gp H V

.--+
:(l
pa't
r

r*rD
dll po dH _:o
_+o__f,
pA
t op rl,

l8)

Water Hammer (Acoustic) Wave Speed

The water harner wave speed is (e.g., [8,20.23,33,34]),

I _dp _p
,)- JP' ,l

( 1e)

The change in density in unsteady cornpressible flows is of the

ode of the Mach nurnber 111.21 ,28). Therefore, in water hamrer

dA

(2s)

dP

The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (25) represents the
effect of fluid cornpressibility on the wave speed and the second

given by Eqs. (2) and (3). Thus, the classical water hamtrer equations are valid for unidirectional and axisyrnrnetric florv of a copressible ffuid in a flexible pipe (tube), where the Mach number is
very s:all.
According to Eq. (15), the i:nportance of u,all shear, ;*. de-

tenn repesents the effect ofpipe flexibility on the wave speed. in

fact, the wave speed in a co:npressible fluid within a rigid pipe is
obtained by setting dAldP- 0 in Eq. (25), rvhich leads to a2
-dPldp. On the other hand, the wave speed in an incornpressib)e
fluid within a flexible pipe is obtained by setting dpldP=0 in
(25), which leads to a1:AdPlpdA.
Korteweg [33] related the right-hand side of Eq. (25) 10 the
material propeties oithe fluid and to the aterial and geotnetrical
properties of the pipe. In particular, Korteu,eg [33] inrroduced the
fluid properties through the state equation dPldp:K1lp, which
was already well established in the literature, where K7:bulk
rodulus of elasticity of the 1luid. He used the elastic theory of
continuurr :echanics to evaluate d.1 ldP in tenns of the pipe
adrus, thlckness e, and Ycrung's trodulus of elasticity E. In his

pends

dcrivarion, he (i) ignored the axial (longitudinal) stresses in the

problerns, where

M(

1,

p-

pa, Eqs. (18) and (19) beco:ne

gnH

..a' -T
r)l

which

nV
dx
--1,

(20)

aV AH r*rD
(2i)
pA
dt dx
-+o-+-=ll
ae identical to the classical lD water harnrer equations

on the ragnitude of the dilensionless parameter I

:(LMf/2D+ (Tl(Llo). Therelore. the wall shear is irportant
when the para)eter f is order 1 or larger. This ofien occurs in

applications where the sirulation tirne far exceeds the first wave
cycle (i.e.. large (), the prpe is verr'1ong, the friction faclor is
significant, or the pipe diareter is very srnall. In addrtron, wall
shear is irnportant when fhe tirne scale of radial diffusion is larger
thrn the wave travel tile since the transient.induced large radial
gradrent ofthe velocity does not have suicient tire to relax. It is
noted that I becornes slnaller as the Reynolds nurnber increases.
The practical applications in which the rvall shear is important and
the various ru, rnodels that are in existence in the Iiteralure are
discussed

pipe (l.e., neglected Poisson's effect) and (ii) ignored the inertia of
the pipe. These assunrplions are valid for fluid translission lines
that are anchored but with expansion joints throughout. With assunrptions (i) and (ii), a quasi-equilrbriur.n relation between the
pressue force per unit length of pipe DdP and the circurnferential
(hoop) stress force per unit pipe lengLh 2edcs is achieved, where
o6:hoop stress. That is, DdP:2edou or dp:2edn6lD. Using
the elastic stress-strain relation, dA : d D2 12, where d{
:doolE: radial (lateral) strain. As a result, AdPlpdA:eElDp
and

K,

in Sec. 4.

If f is significantly s:naller than l, friction becoes negligible

and r*, can be safely set to zero. For exarnple, for the case I
:10,000

:0.01

n. D:0.2

the

rn,

/:0.01,

condition.f(l

consideled, wal1 friction

is valid when {<4. That is, fo the case

is irrelevant as long as the silulation

s,aterhaiiner rnodels provide results that are in easonabie agree-

rent u'ith experirlental data during the firs1 wave cvcle irrespective of the wall shear stress forrula being used ie.g., [29-32]).
When f < l. the classical waterhamrer :rodei, given by Eqs. (20)

(2i),

o'

and M:0.001, and Tl(Llo)

time is significantly slnaller tha 4Lla.ln general, the condition

]-.3l is satrsfied during the early stages ofthe transient (i.e., ( is
small) provided that the relaxatio;r (diffusron) tire scale is smalle
than the rvave travel ti:e Lla. In fact, it is well knorvn that

and

lpp

s.

nV

dl

dx

sfess. The resulting

or r':-+n'* ;f

Q6)

o'ar" sp"" fonnula is (e g, [] 7,23])

P

^ztL^

K.t)
L

(2t)

eL

(.22)

c: 1 * vrl2

for a pipe anchored at ils upstream end only,

uf, for a pipe anchored throughout fror axlal movelnent,
and c= I for a pipe anchored with expansion joints throyghout,
which is the case considered by Kortewgg (i.e., rr,:0).
Multiphase and rnulticor.nponent water hanmer flou's are colnmon in practice. During a water hatrll.ter event, the pressure can
cycle between large positive values and negative values, the rnagnitudes of which are constrained at vapor pressure. Vapor cavities
can fon when the pressure drcps to vapor pressure. In addition,
gas cavities fon when the pressure drops belorv the saturation
pressure of dissolved gases. Transient flows in pressurized or surcharged pipes carrying sedi:nent are examples of trulticotnponent
water harnmer flows. Unsteady flou,s in pressurized or surcharged
sewers are typical exarnples of rnultiphase and rulticomponent
tansient flows in closed conduits. Clearly, the bulk rnodulus and
density ofthe rixture and. thus, the wave speed are influenced by
Ihe presence ofphases and components. The rvave speed for rrultiphase and rnulticornponent water halnlne ffows can be obtained

c:1 -

(23)

which is identical to rhe rnodel that 6rst appeared in Alievi [9, I 0].
The Joukowsky relation can be recovered from Eqs. (22) an
(23). Consider a water harner rno\ rng upstrearn in a pipe of
length i!. Let r: I- at define the position of a water hammer
front at tirre and consider the interval lL-at- ,L-ot+ ),
whee E-distance fr.olr the water harrer front. Integrating Eqs.
(22) and (23) frorn x: L- at - e to r: L- at + . invoking Leibnitz's rule, and taking the lirit as e approaches zero gives

aLV

(24)

Sunilarly, the relatjon for a water hammer wave rroving downstrear is AH: + aLVlg.

52 I Vol.58, JANUARY 2005

F"D

KT

where

dI/ dH
dt 'dx
-+q-:0

AH

a_
l\
'

The above Korte*'eg fonrula for wave speed can be extended

to problers u'here the axiai stress cannol be neglected. This is
accorrplished through the inclusion of Poisson's eflect in the
stress-strain relations. In particular, the total strain becorres d{
:dsslE- vrdo,lE. where ur=Poisson's ratio and a,:axial

beco:es

o'

Transactions of the ASME