased
from June to December
of 2013, as seen in the
image below.

!
Sea Wall

Typically concrete
structures, sea walls are
built at the back of
beaches to offer
protection from large
waves.

Construction of a sea
wall at Broadbeach
began in February 2015
(Queensland
Government, 2015).

This sea wall will cost

$1.5 million, and
construction will
continue for six months.

Artificial Reef

An artificial reed is a
man-made structure,
built to promote marine
life , control erosion or
improve surfing.

An artificial reef was

constructed at
Narrowneck in 1999 and
2000 (Queensland
Government, 2015).

At a total length of 450m,

the reef was made out of
Prefabricated geo-textile
bags with a total cost of
approximately $2.5
million.

Beach Nourishment

Beach nourishment
involves moving sand
from one location to
another to create a larger
volume of sand to be
moved during storms,
therefore protecting
property behind the
beach.

Projects have been

undertaken all along
Gold Coast beachesincluding a 5 km stretch
between Surfers Paradise
and Main Beach. A sand!
bypass has been
An diagram of the sand
developed at Point
bypass at Point Danger.
danger on the QLD/
NSW boarder (Water
Research Laboratory,
n.d.).

Many experts suggest that the beaches of the Gold Coast are the basis of the Tourist
industry, and that is a good enough reason for councils to continue preserving, managing
and maintaining them. Adopted in 2010, the Gold Coast Shoreline Management Plan
(GCSMP) identified Palm Beach as requiring priority action to protect local public and
private infrastructure from storm surge and erosion (Australian tenders). In late 2014 it
was decided that the Plan would adopt the strategy of Beach Replenishment stabilised by
a continuous seawall. This plan will be evaluated in Section 3.1.

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

12

3.0 Decision Making

The following section will outline two options
that should be considered in tackling the issue of
erosion at Palm Beach on the Gold Coast; the first
the prospect of Beach Replenishment stabilised
by a continuous seawall, the second, an artificial
reef. The two solutions will be judged against
four criterion: reducing the vulnerability of the
beach to storm damage, cost effectiveness,
minimal environmental impacts and positive
social value.
3.1 Evaluation of Beach Replenishment
stabilised by a continuous seawall

Figure 9

SAND BY-PASS

(Fieldwork photo)

As the original plan for the Palm Beach Shoreline

project, the solution of constructing a sea wall in addition to beach replenishment is a
viable option. Offering protection to infrastructure along the coastline and those
residences susceptible to immediate effects of erosion and beach processes- a sea wall
would be a successful solution. In terms of reducing the vulnerability of the beach to
storm damage, the wall would only be a last-line of defence to the houses behind the
beach. However in addition to the wall, beach replenishment would widen the width of
the beach, therefore encouraging dune formation and creating a greater distance between
the berm (the high water mark) and the dune climax at the back of the beach. This
solution is not viable in terms of cost effectiveness- the English Environment Agency
(2007), gives an average construction cost for seawalls of US$2.65 million/AUD $3.37
million (at 2009 price levels).This includes all initial construction, however it does exclude
maintenance expenses- which is a flaw in the solution. The aspect of beach replenishment
would then add to the overall finical cost of the plan-the minimum expenditure is usually
$1 - $2 million dollars; larger, longer-lasting projects often cost much more (e.g., $100
million - 1 billion)(brynmawr, n.d.). Environmentally, this plan is somewhat positive and
somewhat negative- a concrete wall on the beach may have some lasting effects of the
environment, such as concrete spilling in the natural habitat. Whilst additional sand on
the shoreline would promote and encourage dunes and sustain the environment. Finally,
the social value of the wall would be aesthetically unpleasing to the eye- potentially
ruining the beach-feel and look of the Gold Coast.
The sand replenishment however would allow for more social activities and enjoyment on
the beach. Sand replenishment can be developed in a variety of ways, including a sand
by-pass system, which has been implemented at Danger Point on the Queensland and
New South Wales coastal border- this can be seen in Figure 9. Although this system has
promoted sand replenishment at Kirra Beach, it is unlikely this system would work
sufficiently at Palm Beach.

