Review
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 31 December 2014
Accepted 21 March 2015
Available online 11 April 2015
Keywords:
Plumbing system
Dyke
Sill
Volcano
Stress
Magma chamber
a b s t r a c t
Magma is transported and stored in the crust mostly through networks of planar structures (intrusive sheets),
ranging from vertical dykes to inclined sheets and horizontal sills, and magma chambers, which make up the
plumbing system of volcanoes. This study presents an overview of plumbing systems imaged at different depths
and geodynamic settings, in order to contribute to assessing the factors that control their geometry. Data were
derived from personal eld surveys and through the analysis of publications; observations include local lithology
and tectonics of the host rock with special reference to local fault kinematics and related stress tensor, regional
tectonics (general kinematics and far-eld stress tensors), geology and shape of the volcano, topographic settings, and structural and petrochemical characteristics of the plumbing system. Information from active volcanoes and eroded extinct volcanoes is discussed; the shallow plumbing system of active volcanoes has been
reconstructed by combining available geophysical data with eld information derived from outcropping sheets,
morphometric analyses of pyroclastic cones, and the orientation and location of eruptive ssures. The study of
eroded volcanoes enabled to assess the plumbing system geometry at deeper levels in the core of the edice
or underneath the volcano-substratum interface. Key sites are presented in extensional, transcurrent and contractional tectonic settings from North and South-America, Iceland, the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea and Africa.
The types of sheet arrangements illustrated include swarms of parallel dykes, diverging rift patterns, centrallyinclined sheets, ring and radial dykes, circum-lateral collapse sheets, sills, and mixed members. This review
shows that intrusive sheet emplacement at a volcano depends upon the combination of several local and regional
factors, some of which are difcult to be constrained. While much progress has been made, it is still very challenging to forecast the likely paths and geometry of sheet propagation and emplacement during volcanic unrest
events.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Denition of a magma plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . .
Propagation and arrest of intrusive sheets . . . . . . . . . .
Deep plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Felsic magmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Mac magmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shallow plumbing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plumbing system in the interior of volcanoes . . . . . . . . .
6.1.
Tectonic vs. magmatic components . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.
Intrusive sheets and orientation of tectonic stress tensor
6.2.1.
Vertical 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2.
Vertical 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3.
Vertical 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.
Topographic inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plumbing systems and surface deformation . . . . . . . . . .
Plumbing systems at calderas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.03.023
0377-0273/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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86
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
This paper addresses the fast-growing eld of studies on the structure of magma plumbing systems below and inside volcanoes, the
sites where processes like magma transfer, storage and evolution
occur. A magma plumbing system can be dened as a network of conduits along which magma moves, interconnected with chambers
where magma accumulates. A plumbing system may be connected
to the surface, at least during transient times, to which magma is
transported producing eruptions. During transfer from the deep uid
source and subsequent storage in the crust, magmas are subject to a series of processes that lead to their differentiation. From the shallow
chambers to the surface, magmas are subject to further processes that
eventually dictate the type, intensity and duration of eruption. All
these processes are inuenced by a series of parameters that include,
for example, depths of differentiation, amount of wall-rock assimilation,
rates and timescales of magma generation, and times of storage (Annen
and Zellmer, 2008). Magma storage and ascent are above all tightly
linked to the structure and state of stress of the crust (Chaussard
and Amelung, 2014), but in turn magma intrusions might control
plate boundary evolution (Acocella, 2014). As a consequence, the reconstruction of the structure and geometry of the plumbing system is of
paramount importance for understanding how the subvolcanic engine
works.
The assessment of volcanic hazard is also dependant on the comprehension of the structure of magma plumbing systems. Processes acting
at open conduit volcanoes, and leading to paroxistic explosions, have
been recently addressed taking into consideration the structure of the
shallower conduits. Chouet et al. (1997), for example, studied the
wave elds of tremors and explosions at Stromboli Volcano, Italy, demonstrating that the source of this phenomenon is localised beneath
the summit crater in the shallower part of the plumbing system at
depths b 200 m. The model for degassing and explosion occurrence is
consistent with a vertical, NESW-striking crack-like conduit. This geometry fully coincides with the eld observations carried out at
Stromboli's plumbing system, which crops out in the more dissected
parts of the volcano (Pasquar et al., 1993; Tibaldi, 1996, 2001). Later,
more detailed geophysical studies on the active conduit (Chouet et al.,
2008) and eld data on Holocene conduits (Tibaldi, 2003; Corazzato
et al., 2008) put further constraints on conduit geometry suggesting a
dip towards NE.
Also the evaluation of the areas most prone to the opening of new
vents and eruptive ssures is intimately linked to the understanding
of the structure of plumbing systems, especially at volcano-tectonic
rift zones on volcano slopes (e.g. Bonali et al., 2011). Mac magma, in
fact, is normally supplied to the surface along planar and mostly
steeply-dipping intrusive sheets that may group to form dyke swarms
(Dieterich, 1988; Carracedo, 1994; Moore et al., 1994; Walter and
Schmincke, 2002), and eventually volcano-tectonic rift zones formed
by hundreds of such parallel dykes (Fiske and Jackson, 1972; Walker,
1999). These rift zones can be studied at the surface by analysing the
orientation and location of eruptive ssures, vents and the morphometric characteristics of pyroclastic cones (Tibaldi, 1995), as well as by
interferometric methods (Massonnet and Sigmundsson, 2000). At
the same time, much information can be obtained by studying in the
eld the eroded parts of the rift zones where sheet intrusions are exposed. Field studies of thousands of sheet intrusions also show that
most sheets become arrested on their way to the surface, and that unrest commonly does not lead to an eruption (Fig. 1) (Gudmundsson
and Brenner, 2005). The comprehension of this phenomenon depends
on a better understanding of the physical conditions for the injection
128
128
of sheet intrusions from the source magma chamber and their propagation to the surface, which again requires knowledge of the structure of
the plumbing system and of the host rock.
Classically, studies of plumbing systems focused on igneous processes that are elucidated by sampling of exposed rocks and laboratory analyses, more recently integrated with experimental approaches. The new
eld of studies of volcanotectonics devoted to reconstructing the
structure of plumbing systems uses eld data, analogue modelling and
numerical modelling. The experimental approaches are rapidly growing
in number and quality, but it is fundamental to anchor and validate their
results with eld truth. In recent years, exposed plumbing systems have
been studied in sufcient detail with modern techniques of structural
geology in order to get information aimed at a better understanding of
the entire process from crustal magma storage to eruption at the
surface.
The present paper contributes to the knowledge of magma plumbing systems by reviewing the most relevant literature and integrating
it with eld data mostly collected by the author. The focus is on the analysis of the structure of plumbing systems in the uppermost crust and inside volcanoes, where more data obtained from eld evidence and
geophysics are available. This is integrated with a summary of the literature on the deeper part of plumbing system above the melt generation
zone. These data provide a backdrop for understanding the entire
magma plumbing system and the processes that take place within it.
Through a series of examples, from deeply eroded volcanoes to the surface of active volcanoes, I describe the various parameters that control
the geometry of plumbing systems; these in fact are sensitive to multiple factors that frequently work together to dictate the nal conguration of the conduit array. Intact cones and volcanoes that experienced
lateral failure or caldera collapse are taken into consideration.
One of the most complex conditioning factors is represented by the
tectonic settings; the tectonic inuence on magma migration and volcanism has received a lot of attention recently, but several issues are still
open and controversial. As an example, for decades volcanism and regional extensional tectonics have been thought to be tightly linked, as
Fig. 1. A magma plumbing system is represented as a network of vertical, inclined and horizontal conduits that channel magma towards the surface, and a series of chambers where
magma can be stored. Main nomenclature is shown. Not to scale.
this type of stress state favours magma upwelling along vertical fractures perpendicular to the regional least principal stress (3) that is horizontal (Anderson, 1951; Cas and Wright, 1987; Watanabe et al., 1999).
For arc volcanism occurring at convergent margins, Nakamura (1977)
stated that the overall tectonics of the arcs should be strike-slip (with
3 and greatest principal stress, 1, both horizontal) instead of compressional reverse (3 vertical). Strike-slip tectonics would allow magma to
ascend through vertical dykes parallel to the direction of 1 (Nakamura
and Uyeda, 1980). By contrast, a pure contractional tectonic environment, with reverse or transpressional faulting, is usually regarded as a
highly unfavourable setting for volcanism (Glazner, 1991; Hamilton,
1995; Watanabe et al., 1999), where only intrusive emplacement is expected (Cas and Wright, 1987), although in reality local magma stress
can give rise to eruption also in this setting. In the present paper I investigate also these issues through examples that encompass different
geodynamic settings including compressional and extensional regimes
with normal, strike-slip and reverse fault kinematics. Plumbing systems
form a major component of diverging plate margins and orogenic belts
at converging margins, and can be highly varied both spatially and temporally, which has led to a number of controversies about their architecture and evolution.
The paper is structured in order to present a review and analysis of
many existing data and models, by introducing magma plumbing systems and their settings, and the possible inuencing parameters at different depths. First we will investigate the deeper level from the uid
source zone, then the upper crust zone, and nally the interior of volcanoes and their surface.
2. Denition of a magma plumbing system
Volcanoes are underlain by magmatic plumbing systems that transport magma from the Earth's mantle and crust towards the surface. A
large fraction of this magma never reaches the surface and becomes solidied in the Earth's interior as magmatic intrusions, providing clues to
the past geometry of magma pathways. As globally assumed in the
Earth Sciences, the behaviour of a geological process in the past can be
a key to forecast the future development of the same process. Thus
the reconstruction of the recent plumbing system below a volcano can
help to assess the present magma paths at an active volcano, but, as
we will see later on, plumbing systems are extremely dynamic and
changes can occur at a fast rate.
A plumbing system can be represented as a network of vertical or inclined conduits that channel magma towards the surface, and sills and
chambers where magma can be stored (Fig. 1). At a certain time, one
or more of these members can be partially or totally molten. Further
magma injection can be supplied from a deeper source in the mantle,
or from one or more active magma chambers in the crust. Magma chambers located at different levels in the plumbing system can act as a sink
for magma from the deeper reservoir, and as a source for magma injections into the surrounding crust (Gudmundsson, 2012).
Magma conduits have been represented for decades with a cylindrical shape and a circular section. However, direct observations of
eruptions along fractures, ground deformation measures, and the distribution of seismicity associated with magma intrusions provide evidence
for the role of dykes in mac, intermediate and felsic magma transport
(Pollard et al., 1983; Rubin and Pollard, 1987; Peltier et al., 2005;
Yamaoka et al., 2005; Aloisi et al., 2006; Mattia et al., 2007). Conduits
have also been studied by eld evidence in eroded volcanoes where tabular sheets compose the bulk of the plumbing system (Gudmundsson,
1987, 1988, 1990; Tibaldi, 2001; Gudmundsson, 2002; Corazzato et al.,
2006; Pasquar and Tibaldi, 2007; Tibaldi et al., 2008a,b,c, 2009). In
the case of andesitic volcanism, some authors still suggest that eruptions are more focused and the conduits are more cylindrical (Zellmer
and Annen, 2008), as explained through progressive melting of host
rocks (Quareni et al., 2001) and in terms of the sharp increase in
magma viscosity close to the surface due to decompression, degassing
87
and crystallisation. At caldera structures also felsic magmas are normally emplaced as ring dykes, although this concept has been argued by
Legros et al. (2000) who suggest that magma ascent at caldera ringssures is less favoured than at more restricted conduits.
These data indicate that the most of the magma is generally
transported towards the surface through conduits that can be represented by tabular intrusions (sheets) with planar, curved, en-chelon,
or more complex geometries, but that invariably have a very high length
(and depth) to thickness ratio. A magmatic sheet is thus a crystalline
rock that formed in a crack, primarily caused by the magma itself, in a
pre-existing rock body. In the eld, intrusive sheets are classically divided into three end-members based on their attitude and the relations
with the country rocks: vertical to steep-dipping dykes, inclined sheets,
and sills, formed when magma is injected between rock layers forming a
horizontal or gently-dipping sheet. In origin, dykes have been described
as tabular bodies that intrude normally or obliquely to the bedding
plane of the host rock, to be called also discordant intrusion, while
the term sill indicated a sub-parallel or concordant intrusion
(Billings, 1972; Best, 1982; Hall, 1987). Other authors, like Bates and
Jackson (1987) adopted a terminology consistent with the intrusion attitude and referred to dykes as vertical tabular intrusions and to sills as
horizontal ones. Hatayama et al. (1980) dene a dyke as a vertical intrusion, a sheet as a horizontal intrusion, and a sill as a horizontal and concordant intrusion. The denition of these parts of a plumbing system as
based on their relations with the bedding of the host rock is misleading,
also because it implies that dykes have to produce cracks in order to
propagate across the bedding, whereas sill intrusion is easier along
pre-existent weakness zones like bedding discontinuities. Although
some authors consider that magma lling already existing fractures is
an important dyke intrusion mechanism (e.g. Delaney et al., 1986;
Bear et al., 1994; Delaney and Gartner, 1997; Valentine and Krogh,
2006), it is important to note that not always do sills follow preexisting discontinuities and not always do dykes propagate along selfgenerated fractures. I here encourage to use a terminology that does
not bear reference to the relations with fractures and is based on inherent geometric attributes: dykes are those tabular intrusions that have
a dip 76, inclined sheets have a dip N 10 and b 76, and sills have a
dip 10. This terminology is essentially descriptive of the present sheet
attitude and does not take into account their possible tilting due to postintrusion deformation. Post-sheet regional tilting must be retrodeformed in order to get the original sheet architecture.
Magma chambers can be totally or partially molten, and in the latter
case a large part may consist of a crystal mush that behaves as poroelastic
(Maale and Scheie, 1982; McKenzie, 1984; Gudmundsson, 1987; Marsh,
1989; Sinton and Detrick, 1992; Marsh, 2000). A totally or partially molten magma chamber can be recognised by geophysical methods due to
its size that usually is much larger than sheet intrusions and to its physical properties that differ from those of the host rock. Also, a completely
solidied, buried magma chamber usually has different properties than
the host rocks, which enable to recognise it. Solidied magma chambers
can have dimension spanning from tens of km3 (plutons) to small intrusions with size b 1 km3, which have been named differently in the past, in
relation to their shape. This can be from spherical to strongly ellipsoid or
tabular, and this geometric feature is very important since the shape of an
active magma chamber dictates the orientation of the stress exerted on
the host rock by magma overpressure (Gudmundsson, 2006, 2012).
The more complex plumbing systems can be composed of a plexus of interconnected sills, inclined sheets, dykes and multiple magma chambers
(Hildreth, 1981; Lahr et al., 1994; Donoghue et al., 1995; La Delfa et al.,
2001; Preston, 2001; Dawson et al., 2004; Marsh, 2004; Sanchez et al.,
2004; Cartwright and Hansen, 2006).
3. Propagation and arrest of intrusive sheets
Magma propagation occurs along planes of weakness that are already present in the host rock, or along hydrofractures generated by
88
although in most cases the fracture and the intrusive sheet are arrested
inside the rock succession. The resulting magma pressure induces stress
concentration at the tip that, in turn, creates the fracture. Numerical
models and eld data suggest that the magma front should lag behind
the hydrofracture tip during its propagation, and thus there should be
a dry part of the fracture (Warpinski, 1985; Bonafede and Olivieri,
1995; Garagash and Detournay, 2000). Sometimes in the eld it is possible to observe the fracture at the sheet tip that still hosts magma with
a considerably minor thickness, in the order of a few mmcm (e.g.
Fig. 2A). Ahead of the tip, a hydrofracture opens if it has a suitable orientation with respect to the surrounding stress eld in the host rock, and if
the tensile stresses exceed the rock strength. If the rock succession is not
homogeneous and contains discontinuities and layers with different
mechanical properties, the tensile stress generated at the fracture tip
cannot be large enough to overcome the resistance to fracture propagation and the sheet can become arrested (e.g. Fig. 2B). Intrusive sheets
can stop when they meet: (1) discontinuities; (2) stress barriers; or
(3) rock layers with strongly contrasting Young's moduli. The opening
of discontinuities (1) with a different orientation from the propagating
sheet, can dissipate stresses; when a horizontal discontinuity, like a
bedding plane, is encountered at the contact ahead of a hydrofracture
tip, the hydrofracture may be unable to propagate through the horizontal, open discontinuity (Gudmundsson and Brenner, 2001, 2005;
Fig. 2. A. Photo (left) and sketch (right) of a sheet showing a sudden decrease in thickness in correspondence of the hydrofracture propagated at its tip and initial intrusion along the fracture; note that only a few centimetres of the fracture's length are dry (Skye Island, UK). B. Photo (left) and sketch (right) of a dyke arrested at the contact with a discontinuity (bedding) and
a layer with different mechanical properties (a thick lava ow) (Reunion Island).
Gudmundsson, 2002). (2) Stress barriers are layers with local stresses
unfavourable for intrusion propagation, such as layers that contain
stresses in excess of up to 510 MPa with respect to the adjacent
rocks (Gretener, 1969; Gudmundsson, 1986, 1990; Parsons et al.,
1992). Regarding point (3), ascending dykes can stop at the contact of
bedding layers with different mechanical properties, such as in the example of Fig. 2B where a dyke is intruded into a succession of thin
(b20 cm) lava ows and dominant breccia layers and then stops at
89
the contact with the thick (~ 2 m) lava ow. Experiments also show
that soft layers can be more effective in arresting hydraulic fractures
than stiff layers (Charlez, 1997; Yew, 1997), as can be seen in the example of Fig. 3A where an inclined sheet gradually splits into minor ngers
and nally becomes arrested within a soft layer media made of poorly
consolidated breccia deposits.
The termination of an intrusive sheet can have different shapes that
represent the diverse settings for the stoping of the fracture propagation
Fig. 3. Photos (left side) and sketches (right side) of: A. an inclined sheet that gradually splits into minor ngers and nally becomes arrested within poorly consolidated breccia deposits
(northwest coast, Sao Miguel, Azores Archipelago), since soft layers can be more effective at arresting hydraulic fractures than stiff layers (Charlez, 1997; Yew, 1997); B. a gently-dipping
sheet that terminates with a series of secondary intrusions (asymmetric ngers) that depart upward (Stromboli volcano, Italy); and C. an arrested steeply-dipping sheet with an upward
symmetric fanning arrangement (Ross Lake, Washington, USA).
90
propagation through heterogeneous geological media with local deviations of the stress eld, and in this case the segments' step direction is
non-systematic (Daniels et al., 2012). In layered host rocks, overlapping
sheet segments may tend to link together by folding and thinning of the
rock between the overlapping segments (bridge) and by thickening of
the sheet, by a propagating crack that is usually straight. In isotropic
host rocks, the termination of the single sheet segment tends to bend towards the adjacent segment, breaking the bridge (Fig. 4C); this occurs
because there is a mechanical interaction between the adjacent crack
tips, with the stress eld at one tip altering the stress of the adjacent
propagating tip by inducing curved cracks (Nicholson and Pollard,
1985). At overlapping sheet segments, a local temperature decrease at
one sheet segment might hinder further magma propagation here and
coalescence at the adjoining segment, with the possible effect of dispersion of the magma overpressure and stoping of the intrusion propagation. However, if magma ux is high enough, the original bridge can
be completely cut across, resulting in the two original sheet segments
now linked (Fig. 4D) (bridge xenoliths of Rickwood, 1990). Ination
can proceed until a complete coalescence has been reached and the continuous planar sheet conguration has been restored (Hutton, 2009;
Schoeld et al., 2012).
Fig. 4. A. Photo of en-chelon ngers in section view departing from a single intrusive sheet (Skye Island, UK). B. Photo of an analogue model, physically scaled, of a sheet intrusion showing
the upward protrusion of en-chelon ngers approaching the free topographic surface; white and black boxes have 1 cm side. C. Photo (left side) and sketch (right side) of two partially
overlapping sheet segments whose tips bend towards the adjacent segment, typical of isotropic host rocks (Skye Island, UK). D. Photo (left side) and sketch (right side) of a bridge xenoliths
isolated by two partially overlapping sheet segments linked together (Skye Island, UK).
B. After Tibaldi et al. (2014).
Fig. 5. Subdivision of a granitic plumbing system modied after Atherton (1993) for Cordilleran setting, with: (a) zone of partial melting, segregation and collection; (b) transport
zone; and (c) emplacement zone where freezing occurs.
91
92
Fig. 6. Deep magma plumbing system is conditioned also by the geometry of tectonic weakness zones that can channel magma ow. Transcurrent faults are vertical shear zones that extend
downward at lower crustal levels and can capture ascending magmas. On the contrary, reverse faults with their typical ramp and at geometry tend to stop dykes or divert dykes into sills.
Finally, normal faults are shallower-dipping than strike-slip faults and tend to acquire a horizontal geometry with depth where they exert a lower inuence on ascending magmas.
et al., 1990). Most authors thus agree that zone (b) (Fig. 5) of plumbing
system of granitic magmas should be characterised by sheet-like complexes of intrusions that give rise to the conduit system below plutons,
the latter also being controlled by shear zones. This corresponds to the
mechanism of transport and emplacement in the middle crust.
In zone c of Atherton (1993) storage processes occur and most
magma is emplaced in the form of plutons. Storage includes a series of
mechanisms that can be summarised by two end-members, although
it is reasonable to consider that a spectrum of intermediate possibilities
exists. One end-member is represented by a plutonic body that results
from a single, connected and fairly closed batch of magma that freezes
while rising through the crust. This mechanism can also be viewed as
a diapir that has been disconnected from its source (Paterson et al.,
2010). The other end-member is represented by a plutonic body that
is a frozen part of a former complex plumbing system that remains active for an extended duration. In this case the plumbing system is
huge, evolves over time, is used during several magma upwelling
events, and remobilises material from older pulses or from host rock
(Paterson et al., 2010). Pluton growth can be further complicated
by other processes such as: magma pulses moving back down the
magma pathway during rise of other pulses; loss of magma from the
plutonic system by volcanic eruptions; reheating of crystal mush
zones and consequent continuous movements in a magma conduit; internal differentiation processes. A long-lasting scientic discussion revolved around the question if magmas more commonly ascend by
continuous upwelling or by pulse-like ow. Abundant eld evidence
suggests that the latter mechanism might be more common than previously thought; several sheeted dyke and sill complexes indicate that
plutonic bodies have been constructed through magma pulsing
(Pitcher and Berger, 1972; Hardee, 1982; Hutton, 1982; Lagarde et al.,
1990; Paterson and Vernon, 1995; McNulty et al., 1996; Vigneresse
and Bouchez, 1997; Paterson and Miller, 1998; Wiebe and Collins,
1998; Johnson et al., 1999; Miller and Paterson, 2001; Miller and
Miller, 2002; Memeti et al., 2010).
In the middle-upper crust, dyking is hence considered as the most
consistent magma transfer mechanism (Clemens and Mawer, 1992;
Clemens et al., 1997; Petford et al., 2000). Granite intrusion along ductile
extensional shear zones is considered the most suitable process for upwelling and storage and this solves the room problem posed by pluton
emplacement by diapirism (Hutton et al., 1990). A model that instead
extends diapirism also to the middle crust is the one proposed by
Miller and Paterson (1999); these authors suggested that felsic
magma can rise and be emplaced as visco-elastic diapirs through a series of multiple magma batches within regional tectonic deformation,
accompanied by downward movements of the host rocks through multiple processes including brittle deformation and stoping (Cabello et al.,
2006; Farris et al., 2006; Zak and Paterson, 2006). Recently, diapirism
has been extended up to the middleupper crust by del Potro et al.
(2013) who, based on the inversion of high-resolution gravity data
beneath the Bolivia Altiplano, suggest that partially molten granitic bodies ascend by way of a diapiric mechanism through the hot ductile crust.
4.2. Mac magmas
In the case of mac magma, the deep plumbing system is considered
to be governed by a higher mobility than in the case of a felsic magma at
parity of other conditions. Mac magma is transported through cracks
in the lithosphere that give rise to swarms of dykes. These dykes can
be connected with deep to shallow magma chambers, or they may directly convey magma from the mantle towards the surface without a
shallow reservoir, as derived for example from the very high magma
supply rate of 0.7 km3/yr during the 1959 Kilauea Iki eruption
(Takada, 1999) respect to the values of 0.02 to 0.18 km3/yr during
19521983 (Dvorak and Dzurisin, 1993). Nevertheless, as for felsic
magmas, mac magmas mostly also stop rising in the crust. Although
direct observations of exhumed deep intrusions are rare, some outcrops
indicate that mac magma bodies emplaced within or at the base of the
lower crust, result from the accretion of successive magma pulses. For
example, a deep section of a mac plumbing system has been exhumed
after orogenic uplift and erosion at the Ivrea mac body in the Italian
Alps, where the evidence of individual pulses of magma can be directly
observed (Quick et al., 1994).