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

13

3.2 Evaluation of an Artificial Reef

An alternate solution to protecting Palm Beach, instead of Beach replenishment stabilised
by a continuous seawall, is to create an artificial reef just off the coast of the beach. As
stated by the Scottish Natural Heritage Organisation in 1998 reefs act as a buffer, and
dissipate part of the incident wave energy before it reaches the dune face, protecting the
upper beach from erosion and encouraging deposition (Scottish Natural Heritage, 1998).
An example of a reef was initiated as part of the North Gold Coast Beach Protection
Strategy at Narrowneck, its primary purpose to
widen and protect the northern Gold Coast
Figure 10
DIAGRAM OF A CONSTRUCTIVE WAVE
beach from erosion in storm conditions. In
terms of the first criterion, to reduce the
vulnerability of the beach from storm damage,
an artificial reef would not be successful
initially. However, after time the beach would
be expanded as less destructive waves would
drain away the sand from the beach, therefore
the overall erosion of Palm Beach would
(Worldyword,2011)
decrease. If the reef was constructed with
similar products (Prefabricated geo-textile
bags) and over the same dimensions, the
estimated coast would be approximately $2.5
million Australian Dollars. However there is little to no maintenance cost involved in the
artificial reef, and therefore this cost would be the total expenditure. Environmentally,
natural processes are only partly disrupted by the implementation of an artificial reef,
allowing dunes to stabilise on the shore. Thus, this creates a more sound habitat for
environmental and coastal processes.
Because an artificial reef is constructed out of geo-textile fabric, a permeable fabric which
is commonly used to separate, filter, reinforce, protect or drain soil, it is considered
environmentally friendly, therefore having little environmentally impact. Socially, the
biggest impact this solution would have on the surrounding communities would be the
impact on the surf break and the fact it may disrupt amenity use of Palm Beach. However,
in most cases artificial reefs have be known to create a better surf break and surfing
environment. Narrowneck is an example of the improvement of surfing conditions due to
the artificial reef. The addition of beach replenishment to this strategy is possible and
feasible; however it has not, in this report, been considered in the evaluation.Artificial
reefs have many positive aspects- and at Palm Beach the most prominent example of this
is how environmentally friendly it would be to the coastline of the Gold Coast. Extensive
digital imagery, hydrographic survey and observational monitoring shows that the reef

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

14

implemented at Narrowneck on the Gold Coast was a successful project in terms of both
widening the beach (by 40metres over a decade) and reducing the power and impact of
harsh waves. Promoting a clearer break of the waves would, as stated above, encourage
more constructive waves rather than destructive ones; consequently building up the beach
with sediment. The lack of maintenance needed is also a largely positive aspect. Although
economically compared to the first solution of a sea wall and beach replenishment they
are quite similar, the first stated possible solution requires constant preservation and
conservation for it to protect the beach to its fullest potential. The level of protection the
reef would offer Palm Beach would take years to be demonstrated and it would therefore
be unclear to measure an immediate success rate. This, of course, is one of the main
negatives of the solution for an artificial reef; another negative being that initially and
during the construction process, the surfing capabilities of the beach would be disruptedthis possibly causing distress to the local Gold Coast surfing community of Palm Beach.

4.0 Conclusion

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

15

In conclusion, Palm Beach requires priority action to protect local public and private
infrastructure from storm surge and erosion.
4.1 Recommendation
The original strategy of Beach replenishment stabilised by a continuous seawall is not, in
fact, the right strategy to implement. The alternative solution of implementing an artificial
reef off the coast of Palm Beach satisfies the chosen criteria to a higher standard, and it
would therefore be logical to implement this strategy instead. In terms of better achieving
the first aim of the Palm Beach Shoreline Project- to reduce the vulnerability of the beach
and beachfront development to storm damage, an artificial reef would work best.
4.2 Justification
The conservation of local beach communities on the Gold Coast is of key importance
when considering manners of protection from storm damage. The preservation of the
beach and beachfront development at Palm Beach is the initial stage of the Shoreline
Project on the Gold Coast, in addition to protecting, and if practical, enhancing the beach
amenity for the community, providing a sustainable, cost effective and integrated solution,
and avoid or mitigate environmental and social impacts. In conclusion, Palm Beach
requires priority action to protect local public and private infrastructure from storm surge
and erosion. An artificial reef will help armour the beach from storm and weather
destruction. Extensive digital imagery, hydrographic survey and observational monitoring
shows that the reef implemented at Narrowneck on the Gold Coast was a successful
project in terms of both widening the beach (by 40metres over a decade) and reducing the
power and impact of harsh waves. It is evident that if the same strategy be implemented
on Palm Beach, the coastline and community would react positively and the resulting
environmental protection caused by the artificial reef would be powerfully conclusive and
decisive.
An artifical reef is a categorically better strategy than the original plan of a seawall and
sand replenishment. From a plan which would require a large ongoing cost, little local
community support, major disruption to coastal processes and only limited protection
from storm damage, in comparison to a smaller cost, more public approval, less
environment damage and greater protection from storm damage; an artificial reef is the
right strategy to implement at Palm Beach.