An explanation for the deep magma accumulation along a horizontal
zone was initially proposed by Ryan (1987) and Lister and Kerr (1991)
at the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB). Here it was retained that magma
density equals the density of the host rock and buoyancy becomes null,
favouring sill emplacement. This hypothesis was revised in more recent
years based on the fact that several dykes cut through the LNB and even
through rock successions with a lower density than magma. Sills in fact
can emplace due to other mechanical and physical conditions that will
be discussed later. If the magma supply rate is low, sills can freeze,
whereas if the magma supply rate is high, they may combine and result
in the formation of a magma chamber (Gudmundsson, 1990, 1995).
Once formed, the magma chamber can further stop other ascending
dykes, thus growing in size. Below continental crust, mac magmas
can be trapped near the Moho or within the lower crust. Below oceanic
island volcanoes, it has been suggested that basaltic to gabbroid rocks
are denser than basaltic magmas and thus LNB conditions are not
reached within the lower crust. In this condition, a LNB can be present
a few kilometres below the volcano or even inside the volcanic edice,
giving rise to very shallow magma chambers (Klgel et al., 2005).
Deep tabular horizontal sills have also been individuated by means of
seismic proles: layering in the lower crust has been interpreted as
due to the presence of sills (Fuchs et al., 1987; Wenzel and Brun,
1991; Franke, 1992). Exposure of very deep lithospheric section at the
Oman Ophiolite shows that magma-induced fracturing and intrusion
propagation are common processes that occur even at the Moho level
(Nicolas et al., 1994).
The occurrence of mac intrusions in the lower crust has also been
modelled by numerical simulations by several authors (Petford and
Gallagher, 2001; Annen and Sparks, 2002; Dufek and Bergantz, 2005;
Annen et al., 2006a), who showed that if the composition of the crust
in contact with the mac intrusions is amphibolitic, partial melting of
the crust is very limited. This on one side implies that large quantities
of silicic melts can be generated by incomplete crystallisation of the intruded mac magma (Dufek and Bergantz, 2005; Annen et al., 2006b),
and on the other side that a deeper plumbing system should preserve
its original architecture given by tabular intrusions, because the contacts with the host rocks are subject to limited modications. Dahm
(2000) modelled the possible deep plumbing system at convergent
margins. He found that uid-lled fractures can propagate through
the inhomogeneous stress eld of the asthenospheric mantle wedge
above a subduction zone. The magma paths depend on the dip angle
of the subducting slab, the distance from the wedge corner, the subduction velocity, the mantle viscosity, and the apparent buoyancy force of
dykes. In particular, dykes propagate upwards parallel to the slab if
the angle of subduction is N 45, whereas dykes are bended in subhorizontal curved sills, and thus magma is trapped without reaching
the lithospheric layer, in the case of shallow subduction angles (Dahm,
2000).
More information comes from recent geophysical studies that allow
imaging of the entire crust down to the source region of the magma in
the uppermost mantle, as for example at the deep plumbing system of
Mt Etna volcano; Chiarabba et al. (2004b) show the structure beneath
Mt Etna down to a depth of 24 km through tomographic inversions of
P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes (Fig. 7). Tomography shows the lower plumbing system made by a main narrow conduit
zone, 46 km long, beneath the central part of the volcano between 9
and 18 km of depth, and a wide region of low Vp in the uppermost mantle (below 34 km of depth) associated with the magma source region.
The upper plumbing system is characterised by an intrusive complex
below the southern craters and the Valle del Bove, and another complex
93
Fig. 7. The deep plumbing system of Mt Etna (Italy) has been revealed by tomographic inversions of P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes down to 24 km depth. Two tomographic sections (oriented SSENNW and SWNE) show the presence of a high velocity body (HVB) interpreted as a main solidied intrusive body. Magma intrusions prevalently affect
the western and north-western border of the HVB, following NNWSSE and NESW structures.
After Chiarabba et al. (2004b), reproduced under license number 3490690796656 of Oct 16, 2014.
94
Fig. 8. One of the rst and most complete models of the Kilauea plumbing system was presented by Ryan (1988), who outlined the presence of a deep main conduit zone located down to a
depth of 60 km below the summit zone of the volcano. This elongated conduit is composed of a series of vertical and sub-vertical dykes which are linked to a long feeding system located in
the uppermost kilometres below the volcanic rift.
Reproduced under license number 3490680301921 of Oct 16, 2014.
this volcano at a depth N 10 km. Evidence from the 2011 eruption suggests that magma migrated towards the volcano along inclined pathways. These pathways coincide with a conductor zone located through
resistivity analyses. This type of deep to medium-depth magmatic system implies a component of lateral transport of magma and contributes
to the recent discussion on magma chambers that are in an offset position from the volcanoes they are connected with. Another recent example comes from Ishizuka et al. (2008) who found geophysical and
petrological evidence of long-distance lateral horizontal magma transport below the submarine/subaerial volcanic chain of the northern Izu
arc (Fig. 9B). Lava outpoured in different parts of the chain resulted to
come from the same basaltic primary magma, and this suggests that
magma was laterally transported for at least 20 km in the middle to
lower crust (1020 km deep here). Later on, the same magmas experienced crystal fractionation and accumulation at a shallow magma
chamber with further transport at distance b 5 km. Ishizuka et al.
(2008) also suggested that the long-distance magma transport has
been controlled by a regional extensional stress regime, while the
shorter (b5 km) distance transport has been controlled by a local stress
95
Fig. 9. Models of oblique and horizontal deep magma plumbing systems. A. Geophysical studies at the ShinmoeDake volcano, Japan indicate the presence of a magma feeding system with
a general oblique dip. Magnetotelluric data from Aizawa et al. (2014) combined with petrographic data show the presence of a deep basalticandesitic magma chamber located in an offset
position from this volcano at a depth N 10 km. Evidence from the 2011 eruption suggests that the magma migrated towards the volcano along inclined pathways. B. Ishizuka et al. (2008)
found evidence of long-distance lateral horizontal magma transport below the submarine/subaerial volcanic chain of the northern Izu arc: lava emitted in different parts of the chain resulted to derive from the same basaltic primary magma; this enabled to conclude that magma was laterally transported for at least 20 km in the middle to lower crust (1020 km deep).
Later on, the same magmas experienced crystal fractionation and accumulation at shallow magma chamber with further transport at distance b5 km.
96
Fig. 10. Chambers that are signicantly overpressured with respect to the stresses in the host rock can perturb the stress eld in the surrounding region. A. Below the chamber there may be
a rock volume inside which stresses produced by magma force are large enough to perturb the trajectories of rising dykes, focusing them towards the magma chamber. B. Boundary element results showing a pressurised spherical magma chamber with an internal magmatic excess pressure of 5 MPa as the only loading; the trajectories of the greatest principal stress
depart at the right angle from the chamber walls, creating a radial pattern.
A. Redrawn after Karlstrom et al. (2009). B. Redrawn after Gudmundsson (1998).
laterally from the central zone of a volcano; cone sheets are crucial also
in terms of the possibility of locating the magma chamber based on their
geometry and of the fact that the piecemeal intrusion of hundreds of inclined sheets induces a major upward deformation of the host rock (Le
Bas, 1971). Bailey et al. (1924) suggested that any increase in the pressure of a magma reservoir at depth would superimpose a tensional regime on the host rock and favour the formation of inward-dipping
fractures, the intrusion of which produces cone sheets (Fig. 11A). A decrease in the magma chamber pressure instead may promote instability
in the roof rock resulting in subsidence along outward-dipping or subvertical fractures, the intrusion of which produces ring dykes
(Fig. 11B) (Bailey et al., 1924). Anderson (1936) considered that ring
dykes should be emplaced along shear fractures that dip outward in
the range of 6070 becoming shallower upward. Robson and Barr
(1964) and Durrance (1967) put forward the importance of shear
planes in guiding the emplacement of cone sheets, although now it is
recognised that most sheets occupy extensional fractures. The model
of Phillips (1974) suggests that cone sheets are restricted to a concentric
swarm departing from the shoulders of a magma chamber and following shear fractures, and thus they are missing above the centre of the
magma chamber, something usually different in the eld (Fig. 11C).
Shear fractures form as rotational strain develops along inwarddipping strips that delimit roof uplifts relative to the immobile side
regions. Phillips (1974) also suggested that cone sheets could extend
upward in sub-vertical shear fractures with a bowl-like geometry
(Fig. 12) or they may curve into sub-horizontal sills upwards with a
trumpet-shape (Fig. 12). In the present paper I prefer to use the term
centrally-inclined sheet swarm because it is more descriptive and
does not bear reference to the previous cone sheet models.
97
Fig. 11. Models of cone sheet and ring dyke emplacement in a vertical section view: A. an expanding magma chamber induces a radial 1 (continuous lines) and concentric 3 (segmented
lines) parallel to the vertical section view, cone sheets are emplaced along tension fractures (diverging arrows). B. Magma chamber deation induces shear zones at the periphery along
which ring dykes may intrude. C. An expanding magma chamber produces tensional fractures (diverging arrow) along which cone sheets may intrude with a downward-concave shape,
and/or shear zones with rotational strain along which cone sheets may intrude with an upward-concave shape. Note that emplacement of cone sheets is not foreseen above the central part
of the magma chamber.
A. and B. Modied after Bailey et al. (1924) and Anderson (1936). C. Modied after Phillips (1974).
other sheet swarms in Iceland whose average dip is 34. Farther south
there is the Thverfell centrally-inclined sheet swarm that was emplaced
mostly within almost isotropic hyaloclastite deposits (Pasquar and
Tibaldi, 2007; Tibaldi et al., 2008c) (Fig. 14). Also in this case the sheets
do not show a systematic dip decrease outwards from the focus zone.
The Cuillin Igneous Complex in the Island of Skye (UK) represents
the deep core of a Tertiary, large basaltic volcano. It is composed of
coarse-grained layered and unlayered basic and ultrabasic huge intrusive bodies that are in turn intruded by centrally-inclined sheets. The
98
Fig. 12. Possible geometries of centrally-inclined sheet swarms resulting from internal excess magma pressure: A. radial planar sheets from a spherical magma chamber; B. concave-upward (bowl-shaped) sheets from a spherical magma chamber; C. concave-downward (trumpet-shaped) sheets from a sill-shaped magma chamber; and D. planar parallel sheets from a
laccolith-like chamber.
A. After Chadwick and Dieterich (1995) and Gudmundsson (1998). B. After Chadwick and Dieterich (1995) and Gudmundsson (1998). C. After Phillips (1974) and Chadwick and Dieterich
(1995). D. After Bistacchi et al. (2012).
particularly worth noting the similarity of the average dip of the inclined sheets near the centre of the swarm with respect to those
cropping out at the periphery. This is also quantied by the distribution
of sheet dip measured along four transects across the whole swarm
(Fig. 16). Also at the Tejeda complex, in the island of Gran Canaria,
there is a centrally-inclined sheet swarm with homogeneous dip angles
measured across the whole swarm (Fig. 17). Schirnick et al. (1999)
Fig. 13. A. Photo of the western centrally-dipping sheet swarm of the LysuskardMidhyrna intrusions. B. Graph of sheet dip angle vs. distance from the centre of each centrally-dipping
sheet swarm: box and circles represent the data of the two swarms; note that these sheets show no gradual variation in dip attitude with distance from the focus area, are rectilinear
in section view, and intrude with the same geometry the main intrusive bodies as well as the layered Tertiary lavas. Box shows the location.
A. Modied after Tibaldi et al. (2013).
99
Fig. 14. A. Photo of the western part of Thverfell (Iceland) centrally-inclined sheet swarm: note the constant dip angle of the sheets. B. Photo and C. sketch of part of the sheet swarm where
it is possible to observe that some of the intrusions cross the boundary between lava ows and the underlying hyaloclastite breccias. Box shows the location.
diameter of 18 km (Richey and Thomas, 1930; Emeleus, 2009). This example has been recently used by Magee et al. (2012) to question the formation of this sheet pattern by proposing an alternative model. These
authors claimed that the Ardnamurchan sheet swarm may be linked
to laterally propagating regional dykes, sourced from laterally adjacent
magmatic systems, which are deected around a central complex by
stress eld interference.
Since the geometry and location of centrally-inclined sheet
swarms is considered as mainly dependant from the geometry of the
overpressured magma chamber, it is important to quantify the maximum distance the sheets can reach. In fact, if the stress exerted by the
magma chamber overpressure on the surrounding rock guides the development of these inclined sheets, we can estimate the distance by
which this stress dominates. I have collected most of the available
data on well exposed centrally-inclined sheet swarms in order to evaluate their width (Fig. 18A). Here it is possible to see that most swarms
have diameters ranging from a minimum of 5 km to a maximum of
20 km, with an average value of 12.3 km. In order to quantify also
the typical thickness of centrally-inclined sheets, I collected data
from different locations in Iceland and in the British Isles and
summarised them in the graph of Fig. 18B. In this graph it is possible
to observe the distribution of dip angles and thickness for a population
of 2340 sheets, with the larger number of intrusions with dip angles in
the range of 2065 and thickness of 0.21.8 m (largest thickness up
to 1012 m). It has been shown that in some centrally-inclined sheet
swarms, shallower-dipping sheets are thinner than steeper-dipping
sheets (Gudmundsson, 2003), which is not consistent with the data presented above. This might be due to the fact that it has been carefully
avoided to include in the sheet population of Fig. 18B any steeplyinclined sheets that might in reality represent regional dykes, which is
to say to intrusions that are not related to the central magma chamber.
Regional dykes, in fact, are much thicker in average than inclined sheets
linked to local magma chambers: In Iceland, for example, regional dykes
100
Fig. 15. Photos of the centrally-inclined sheets at the Cuillin Igneous Complex at the Isle of Skye (UK). Note that the sheets have the average dip angle both in the core of the swarm
(A) where the highest frequency of intrusion is observed, and in the peripheral part (C). B. Location of the photos.
magma chamber, boundary element results show in the case of internal magmatic excess pressure of 5 MPa as the only loading that the
trajectories of the greatest principal stress (1, ticks) depart at right
angle from the chamber walls, creating a radial pattern in section view
(Fig. 10B) (Gudmundsson, 1998). Based on the work of Anderson
(1951), it is commonly assumed that magma paths select the orientation of least resistance by opening along planes across which the
normal stress is the lowest. The consequence is that magma paths follow and trace trajectories perpendicular to 3 within the stress eld occurring before sheet propagation (Stevens, 1911; Anderson, 1936, 1938;
Od, 1957). This conclusion has been questioned by McKenzie et al.
(1992) and Meriaux and Lister (2002) who pointed out that several
theoretical works ignored the fact that dykes radically alter the surrounding stress eld as they propagate. Meriaux and Lister (2002)
concluded that neglecting the dyke effect gives in any case good qualitative agreement in the pattern of principal-stress trajectories, but substantially different estimates of the stresses. Based on the above, it can
be assumed that magma escaping from the chamber walls should follow
the direction of less resistance giving rise to intrusive sheets that propagate along planes that contain 1 and 2 (i.e. normal to 3). Fig. 10C
shows the boundary element results of the stress eld around a vertical
section of a spherical magma chamber subject to remote horizontal tensile stress of 5 MPa as the only loading. The trajectories of the 1 are
mostly vertical to sub-vertical suggesting that dykes departing from
the magma chamber have a vertical geometry at a short distance.
Fig. 10D presents the same setting as in Fig. 10A but with a at
magma chamber (laccolith-like shape). Although we are aware of the
limitation of considering only magma overpressure as the acting stress,
101
Fig. 16. Distribution of the sheet dip angles measured along four transects across the whole centrally-inclined sheet swarm of the Cuillin Complex (Island of Skye, UK). Note the similarity
between the average dip angle of the inclined sheets near the centre of the swarm and those cropping out at the periphery.
Redrawn after Tibaldi et al. (2011).
this example is useful to discern the contribution of the magma chamber force in dictating the intrusive sheets pattern. In this case in fact,
the trajectories of 1 above the magma chamber are mostly parallel to
each other, due to the at upper surface of the chamber, resulting in a
series of inclined sheets whose dip angle does not vary signicantly.
As a matter of fact, the host rock is subject to further stresses of different origins, including the lithostatic component and the tectonic
component of the regional far eld; Russo et al. (1996, 1997), Russo
and Giberti (2000), van Wyk de Vries and Matela (1998), Grosls
(2007) and Mart and Geyer (2009) present numerical models where
the gravitational body force and tectonic boundary stresses are considered together with the stresses transmitted by the magma chamber.
Bistacchi et al. (2012), in particular, focused on the possible trajectories
of intrusive sheets modelled under a total stress eld resulting from
three components of boundary forces (Ranalli, 1995): (1) the superposition of diverse magma overpressures in the magma chamber; (2) the
presence of different free topographic surfaces ranging from a at topography to a positive topography, simulating the load of a volcanic edice, or to a negative surface corresponding to a caldera; (3) regional
tectonics with diverse remote stresses, plus a body force (4) corresponding to gravitational acceleration. The analysis used a set of
quasi-static Finite Element Method mechanical models that showed
the conguration of the resulting stress eld (Fig. 19) under diverse
pressures in an oblate magma chamber. With negative values, which
correspond to a deating chamber, the trajectories of 1 dip outwards
Fig. 17. Geologicalstructural section of the Tejeda complex, on the island of Gran Canaria, with a centrally-inclined sheet swarm that shows homogeneous dip angles across the whole
swarm. The authors interpreted the geometry of the centrally-inclined sheets as the effect of the magma force exerted by an ellipsoidic magma chamber with a at upper surface.
Redrawn after Schirnic et al. (1999).
102
Fig. 18. A. Graph of the diameter of well exposed centrally-inclined sheet swarms; it is possible to note that most swarms have a diameter that ranges from a minimum of 5 km to a maximum of 20 km, with an average value of 12.3 km. B. Graph of the distribution of dip angles (X axis) and thickness (Y axis) of 2340 sheets surveyed at the centrally-inclined sheet systems of
Iceland and British Islands (Ardnamurchan). Note the larger number of intrusions with dip angles in the range of 2065 and thickness of 0.21.8 m.
B. Data after Magee et al. (2012).
103
Fig. 19. Results of quasi-static Finite Element Method mechanical models showing the conguration of the stress eld around an oblate magma chamber that incorporates: (1) diverse
magma overpressures; (2) the presence of different free topographic surfaces ranging from a at topography to a positive topography, simulating the load of a volcanic edice, or to a
negative surface corresponding to a caldera; (3) regional tectonics with different remote stress values, plus a body force (4) corresponding to gravitational acceleration. Results are
shown on a vertical cross-sectional symmetry plane of the 2D axial-symmetric model. Each gure corresponds to an increasing magma chamber pressure. Vector symbols show orientation of 1 and 2; 3 is always perpendicular to the 12 plane, 2 axes plot as small dots in areas where they are perpendicular to the plane of the cross-section. Colour shows the values of
least compressive to tensional 3 stress axis; red indicates the negative values, related to the emplacement of magma in tensional ssures. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Modied after Bistacchi et al. (2012).
104
Fig. 20. At the Cuillin Complex cone sheet system (Skye Island, UK), there are three zones with different characteristics: (1) a central zone in the core of the cone sheet where inclined
sheets dominate; (2) a more external zone where inclined sheets coexist with vertical dykes; and (3) an outer zone where dykes dominate.
Modied after Tibaldi et al. (2011).
explanation for the dyke-sill transition was the effect of neutral buoyancy forces (Corry, 1988). Nevertheless, much eld evidence shows that
sheets were injected through host rock successions dominantly composed of fragmented deposits, like hyaloclastites and breccias, the density of which is lower than magma density (Pasquar and Tibaldi, 2007;
Tibaldi and Pasquar, 2008; Tibaldi et al., 2008c), without any geometrical change, so neutral buoyancy cannot be the main explanation.
Similarly, Thomson (2007) suggested that the presence of lithological
contrasts, particularly ductile horizons such as overpressured shales,
may guide sill formation at any depth below the neutrally buoyancy
level. Another explanation may be the intersection of the intrusive
sheet with an already existing horizontal, freely slipping joint
(Weertman, 1980) or in a similar way, the intersection between a
weak bedding plane and a steep normal fault at shallow depths
(Gaffney et al., 2007). The upward propagation of dykes and inclined
sheets can be diverted also due to the generation of stress barriers, i.e.
layers with local stresses unfavourable for the intrusion propagation
(Gretener, 1969; Gudmundsson, 1986, 1990; Parsons et al., 1992;
Gudmundsson, 2011). The deviation from a dyke to a sill has also been
reproduced experimentally by Kavanagh et al. (2006) at the interface
between upper, rigid layers overlaying lower, weaker layers. Valentine
and Krogh (2006) explained dyke bending in terms of local stress rotation along 3-D variations on a normal fault plane. Finally, dykes can
bend into sills in the case of remote tectonic compression, as they adjust
their trajectory reaching a geometry parallel to the 12 plane
(Menand et al., 2010). Among all these possibilities, eld data suggest
that the further propagation of sheets is strongly inuenced by lithologic boundaries in the host rock. As an example, at the Thverfell eroded
volcano (SW Iceland), the centrally-inclined sheets bend and reach a
horizontal geometry as they approach the contact between a lava succession and the underlying hyaloclastites (Fig. 22AB). As another example, a dyke bends into a sill at a similar contact at the Stardalur
eroded volcano (SW Iceland) (Fig. 22C), and a similar conguration
can be seen also at Nysiros volcano (Greece), where a dyke bends into
a sill near a contact between hyaloclastites and lavas (Fig. 22D). This
eld evidence suggests that dykes and inclined sheets can be diverted
or stopped at contacts between layers with lithologies having very different stiffness (Gudmundsson, 1986; Kavanagh et al., 2006).
Changes in intrusion geometry can also derive from dykedyke interactions. Numerical and analogue simulations have been developed
to analyse how ascending dykes might interact, showing that their
self-induced stress eld may locally be more signicant than the regional stress eld (Khn and Dahm, 2008). Coeval ascending dykes may
converge towards regions of increased dyke densities and may lead to
the formation of sills; alternatively, they can change their dip and
magma paths by getting closer to each other, or they can merge crating
dykes with increasing magma ux (Ito and Martel, 2002; Canon-Tapia
and Merle, 2006), or they can have a higher probability of becoming
arrested (Jin and Johnson, 2008). The dykedyke interaction is greater
when the intrusion is more than some dyke lengths away from the
105
Fig. 21. Photos taken at the Cuillin cone sheet in the Skye Island (UK), showing examples of inclined sheets intruded along shear planes with reverse motion (R) and normal motion (N),
although most followed fractures with an opening mode I (extension normal to the fracture wall) (T). Lower angle shear planes show normal motions, whereas steeper planes have reverse motions, and both form a conjugate set bisected by the dominant dilational sheets (T), and are thus consistent with each other. The frequently found scatter in cone sheet dip angles
can thus be explained as the result of intrusions along both mode I fracture planes and conjugate shear planes with a higher- or lower-than-average dip angle.
feeding reservoir or the free surface, whereas the interaction is generally small when the horizontal tensional stress is large compared to the
compressional stresses induced by the emplacement of a single dyke
(Khn and Dahm, 2008).
Numerical and analogue models indicate that also the load exerted
by a volcano can inuence the trajectory of the magma path below.
Pinel and Jaupart (2004) found, by numerical modelling, that if a volcano is present, at small distances from the axis, conning stresses due to
the volcano load hinder vertical magma propagation. This produces horizontal dyke propagation and, in case the dyke reaches the surface, the
formation of a distal eruptive centre. They found also that, everything
else being equal, a decreasing magma supply rate or a decreasing
magma viscosity generate eruptive centres at increasing distances
from the focal area. Gaffney and Damjanac (2006) found a similar tendency of magma ow to be diverted away from a highland zone (like
a volcano) towards the lowland. By analogue modelling, Kervyn et al.