4.3 List of References

MANAGING COASTAL RESOURCES - JESSICA COOTE

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Australian Government: Bureau of Meteorology. (2015). Historical Impacts Aling the

East Coast. (A. Government, Producer) Retrieved March 2, 2015, from Bureau of
Meteorology: http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/eastern.shtml
Australian Tenders. (2013). Palm Beach Shoreline Project. Retrieved March 7, 2015,
from Australian Tenders: http://www.australiantenders.com/
Palm_Beach_Shoreline_Project/#.VRDNUELldFJ
Barber, D. (2000). Beach Nourishment Basics. (Bryn Mawr College) Retrieved March 4
2015, from http://www.brynmawr.edu/geology/geomorph/
beachnourishmentinfo.html
Callaghan, J. Tropical Cyclone Dinah, 1967. Brisbane: Green Cross Australia.
Coast, C. o. (Writer). (2013). Our Coast [Motion Picture]. Australia.
Delft Hydarulics Laboratory. (1970). Coastal Eroision and Related Problems. 1 . Gold
Coast, QLD, Australia.
Easton, M., Leahy, K., Ramsdale, J., & Ward, M. (2010). Oxford Big Ideas Geography Level
6. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Oxford University Press.
Gourlay, M. R. (1996). History of Coastal Engineering in Australia.
Grifcith University. (2005). Reefs in the Gold Coast. Grifcith University, Centre for Coastal
Management, Gold Coast.
J.A.G. Cooper, C. L. (2012). Extreme sea-level rise and adaptation options for coastal
resort cities: A qualitative assessment from the Gold Coast, Australia . University of
Ulster, Northern Ireland; Grifcith University, Gold Coast, Australia, School or
Environmental Sciences; School of Engineering.
Mullins, M. (2015, Feburary 27). CoastEd Coordinator Griffth Centre for Coastal
Management, Grifcith University. Gold Coast, Queensland , Australia.
Queensland Government. (2015). Broadbeach Seawall Construction Project. Retrieved
2015, from City of the Gold Coast: http://www.goldcoast.qld.gov.au/broadbeach-
seawall-construction-project-25157.html
Queensland Government. (n.d). Project Kirra. Retrieved from City of the Gold Coast:
http://www.grifcith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_cile/0004/286825/Narrowneck.pdf
Scottish Natural Heritage. (1998). Summary 10: ARTIFICIAL REEFS. (Scottish Natural
Heritage) Retrieved March 13, 2015, from A Guide to Managing coastal erosion in
beach/dune systems: http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/
heritagemanagement/erosion/appendix_1.10.shtml
Short, P. A. (2008, November 3). Impact of coastal erosion in Australia. (Coastal Watch)
Retrieved March 4, 2015, from http://www.coastalwatch.com/environment/4524/
impact-of-coastal-erosion-in-australia
Skinner, M., Redfern, D., & Farmer, G. (2014). A-Z Handbook of Geography (Vol. 4th
Edition). Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Philip Allen.
The University of Queensland. (2015). Palm Beach. Retrieved March 12, 2015, from
Queensland Places: http://www.queenslandplaces.com.au/palm-beach
W, G. (2002, May 1). Cyclone Dinah Details 1967. Retrieved March 13, 2015, from
weatherzone: http://forum.weatherzone.com.au/ubbthreads.php/topics/254893/
Cyclone_Dinah_Details_1967
Water Research Laboratory. (n.d). Tweed River Sand Bypassing Project. Retrieved 2015,
from Coastal Imaging: http://ci.wrl.unsw.edu.au/current-projects/tweed-river-sand-
bypassing-project/

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