(2009) showed that the local loading stress eld, due to the presence
of a volcano, favours rising magma away from the volcano centre if a
central conduit is not established or is blocked. Experiments show that
the load compressive stress stops rising dykes as they approach the
cone stress eld especially in the case of dykes with limited overpressure and steep volcanic cones (Fig. 23). Dyke overpressure builds up
as intrusion continues and dykes extend laterally until their tips rise
vertically again, leading to eruptions. This might explain the presence
of volcanic centres located at the base of a volcano, whose distance
from the volcano's axis depends on volcano slope angle, magma overpressure and substratum thickness, whereas extensional processes favour magma propagation in the axial volcanic zone. Similar results
were obtained by Peltier et al. (2005) who, using seismic data, analysed
the direction and velocity of dyke propagation from a shallow reservoir
at a depth of 3 km at Piton de la Fournaise (Reunion Island) between
1998 and 2004. They found a change from vertical ascent to slower lateral propagation when the dyke reached the Dolomieu cone base. This
change was attributed to the presence of a fractured zone as well as to
the effect of volcano load. The nal geometry of a sheet is also a function
of the distribution of magma overpressure within the intrusion; dykes
with either uniform internal overpressure or with a simple viscous pressure drop propagate across much greater distances than the corresponding unpressurised cracks, and uniformly loaded dykes tend to
propagate with less curvature than those with a viscous pressure drop
(Meriaux and Lister, 2002).
Several eld examples show that crosscutting relationships between
generations of intrusive sheets may give clues to the parameters
that control the geometry of magma conduits. For example, as already
introduced before, at the eroded Thverfell volcano (Iceland) the
centrally-inclined sheets bend until they become horizontal at the contact between the lava succession and the underlying hyaloclastites
(Fig. 22AB). The resulting sills stacked on top of each other and created
a laccolith-like body, showing the difculty of magma uprising to the
surface (Tibaldi et al., 2008c). However, the stacked sills are crosscut
by a vertical dyke that affected all the exposed rock succession
(Fig. 24AB). A similar situation can be seen at another site of the
same eroded Thverfell volcano, where inclined sheets intruded the
lava succession and are in turn cut by a series of parallel, sub-vertical
dykes (Fig. 24CD). Both cases reect a change in the geometry of
the plumbing system, that rst favoured lateral magma transport
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Fig. 22. Examples suggesting that dykes and inclined sheets can be diverted at contacts between layers with lithologies characterised by very different stiffness. Photo (A) and sketch (B) at
the Thverfell eroded volcano (SW Iceland), showing centrally-inclined sheets that bend attaining a horizontal geometry as they approach the contact between a lava succession and the
underlying hyaloclastites. At the Stardalur eroded volcano (SW Iceland) (C), a dyke bends into a sill at a similar contact. At the Nysiros volcano (Greece) (D), a similar conguration can be
seen where a dyke bends into a sill nearby a contact hyaloclastite/lava.
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Fig. 23. Analogue models showed that the local loading stress eld, due to the presence of a volcano, favours magma ascent away from the volcano centre. Dyke overpressure builds up as
intrusion continues and dykes extend laterally until their tips rise vertically again, leading to eruption.
Modied after Kervyn et al. (2009).
Gartner, 1997). Ziv et al. (2000) presented a numerical model for sheet
intrusion into preexisting fractures that are oblique to the principal
stresses. They conclude that it appears to be very difcult for a sheet
to follow a preexisting fault unless one or more of the following conditions are met: (1) the fracture is nearly perpendicular to 3; (2) the resolved shear stress on the fracture is small compared to the excess
magma pressure; and (3) the effective ambient sheet-normal stress is
small compared to the rock tensile strength. The same authors suggest
that it may be quite difcult for sheets emerging from midcrustal to
lower crustal depths to follow faults that are oblique to 3. One of the
main observations is related to the fact that rocks are usually fractured
medium with possible pervasive discontinuities. A preexisting fault
with a different orientation from the 12 plane acting at the time of
sheet intrusion is usually surrounded and intersected by other faults
and joints of various lengths. Field data demonstrate in fact that
magma paths can change orientation at short distance when the rock
is densely fractured (e.g. Fig. 25). Thus the presence of these secondary
discontinuities makes it even more difcult for the magma to follow a
misaligned pre-existing fault (Ziv et al., 2000). In spite of this suggestion, a recent work by Garca et al. (2014) demonstrated, by seismological data and numerical modelling, that magma migrated several times
108
Fig. 24. Examples of changes in the geometry of magma plumbing system at shallow level at the eroded Thverfell volcano (Iceland). A. Sketch and B. photo of stacked sills crosscut by a
vertical dyke that affected all the exposed rock succession. C. Sketch and D. photo of centrally-inclined sheets intruded into the lava succession and, in turn, cut by a series of parallel, subvertical dykes. Both settings reect a change in the geometry of the plumbing system that rst favoured lateral magma transport and then vertical magma upwelling. This can be explained
in terms of a change in the stress state in the host rock promoted by a rotation of the 3 axis from vertical (sill case) or gentle-dipping (inclined sheet) to horizontal.
109
Fig. 25. A. Photo and B. sketch of a dyke intruded in a rock affected by several preexisting
fractures with diverse orientations (Asja Peninsula, west Iceland). Note the sharp change
in dyke geometry along the intrusion path.
Fig. 26. Alicudi (A) and Stromboli (B) volcanoes (Aeolian Arc, southern Tyrrhenian Sea,
Italy) have an age b 100 ka BP, lie above the same substratum, have similar size and geochemical characteristics, but have different dyke patterns. Alicudi shows a radial dyking
pattern, whereas Stromboli has a main NE-striking rift zone active since 100 ka ago and
two minor zones of dyking (active at 6436 ka BP and b13 ka BP). The two end-member
dyke patterns reect the effect of a hydraulic force exerted by magma in the case of
Alicudi, and a control exerted by regional tectonics at Stromboli. C. Shows the tectonic settings of the two volcanoes where it is possible to observe that Stromboli lies in an area affected by extension normal to its rift zone.
Data of Alicudi and regional tectonics from Tibaldi et al. (2005); data of Stromboli from
Pasquar et al. (1993) and Tibaldi, 1996, 2001).
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Fig. 27. Sketch of possible models of propagation of radial dykes in volcanoes. A. Magma
exerts an isotropic force along the central conduit walls that produces hydraulic fracturing
followed by radial dyking; this is favoured in the case of an open conduit. B. Radial dykes
may be fed from a deeper level of the magma plumbing system at the basement of the volcano and propagate upward; this is more favoured in the case of a closed conduit.
B. Modied after Geshi (2008).
6.2.2. Vertical 3
Volcanoes can also overlie zones of active compression with horizontal 1 and 2 (for a review see Tibaldi et al., 2010) and there are
some eld and experimental data that indicate which planes are the
prime candidates to host magma paths in such contractional settings.
Magma migration along pre-existing faults is consistent with several
cases found in different geodynamic settings and spanning from evidence at deep crustal level (e.g. Rosenberg, 2004), to near surface
level (e.g. Tibaldi et al., 2010). Below volcanoes, examples from different
contractional settings indicate that the control exerted by ramp and at
structures can occur after the main collision event or during active
thrust movements (syn-kinematic). Examples of the rst case are the
early Proterozoic Chilimanzi granites (Zimbabwe) that were emplaced
50 Ma after a continental collision event (Fig. 29A) (Dirks and Jelsma,
1998). These granites intruded the crust along sills coinciding with
sub-horizontal thrust and along inclined sheets corresponding to
ramp structures. In Nigeria, the Neoproterozoic Rahama monzogranite
pluton was emplaced 60 Ma after a collision event (Ferr et al., 1997,
2002). Magma was emplaced along reverse inclined shear zones
interpreted as thrust ramps with structures of the intrusive rocks suggesting some late syn-kinematic deformations (Fig. 29B) (Ferr et al.,
2012). The Miocene tonalites of the Hidaka Belt (Japan) were emplaced
along both ramp and at structures of a duplex system (Fig. 29C)
(Shimura, 1992; Toyoshima et al., 1994). Regarding examples of synkinematic intrusions, the Palaeozoic Wyangala granites (Australia)
were emplaced shortly after a continental collision event (Paterson
et al., 1990; Tobisch and Paterson, 1990). In particular for the Yarra pluton, the data of Tobisch and Paterson (1990) are consistent with magma
ascent along a ductile, reverse shear zone that was still moving during
magma cooling, and this attests to syn-kinematic emplacement
(Fig. 29D). Halliday et al. (1987) showed that alkaline magmas in NW
Scotland intruded along the Moine thrust zone and documented the
persistence of magmatism, over 30 Ma, in a belt shortened by thrusting.
Mart et al. (1992) found that the Cenozoic magmatism of the Valencia
trough (Spain) is characterised by a rst cycle of Early to Middle Miocene age with calc-alkaline rocks emplaced during thrust development
under a compressional regime. Mkweli et al. (1995) studied the Umlali
Thrust Zone between the granitegreenstone rocks of the Zimbabwe
craton and the granulite-facies rocks of the Limpopo Belt, demonstrating the syn- to post-kinematic intrusion of porphyritic granites.
111
Fig. 28. A. At Spanish Peaks (Colorado, USA) dykes (red lines) are arranged radially around the Spanish Peaks stock and have been interpreted as resulting from radial stresses caused by the
pressurised stock (Ode, 1957); at greater distances from the stock, dykes gradually bend and, in a distal position, assume a parallel strike that results from remotely applied regional tectonic stresses (Muller and Pollard, 1977; Smith, 1987). Black lines here represent the calculated trajectories of dyke paths following mode I opening of fractures. B. When dykes intercept
the volcano slopes, they produce radial ssure eruptions and fractures in the central uppermost part of the edice, and parallel fractures, eruptive ssures and aligned pyroclastic cones
along two opposite volcano anks (Nakamura, 1977; Nakamura et al., 1977). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
A. Modied after Meriaux and Lister (2002).
The analogue experiments carried out by Ferr et al. (2012) to simulate basic and felsic magma upwelling in a contractional setting show
that uids of different viscosities can move along ramp and at
Fig. 29. Examples of control exerted by ramp and at structures on magma intrusions. A. Early Proterozoic Chilimanzi granites (Zimbabwe) emplaced 50 Ma after a continental collision
event along ramp and at structures (Dirks and Jelsma, 1998). B. Neoproterozoic Rahama monzogranite pluton emplaced 60 Ma after a collision event along ramp structures (Ferr et al.,
1997, 2002, 2012). C. Miocene tonalites of the Hidaka Belt (Japan) emplaced along both ramp and at structures of a duplex system (Shimura, 1992; Toyoshima et al., 1994). D. Yarra pluton
of the Palaeozoic Wyangala granites (Australia) emplaced along a ductile, reverse shear zone that was still moving during magma cooling (Paterson et al., 1990; Tobisch and Paterson,
1990).
112
et al. (2012) also suggest that additional room for magma can be provided by local dilational jogs along the thrust plane. Similar experiments
carried out by Galland et al. (2007a) (Fig. 30A), show that uids can
move upwards along thrust planes at the leading edges of a plateau. In
the experiment, vertical tension fractures formed on the surface of the
plateau, in a direction almost parallel to the imposed shortening. This
situation has been attributed by Galland et al. (2007a) to superposition
of a local load, because of the uplifted area, on the regional stress eld.
At a shallow depth, the stress eld was mainly due to the load of the
uplifted area, so that the greatest stress was vertical, whereas at deeper
levels the stress was mainly due to regional compression, with a horizontal greatest stress. In any case, the vertical tension fractures did not
act as conduits in these experiments.
As regards an example of volcanism and contractional tectonics at
shallow level, at Iwate volcano (NE-Japan) the focal mechanism analysis
of the M = 6.1, 1998 earthquake indicates reverse faulting with the horizontal principal compressive stress axis in an EW direction (http://
hakone.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/vrc/erup/iwate.html). NS-striking reverse active faults are present in this area: The activity of one of these, the
Nishine-fault, was estimated to be about 0.7 m/1000 years by the
Japan Active-Fault Research Group. GPS surveys showed a steady and
continuous extension between southern and northern sites of the volcano in 1998 (Miura et al., 2000). Based on these results, it has been suggested that intrusion of an EW-striking dyke occurred at around 10 km
of depth below the summit of the volcano, thus resulting in a magma
path parallel to the direction of 1. At Tromen volcano (Chile, Galland
et al., 2007a), lying above the hanging wall of a coeval west-dipping
thrust fault, most of the eruptions have occurred in the upper part of
the edice. In the central part of the volcano, the magmatic conduits
are in the form of subvertical andesitic dykes, striking almost EW. On
the eastern and southern anks, EW trending alignments of volcanic
domes probably follow underlying fractures (Galland et al., 2007a,b).
Also in this case, dykes intruding the volcano are parallel to the direction
of 1. At Guagua Pichincha volcano, Ecuador (Legrand et al., 2002),
and Miyakejima volcano, Japan (Fujita et al., 2004), where the tectonic
settings are also compressional, seismic data suggest subhorizontal
magma transport at depth, followed by subvertical transport nearer
the surface. Several geophysical data have been collected also at
Mt Redoubt in Alaska, during the 198990 and 2009 eruptions; Lahr
et al. (1994) showed that the location of an earthquake swarm of the
198990 eruption is consistent with a narrow conduit steeply dipping
to the NE (i.e. a NWSE-striking dyke). The eruption of 2009 was immediately preceded by a period marked by volcano-tectonic events indicating a NESW-trending P-axis orientation corresponding to the
horizontal displacement of the conduit walls in the same direction
(Roman and Gardine, 2013), a nding that can be interpret as the possible effect of a NWSE dyke. These NWSE dykes are parallel to the direction of the horizontal, regional 1 (Nakamura, 1977; Nakamura et al.,
1977, 1980; Koehler et al., 2012). A plexus of dykes and sills has also
been recognised beneath the northern ank of Mt Redoubt at deeper
level (Benz et al., 1996). At the active Trident volcano (Alaska),
Wallmann et al. (1990), based on the presence of a set of NWSE ssures crossing the margins of the 1912 Novarupta crater, local platemotion vectors and regional stress orientation, suggest that a NWSE
Fig. 30. Examples of experiments where volcanoes in contractional settings have been modelled. In A, intrusion of magma in the shallower crust along thrust planes. In B, C and D, photos in
plan view (to the left) and fault traces (to the right) of experiments of volcanic cones lying above substrate reverse faults, dipping to the left, with different positions with respect to the
cone: B. cone summit located on the footwall block, C. cone summit located above the surface trace of the substrate fault, and D. cone summit located on the hanging-wall block; E. section
view of the deformation zone inside the cone of case C.
A. Modied after Galland et al. (2007a). E. Modied after Tibaldi (2008).
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Fig. 31. A. DEM of Galeras volcano (Colombia) with location of sector collapse and main
right-lateral strike-slip faults affecting the cone; the sketch has been rotated for easier
comparison with the analogue model of BC. B. Photo and C. interpretative sketch of analogue modelling of a volcano located above a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Note the
matching between the Galeras example and the experiment.
A. Modied after Tibaldi and Romero (2000). BC. Modied after Lagmay et al. (2000).
114
Fig. 32. In strike-slip fault zones, volcanism can occur at pull-apart basins (A); at releasing
bend structures (B); directly along rectilinear strike-slip faults (C); and at the tips of the
main strike-slip faults (horsetail structures (D). The most common dyke orientation inside
the volcanoes located within these diverse fault settings is represented by red lines. Stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, pyroclastic cones and domes may occur at all the above
types of strike-slip fault structures, whereas calderas are preferentially located within
pull-apart basins. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
115
Fig. 33. A. Aerial oblique view of the Sciara del Fuoco depression at Stromboli (Italy) generated by a series of lateral collapses, with all the intrusive sheets (yellow, with relative number of
sample), emplaced along the scarps. The main NESW volcano tectonic rift is represented by the red zone. B. Photo taken along the coast of Stromboli showing a section view of the lateral
collapse escarpment and intrusive sheets; the diagram quanties the frequency of dykes moving from the collapse depression outward. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
of the stress tensors close to the collapse scarps, with the minimum
compressive stress reaching a trend normal to the collapse surface.
This local conguration favours the intrusion of sheets parallel to the
collapse scarps and dipping steeply towards the depression, consistent
also with eld data summarised in Fig. 34A. Other examples of the inuence of local cone slope on dyke geometry have been observed at
Mt. Etna, Italy, during historical dyke-fed eruptions (McGuire and
Pullen, 1989; McGuire et al., 1990, 1991; Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002).
During the 19781979 and 1983 magmatic events, feeder dykes propagated from the summit zone of Mt Etna towards the western wall of the
Valle del Bove. Geophysical data and structural data provided insights
into the changes in azimuth of feeder dykes at shallow depths, prior to
their intersection with the surface, as they deviated from an originally
southeasterly propagation direction, into a southerly one, parallel to
the western steep scarp of the Valle del Bove, at a distance of few tens
of meteres up to 500 m from the rock cliff (McGuire and Pullen, 1989;
McGuire et al., 1990, 1991). Also during the JulyAugust 2001 magmatic
event, eld data indicated a deviation of the strike of a shallow dyke that
followed the local topography (Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002). A conguration similar to Stromboli has also been observed for the dykes intruded along lateral collapse scarps at Tenerife, Canary Islands (Gottsmann
et al., 2008; Delcamp et al., 2012), TahitiNui (French Polynesia)
(Hildenbrand et al., 2004), and Piton de la Fournaise (Reunion Island)
(Peltier et al., 2009). At Fogo Island (Cape Verde archipelago) a recent
NS swarm of dykes, emplaced below an older collapse structure,
show an en-chelon geometry associated with a seaward displacement
of the eastern ank of the volcano (Day et al., 1999). In the presence of a
high scarp, such as the one between the top of Vesuvius and Mt Somma,
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Fig. 34. A. Geometry of intrusive sheets surveyed along the lateral collapse escarpments of
Stromboli volcano (Italy) around the Sciara del Fuoco depression, expressed as number of
dykes (Y axis) versus the angle between the dip direction of dyke and the dip direction of
the collapse scarp (X axis). B. Geochemical characteristics of the intrusive sheets cropping
out along the southern part of the Sciara del Fuoco depression, and C. along the northern
and eastern part of the Sciara del Fuoco depression. A total of 33 sheets (triangles) belong
to the Neostromboli volcano growth phase (label NEOSTR), 2 sheets belong to the previous Vancori growth phase and crop out far away from the Sciara del Fuoco depression
(see Vancori label in Fig. 32A for the location of these two sheets) and the other 3 sheets
were emplaced during post-Neostromboli growth phases.
A. Modied after Tibaldi (2003). C. Modied after Corazzato et al. (2008).
the difference in topography can create a zone of buttressing that hinders lateral dyke propagation across the scarp under ordinary excess
magmatic pressures (Acocella et al., 2006).
Also several analogue models indicate the differences in sheet conguration based on the volcano morphology, with the results shown
in Fig. 36. In the case of an intact cone, dykes propagate parallel to the
Hmax and perpendicular to the Hmin, which are radial and concentric,
respectively (Fig. 36, upper part) (McGuire and Pullen, 1989). If a lateral
collapse depression is cut into the cone, later intrusions follow
the scarps of the collapse depression if the initial intrusive source is located near the scarps, interpreted as the effect of unbuttressing and the
consequent reorganisation of the local stress eld (Fig. 36, middle)
(Acocella and Tibaldi, 2005). Similar results have been obtained for a
volcano with an unstable ank that has not collapsed yet (Walter and
Troll, 2003). If the initial intrusion is located below the collapse depression, the resulting dyke will propagate along the collapse axis, i.e. along
the mean points of the collapse in map view (Acocella and Tibaldi,
2005).
Regarding the other effects of the rock mass removal due to a lateral
failure, which are 3) the formation of a fracture pattern around the depression amphitheatre and 4) the formation of lithological boundaries,
these favour the capture of propagating sheets due to higher permeability and stoping effect, respectively. For example, a eld analysis conducted along the margins of the sector collapse that affected Ollague
volcano (ChileBolivia border) showed the very high density of fractures formed along the collapse scarps (Figs. 37AB) with respect to
the same lava deposits observed far away from the collapse zone
(Fig. 37C). These fractures may result from brittle deformation during
the sliding of the collapse blocks, as well as from debuttressing effect
due to rock mass removal. Preferential dyke intrusions along fractures
parallel to collapse scarps have been observed also at Piton de la
Fournaise (Reunion Island) by Letourneur et al. (2008). Once the
amphitheatre depression created by a sector collapse is inlled by successive volcano growth, a major lithological boundary may form at the
interface between the pre- and post-collapse deposits. In the case of a
strong difference in rock stiffness at this interface, an ascending dyke
can be diverted and become parallel to the lithological/mechanical
boundary.
In the case of elongated volcanoes, topography can also play a fundamental role. In very large volcanoes like at the Hawaiian islands, it has
been proposed that gravity forces can control the orientation of rectilinear dyke swarms that tend to be parallel to the volcano major axis (Fiske
and Jackson, 1972), once space for dyking is provided by slip of the volcano ank along deep faults (Dieterich, 1988). At some elongated volcanoes, anyway, the dyke pattern is represented by a central rectilinear
volcanic rift zone passing outwards into fan-shaped dyke systems at
the two opposite volcano anks (Fig. 36, bottom part), dened as diverging volcano-tectonic rifts (Tibaldi et al., 2014). In their pioneering
analogue experiments, Fiske and Jackson (1972) suggested that this geometry might be linked to the elongated shape of a volcano. Betterscaled models and eld data recently suggested that the formation of
these diverging rifts is not specically linked to substrate lithology and
mechanical behaviour. Volcanoes with diverging rifts have typical elongation (major/minor axis) b 0.88 and V N 10 km3 (mostly N300 km3),
and the central rift zone is normal to the regional Hmin (Tibaldi et al.,
2014). If the regional Hmin is oblique to the volcano elongation axis,
dyke geometry in the edice axial zone is controlled by elongation
and thus by local gravity 3, but dyke strike becomes perpendicular to
Hmin when dykes intrude the more external areas of the volcano. If a
dyke is injected under volcano anks with slope inclination b 50, at
the edice terminations magma paths diverge outwards and crosscut
slopes at high angle (Fig. 36). These authors point out the diverging volcanic rift system is an underestimated structural pattern that can be
more common than previously recognised. For example at Mt Etna the
diverging rift system is superimposed on other dyke patterns, like
the West rift, lying above hidden faults (Mattia et al., 2007) and the
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Fig. 35. Results of nite difference numerical modelling by FLAC of the state of stress within the Stromboli volcano before the rst huge sector collapse towards NW and after the failure,
computed along a NW-striking section. On the left, the sections show the complete pre- and post-collapse stress congurations (upper and lower sections respectively), in terms of both
vertical stress contours and principal stress tensors (negative values indicate compression). A strong reorganisation in the stress distribution occurs, in terms of both magnitude and orientation. The right sections at a closer view show the marked reorientation of the stress tensors close to the collapse scarps, with the minimum compressive stress normal to the collapse
surface. This local conguration favours the intrusion of dykes parallel to the collapse scarps and dipping at high angles towards the depression, consistent also with eld evidence.
Modied after Tibaldi et al. (2008b).
Fig. 36. Sketch of the main congurations of intrusive sheets at volcanoes under the inuence of topography and indication of the stress eld guiding the geometry of magma paths. Upper
part of the gure: circular intact cone; middle part: circular cone with a sector collapse depression; lower part: elongated volcano.
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Fig. 37. Photos taken at the Ollague volcano (ChileBolivia border). A. Field view of the depression left by the Holocene sector collapse; B. photo taken close to the collapse scarp showing
the pervasive fracturing of the lava ows; C. photo of the same lava ows taken far away from the collapse depression.
The experiments of Tibaldi et al. (2014) also suggest that in the case
of steep slopes, the topography of a volcano exerts a dominant control
on magma path orientation, determining sheet rotation until they
become parallel to the local edice slope. The steep slope actually represents a debuttressing that produces a local 3 oriented perpendicularly to
the topography. Regarding the threshold value of slope steepness, these
experiments show that when sheets approach a slope dipping at 35,
they propagate perpendicularly to the slope. This has been observed
also with slopes as steep as 45 by Walter and Troll (2003). Hence, the
transition to slope-parallel sheets may occur with a slope angle N 45
50, but more research is needed to better constrain this value.
Walter et al. (2006) investigated the geometry of shallow magma
paths related to the deformation of large volcanic edices built by the
coalescence of adjacent cones, by reproducing the spreading of an edice composed of overlapping volcanoes. Their results suggest that
spreading edices of similar age that partially overlap tend to develop
a rift zone approximately perpendicular to the boundary of both volcanoes, and this causes the two edices to grow together and develop an
elongated topographic ridge. However, in the case of partially overlapping volcanoes of different ages that spread at different rates, the
resulting rift will be parallel to their boundary, causing the two edices
to structurally separate from each other.
Regarding general topographic effects, Gaffney and Damjanac
(2006) suggested that magma uprising along a fracture that runs from
a highland to an adjacent lowland, can be diverted away from the highland towards the lowland. This is in line with the results of Kervyn et al.
Fig. 38. Models of deformation of the surface topography above a shallow propagating dyke tip: A. uplift zones on each side of the dyke tip and no uplift above the dyke tip with propagation of normal faults and ssures at the surface. B. Uplift of the zone above the dyke tip with propagation of reverse faults and ssures at the surface (Gudmundsson et al., 2008). C. Photo
and D. sketch of the dramatic effects caused by the very shallow intrusion of a dyke in northern Iceland during the Kraa res of 19751984.
A. Modied after Mastin and Pollard (1988).
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Fig. 39. Existing models of saucer-shaped sill and laccolith emplacement mechanisms:
A. sill emplacement controlled at the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB): Sills are fed laterally
from one part of the outer sill; B. sill emplacement along horizontal discontinuity: Sills are
fed radially from the central inner sill. C. Gilbert's (1877) model for laccolith intrusion with
rigid strata and faulted periphery. D. Laccolith with continuous exure of overburden strata. E. Model of symmetric laccolith-induced deformation about intrusive plane. F. Mixed
exure-fault deformation at a laccolith periphery, inclined sheet climbing may initiate at
forced fold hinges or at a fault.
A. Modied after Bradley (1965) and Francis, 1982. B. Modied after Malthe-Srenssen
et al. (2004). D. Modied after Koch et al. (1981). E. Modied after Koch et al. (1981).
F. Modied after Thomson (2007).
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20 km intruded at a depth of 1418 km and produced about 6 cm of uplift of an elliptical area in plan view with an axis of more than 20 km
(Fig. 40C) (Wicks et al., 2006). The modelling of interferometry and
GPS data suggests the presence of a sill gently dipping towards NNW
that explains the asymmetric shape in plan view (Fig. 40D). Anyway,
also in this case prudence should be used since, based on eld examples
elsewhere, the large dimension of the sill in the horizontal plane does
not t with the very small uplift.
8. Plumbing systems at calderas
The plumbing systems at calderas are here reviewed separately due
to the complex structure of calderas and their marked morphological,
structural and dynamic differences in comparison to intact volcanic
cones. Several studies have focused on calderas all over the world, and
a good number of review papers have been recently published dealing
with: the structure of the caldera (Cole et al., 2005; Acocella, 2007),
the tectonic settings (Hughes and Mahood, 2011), the petrographic
characteristics of the caldera magma reservoir (Cashman and
Giordano, 2014), the characteristics of the ring faults (Geyer and
Mart, 2014), and caldera subsidence in the specic extensional tectonic
setting (Carlino et al., 2014). Here I focus on the geometry of intrusions
at calderas.
Calderas can be essentially associated with basaltic, peralkaline, andesiticdacitic and rhyolitic magmas. Basaltic calderas are linked to
shield volcanoes such as those at hotspots (e.g.: Hawaii and Galpagos
islands) (Simkin and Howard, 1970; Decker, 1987), or in other settings
such as convergent margins (e.g. Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua,
Williams and Stoiber, 1983). Peralkaline calderas are typically associated with zones of rifting (Cole et al., 2005) like at Pantelleria (Mahood,
and Hildreth, 1986) and Mayor Island, New Zealand (Cole, 1990). Andesiticdacitic calderas are mostly related to subduction zones like in
the case of Krakatau, Indonesia (Self and Rampino, 1981), and Santorini,
Greece (Druitt et al., 1999). Rhyolitic calderas are characterised by huge
volumes of erupted pyroclastic products and usually large collapse depressions. Examples comprise the Valles caldera, New Mexico, USA
(Smith and Bailey, 1968), the Cerro Galan, Argentina (Francis et al.,
1978), and the Campi Flegrei, Italy (Barberi et al., 1991).
A caldera forms mainly after a sufcient amount of magma has been
withdrawn during an eruption, and the consequent underpressure in
the magma chamber causes its roof to collapse (Lipman, 1997). Another
possibility is that overpressure within the magma chamber induces rst
doming and fracturing of the overburden, followed by magma migration and caldera collapse (Gudmundsson et al., 1997). Although the
rst model has been applied to several cases, it has also been criticised
in view of the fact that the underpressure in the magma chamber should
hinder the continuation of the eruption until the critical value to trigger
the collapse has been reached; another factor is the inconsistency, at
some calderas, between the volume of erupted material and the collapse volume, and the contradiction between the dip direction of the
theoretical caldera faults in comparison to eld data (Gudmundsson
and Nilsen, 2006).
From the point of view of the possible structure of a caldera, this may
result from different evolutionary processes that involve single or multiple collapses, each with possible different geometries, and also possible phases of resurgence. A categorisation was attempted by Lipman
(1997) who suggested ve end-member structural styles: Plate or piston, piecemeal, trapdoor, downsag and funnel (Fig. 41). Plate/piston collapse involves the subsidence of a coherent block of rock along a ring
fault (Fig. 41A), like at Creede caldera (Steven and Lipman, 1976). The
piecemeal case refers to a caldera where the collapsing block is
subdivided into a series of discrete secondary blocks (Fig. 41B) such as
the Scafell caldera, U.K. (Branney and Kokelaar, 1994). The trapdoor
style corresponds to an asymmetric collapse with block subsidence on
one side where a ring fault develops, and tilting on the hinged other
side (Fig. 41 C). Examples of the above are the Valles caldera, U.S.
121
Fig. 40. A. Interferometric fringes of the deformation eld from 06/09/1992 to 15/08/1995 that accompanied the 1994 unrest episode at Eyjafjallajokull volcano (Iceland) in the line of sight
direction of the Radar satellite, and B. articial fringes obtained by modelling a sill source, about 0.36-m-thick intruded at a depth of 4.56.0 km. C. Interferometric fringes of the deformation eld at Yellowstone caldera (USA) from the summer of 1996 to the summer of 2000 characterised by an expanding sill, and D. result of modelling of the source as a sill gently dipping
towards NNW.
B. Modied after Pedersen and Sigmundsson (2004). D. Modied after Wicks et al. (2006).
the caldera oor dips gently towards the collapse centre. Bolsena
(Italy) is an example of a downsag caldera (Walker, 1984), as well as
the Gross Brukkaros system in Namibia (Stachel et al., 1994). Funnel calderas occur through the complete destruction of the caldera oor that is
Fig. 41. Different styles of caldera collapse. (A) Plate or piston, (B) piecemeal, (C) trapdoor, (D) downsag, (E) funnel with complete destruction, and (F) funnel with concentric ring faults.
See text for details.
Redrawn after Lipman (1997).
122
Fig. 42. Relations between the size of magma chamber and of caldera. (A) In the case of caldera forming by overpressure, an expanding chamber with a sill-like shape (lower high/width
ratio) may induce steeply-dipping ring faults at the chamber edges that will guide the caldera collapse. The caldera and magma chamber size should correspond. (B) A laccolith-like shape
(higher H/W) can favour the nucleation of shear stress in correspondence of specic points of maximum curvature, inducing the development of ring faults. (C) An overpressurised magma
chamber with a laccolith-like shape may also produce arching of the overburden with development of local extension at the extrados and caldera occurrence. In cases (B) and (C) the
caldera width is much lower than the magma chamber size.
Redrawn after Aizawa et al. (2006).
Fig. 43. (A) Crater Lake caldera and (B) related model of magma propagation from the growing chamber through a series of steeply-dipping dykes diverging upward from the sides of the
magma chamber. (C) Toba caldera (northern Sumatra) and (D) related model of stacked sills linked by vertical dykes, superimposed on the distribution of the horizontally polarised shear
wave speed (shown above 20 km in depth), dashed line = the low-velocity area below the caldera that might have been affected by the super-eruption of 74 ka ago.
A. and B. After Karlstrom et al. (2015). C. and D. After Jaxybulatov et al. (2014).
broken into series of blocks that chaotically subside deeper towards the
collapse centre (Fig. 41E), or by blocks that are displaced downward
along concentric ring faults that become deeper towards the zone of
deepest collapse (Fig. 41F). An example of the latter type is the Guayabo
Caldera, Costa Rica (Halinan, 1993).
Although several publications have been dedicated to the study of
the structure and dynamics of calderas, a lot of work is still required to
clarify the geometry of their plumbing system. The necessity of further
investigations on the structure of sub-caldera magmatic systems is
even more important if we take into consideration the possible connection between location, dimension and shape of a magma chamber and
the related caldera; it has been shown that in the case of caldera forming
by underpressure of the magma chamber, the width of the caldera depression is similar to the diameter of the underlying chamber (Aizawa
et al., 2006 and references therein). In the case of caldera forming by
overpressure, an expanding chamber with a sill-like shape, i.e. with a
lower high/width (H/W) ratio, may induce the development of
steeply-dipping ring faults above the chamber edge that will guide the
caldera collapse (Fig. 42A). As a consequence, also in this case the caldera size and magma chamber size should correspond. In the case, instead,
of an overpressurised magma chamber with a laccolith-like shape
(higher H/W), the shape of the roof of the chamber may favour the nucleation of shear stress in correspondence of specic points of maximum curvature, inducing the development of ring faults (Fig. 42B)
(Mandl, 1988). A laccolithic shape of the magma chamber may also result in the arching of the overburden with the development of local extension at the extrados; the combination of this extension with the
upward-directed magma push may lead to the development of a caldera
(Fig. 42C) (Aizawa et al., 2006). In both cases, the caldera width is much
smaller than the magma chamber size.
Field data are scarce in comparison to other plumbing systems and
are mostly collected at eroded ancient calderas, like for example Scafell
(Branney and Kokelaar, 1994; Kokelaar et al., 2007) and Glencoe in the
123
U.K. (Moore and Kokelaar, 1998; Troll et al., 2002), and at younger calderas such as Rallier-du-Baty in Kerguelen Archipelago (Bonin et al.,
2004). At modern calderas, data are mostly of the geophysical and subordinately geological type, like at the Campi Flegrei (Piochi et al., 2014),
Miyakejima (Geshi et al., 2002; Geshi, 2009), Piton de la Fournaise
(Michon et al., 2007), Rabaul (Mori and McKee, 1987), Sierra Negra
(Jnsson, 2009), and Nyamulagira (Wauthier et al., 2013). Based on several eld and geophysical data, the classical model of caldera plumbing
system comprises a magma chamber and a system of transient conduits
that develop during caldera forming. This Standard Model as termed
by Gualda and Ghiorso (2013), is represented by a single, long-lived,
usually horizontally-elongated magma chamber, characterised by dominating melt. This model has been recently applied, for example, to Mt
Mazama (Oregon Cascades, U.S.), a long-lived (400 ka) volcanic centre
whose activity culminated with the 50 km3 climactic eruption of
7.7 ka BP that produced the Crater Lake caldera (Fig. 43A) (Bacon and
Lanphere, 2006; Wright et al., 2012). Based on eld data and numerical
work by Karlstrom et al. (2015), a centralised oblate spheroidal magma
chamber was responsible for the climactic eruption. The chamber
growth, fed by a deep magma inux, culminated in the caldera formation. Based on the distribution in space and time of the eruptive vents
preceding the Crater Lake caldera failure, Karlstrom et al. (2015) propose
that magma propagated from the growing chamber through a series of
steeply-dipping dykes diverging upward from the sides of the magma
chamber (Fig. 43B). This model, more related to silicic magmas, suggests
the focusing of dykes all around the perimetry of a growing magma
chamber, providing a plausible mechanism for clustering of eruptions
around the Mazama centre. The eruptions at the central main volcano
are fed by a vertical dyke that drains the chamber and releases accumulated overpressure; once this central event has taken place, eruptions
could return to proximal areas as the effective chamber volume and related deviatoric stresses are reduced. This model differs from the geometrical distribution of inclined sheets that propagate above a at,
Fig. 44. A. Model proposed for the plumbing system of resurgent calderas where several inclined sheets propagated upward from the magma chamber, and most became arrested at layer
contacts with contrasting mechanical properties. A number of inclined sheets intersected the ring faults that have been previously developed during the caldera collapse, and became
deected up along the fault to form multiple ring dykes. (B) Model of ring dykes directly linked with the underlying magma chamber.
A. After Browning and Gudmundsson (2015). B. After Saunders (2005).
124
Fig. 45. Sketch in section view of possible intrusive histories found in the western Peninsular Ranges Batholith (Mexico and U.S.) by Johnson et al. (2002). In the rst stage (A), a
set of conical fractures (black lines) above a rising magma chamber develops, with the
possible emplacement of cone sheets (red lines). In the successive stage (B), the collapse
of a caldera along ring-faults is followed by intrusion of ring dykes and volcanism. In
(C) a nested intrusion develops with possible further cone sheets. (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
125
Fig. 46. A. Distribution of silicic volcanic domes, basaltic cinder cones and normal faults at the Los Azufres caldera complex (central Mexican Volcanic Belt), suggesting the control of regional tectonics across the caldera depression. (B) The different cases of distribution of volcanoes with respect to a caldera give clues to the possible patterns of shallow magma plumbing
systems. See main text for details.
A. Redrawn after Ferrari et al. (1991). B. Taken from Walker (1984) and Geyer and Mart (2008).
striking EW to WSWENE, whereas the oldest deposits are also affected by a series of slip planes of different orientations that should represent segments of caldera ring faults. Some of the EW to WSWENE
faults show a very subordinate left-lateral strike-slip component, a geometry and kinematics consistent with the regional tectonics (Ferrari
et al., 1991). The distribution of vents and other data indicates that the
Los Azufres caldera complex was affected by post-caldera volcanism
with centres located both along the caldera rim and along regional faults
crossing the caldera depression (Fig. 46A). This interaction favoured the
presence of silicic centres in the middle of the caldera depression and
along the ring faults, whereas the new basaltic magmas within the caldera were guided by regional faults. As a consequence, the plumbing
system in this example should be represented by silicic dykes emplaced
along ring faults and regional faults, with the possibility that these dykes
126
are vertically connected with the felsic magma chamber, or might represent captured inclined sheets.
Regional tectonics can also have an inuence on the development of
ring dykes. As shown by numerical simulations of Walter (2008), an intruding ring-dyke may follow pre-existing faults and thus abruptly stop
or change its direction. This is the case of the Erongo complex (Namibia),
where a ring dyke formed only to the northwest of a SWNE-striking regional fault passing through the caldera (Wigand et al., 2004).
The Los Azufres example is also consistent with other cases suggesting that calderas are long-lasting volcanic complexes whose activity in
most cases does not end after caldera collapse: in fact, resurgence can
take place and/or volcanism can resume, guided by the development
of a plumbing system that can be different from the one that led to
the caldera-forming event. Geyer and Mart (2008), also integrating
data from Walker (1984), reviewed the distribution of post-caldera
vents at more than 160 Quaternary calderas in different geodynamic
settings, providing clues to the possible patterns of magma uprising.
They proposed nine categories of distribution of post-caldera volcanic
activity (surface distribution of vents in Fig. 46B). Assuming that the
shallow geometry of the plumbing system was mirrored by the different
distributions of volcanic centres, I suggest different magma paths in the
various cases (magma feeding systems in Fig. 46B): a single large or
small volcano can be located in different positions in the caldera, corresponding to single main conduits (cases 14). Vents along the ring faults
may be linked to ring dykes (case 5), as took place for example at the
20 30 km wide Tondano caldera (Indonesia) in 1952 and 1971
where ring-dyke intrusions and eruptive activity occurred at two or
more ring vents (Lecuyer et al., 1997). A circular or elliptical distribution
of vents outside the caldera suggests the existence of inclined cone
sheets (case 6). A dened straight line of vents across the caldera suggests a rectilinear dyke zone (case 7) or the control of regional faults
(case 8), as at the above-mentioned Los Azufres caldera, and at the
Rabaul caldera (Papua New Guinea) where eruptive activity simultaneously occurred at opposite sides in 1878 and 1937 (Mori and
McKee, 1987; Nairn et al., 1995). Finally, distributed vents inside the caldera may suggest conduits and dykes of different geometries linked to a
highly-fractured caldera block (case 9), as for example at the resurgent
Ischia Island caldera (Italy) (Tibaldi and Vezzoli, 1998).
9. Conclusions
The data presented in this work indicate that several parameters can
inuence the structure of a magma plumbing system. The classical
models of plumbing systems characterised by upward propagation of
magma by buoyancy forces have been questioned by more recent ndings that indicate magma overpressure as the main engine. The stress
eld induced by local magma pressure sources, in turn, interacts with
the rheological boundaries represented by rock layers with large differences in stiffness, and with physical discontinuities such as bedding,
joints and faults. This interaction may occur at any depth, as suggested
for example by magma sources in the substratum that are in an offset
position from the volcano. This is reected also in the available most
complete images of plumbing systems, as for example at Hawaii and
Mt Etna, which show complex arrays of vertical dykes, inclined sheets
and sills. Local isotropic stresses or time-frequent rotations of stress tensors might lead to intricate assemblages of intrusions of various geometries, as for example below Mt Redoubt volcano.
Most eld and geophysical recent research indicates not only that
magma moves along planar sheets and that circular/elliptical conduits
(in section view) are extremely rare, but there is increasing evidence
that also laccoliths and magma chambers are composed by stacked
planar sill intrusions. Similarly, vertical sheeted intrusions may characterise larger plutonic bodies. Sheets propagate by self-induced
hydrofracturing or by using pre-existent weakness planes, if these are
suitably oriented with respect to the stress eld. Most eld evidences
indicate that hydrofractures are primarily extension fractures whose
propagation can be modelled as mode I cracks, although eld observations also indicate that, in a much lower number of cases, magma overpressure may induce shear faults along which magma intrusion can take
place. These ndings open questions about the kinematics, geometry
and propagation modes of intrusive fractures; we have to admit that uncertainty still exists about the factors that control the different modes of
growth of small magma chambers vs. large igneous bodies. Further
studies, which may couple eld data and modelling, are required, especially integrated with a more in depth analysis of the inuence of the
rates of magma transport and accumulation in relation to diverse tectonic settings and fracture propagation at different depths. Moreover,
diapiric ascent is still recognised especially for granitic bodies, and
thus it is debatable how the deep distributed source region of meltlled pores is linked to the shallow sheeted plumbing system.
The presence of a shallow magma chamber is a prime candidate to
control the geometry of the sheets that typically display a circumferential pattern in plan view above the chamber, giving rise to centrallyinclined sheet swarms. Their arrangement is dictated by the presence of
an oblique stress tensor (Fig. 47, upper apex of the triangle). The local
oblique orientation of the 1 is a function of the shape and overpressure
of the chamber. The consequent 1 trajectories condition the arrangement of the intrusions that can range from radially-inclined sheets
(in vertical section view) diverging from a spherical chamber, to
centrally-inclined sheets with similar dip angle in the case of lobate
magma chambers. Above the central part of the chamber there is the
greatest chance to have subvertical to vertical conduits that drain
magma towards the axis of the volcano. This chance is increased by
the presence of a horizontal 3 below the volcano axis (Fig. 47, right
apex of the triangle) that can be induced by regional extensional tectonics or local deformation, for example due to volcano spreading (Borgia,
1994; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997). With increasing distance
from the magma chamber, the effects of magma overpressure decrease
and the intrusive sheets can change their attitude from inclined sheets
to vertical dykes laterally with respect to the chamber. These dykes
can be parallel to each other, hence forming a swarm perpendicular to
the regional 3, or can assume a radial pattern if the inuence of regional
tectonics is poor. Above the magma chamber, inclined sheets and dykes
can bend into a sill-like attitude following a re-orientation of the stress
tensor (Fig. 47, left apex of the triangle). This can be caused by several
situations that involve the presence of stress barriers and major mechanical contrasts between different lithotypes (Menand, 2011).
Centrally-inclined sheet swarms are more widespread at mac
magma chambers, but have been also found at felsic bodies. Magma migration along sills and inclined sheets may occur at different scales,
going from tens of metres to tens of kilometres, with the potential of
producing eruptions in unexpected locations. Analysis of the literature
shows a great amount of works that use numerical or analogue modelling approaches to unravel these processes, but there is a comparative
lack of eld data. For example, only seventeen eld-based studies of
centrally-inclined sheet swarms are sufciently detailed to obtain quantitative data. Anchoring the results of modelling to quantitative ground
truth is fundamental to establish the thresholds of zones of inuence of
tectonic stresses versus other stress sources, and this might denitively
benet from investigations at eroded volcanic centres and exhumed
plumbing systems. Besides, large eld data sets should be integrated
in a more interdisciplinary way with geophysical and petro-chemical
data.
At shallower crustal levels, there may be a strong interference between tectonic stresses, the stresses related to volcano topography,
and the stresses exerted by magma overpressure. The tectonic stress
eld may affect both plumbing systems within volcanoes and below
them; if extensional stresses dominate, a rectilinear volcano-tectonic
rift zone can guide magma upwelling below the volcano as well as
across the cone with the injection of a swarm of parallel dykes (lower
left part of the graph of Fig. 48). In the case of a transcurrent regime,
dykes can follow the main strike-slip fault zone and/or secondary
127
Fig. 47. Graph that summarises some of the main parameters that inuence the upper part of a magma plumbing system. The apexes of the triangle are located in correspondence of stress
tensors with different orientations: the upper apex has oblique 1, 2 and 3; under this stress eld centrally-inclined sheets are favoured. The local oblique orientation of the 1 is a function of the shape and overpressure of the chamber. The consequent 1 trajectories condition the arrangement of the intrusions that can range from centrally-inclined sheets diverging from
a spherical chamber to centrally-inclined sheets with similar dip angle in the case of lobate magma chambers. With increasing distance form the magma chamber, or under an increasing
effect of 3, dykes dominate as in the right apex of the triangle where 2 and 3 are horizontal. Above the magma chamber, inclined sheets and dykes can bend to reach a sill attitude following a re-orientation of the stress tensor that locally has horizontal 1 and 2, as in the left apex of the triangle.
Fig. 48. Scheme of the most frequent sheet geometries as resulting from the interference
between different tectonic stress elds (stress tensors at Y axis) and the distribution of
the stresses related to topography (increasing inuence towards the right side of the
graph). The debuttressing effect of topography is larger at b0.5 km from the volcano
slope and for slopes steeper than 4050; in these cases sheets might reach an attitude
parallel to the slope.
Fig. 48), as can be inferred from the Mt Etna and Stromboli data. For
slopes steeper than 4050, sheets may assume an attitude parallel to
the slope.
Based on the available literature, it appears that much more studies
are required to elucidate the characteristics of magma feeding systems
in contractional tectonic settings, especially with an interdisciplinary
approach. Similarly, the effects of slopes on the trajectories of magma
paths need further studies based on eld data integrated with numerical and analogue modelling. Since eroded calderas are not very frequent
on Earth, the scarcity of eld data on the structure of their plumbing systems is even more noticeable.
In conclusion, the data illustrated in the present work indicate that
several parameters can inuence the structure and location of a
magma plumbing system, and that it is extremely difcult, if not impossible, to assign a given model to a volcano without a detailed complete
knowledge of its geological, structural, petro-geochemical and geomorphological characteristics. The ultimate magma path is governed by the
inner volcano structure, and by the stress eld in the host rock existing
prior to sheet emplacement and by changes in the stress eld induced
by the emplacement itself. As the assessment of the possible magma
paths leading to a new eruptive centre is one of the main goals of volcanic hazard studies, it is very important to better understand how far a
stress eld can be perturbed by the emplacement of previous sheets,
and why and when sheet propagation might be deviated or halted.
These questions should be better addressed by an integrated approach
that may combine natural examples with experimental works, and by
increasing the data sets on the distribution of mechanic properties inside volcanoes and of the active stress eld in the substrate and within
a volcanic edice. This knowledge can be achieved especially by desirable further geological and geophysical exploration and in-situ stress
measurements and observations that, coupled with numerical modelling and instrument monitoring of a volcano, can lead to a better understanding of these processes.
128
Acknowledgements
I thank the Editors Lionel Wilson and Joan Mart and the Managing
Editor Timothy Horscroft for requesting me to write this review, after
an invited talk I gave at the 2014 EGU Meeting in Vienna. My research
contribution to this review benetted from extensive eld work with
several colleagues, to mention Giorgio Pasquar, Alberto Renzulli,
Derek Rust, Federico Pasquar Mariotto, Claudia Corazzato, Fabio Bonali,
and many others. The research was carried out in the framework
of MIUR, FIRB, INGV and NATO projects, and under the aegis of the
International Lithosphere Program, Task Force II. F. Jim Cole and Agust
Gudmundsson are acknowledged for their useful comments on an earlier version of this paper. Pasquar Mariotto is also acknowledged for his
review of the English grammar.
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