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Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 811815

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Personality and Individual Differences


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Role of perfectionism and Five-Factor model traits in career indecision


Jennifer Page, Monroe A. Bruch, Richard F. Haase *
University of Albany, State University of New York, Division of Counseling Psychology, ED 220, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 14 April 2008
Received in revised form 13 August 2008
Accepted 19 August 2008
Available online 27 September 2008
Keywords:
Perfectionism
Five-Factor model of personality
Career indecision
Vocational development theory

a b s t r a c t
Although perfectionism has been linked to a variety of mental health problems, the relevance of perfectionism in other life domains is just beginning to receive attention. Given the evidence that personality
plays an important role in career choice and adjustment, the present study evaluated whether aspects of
perfectionism make any unique contribution to the prediction of career indecision beyond certain traits
of the Five-Factor model that may also be related to career indecision. Results showed that both maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism accounted for unique variance in career decision-making self-efcacy
beyond variance predicted by neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness. In contrast,
only maladaptive perfectionism accounted for unique variance in certainty of career commitment beyond
variance predicted by neuroticism and conscientiousness. Results are discussed in terms of perfectionism,
the role of personality in career indecision, and implications for career counseling.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Although theoretical models have conceptualized perfectionism
as having various dimensions, factor analytic studies have consistently found that the item content of measures is dened by just
two factors (e.g., Bieling, Israeli, & Antony, 2004). The rst factor,
maladaptive perfectionism (MP), reects doubts and concerns
about ones decisions and the perception that others hold unreasonable expectations for ones performance. The second factor,
adaptive perfectionism (AP), reects adherence to a set of standards regarding ones level of achievement in various life domains.
Research has shown that MP is linked to a number of mental health
problems, while AP is related to effective coping and positive affect
(e.g., Dibartolo, Li, & Frost, 2008).
Although MP and AP are associated with indices of psychopathology and adjustment, respectively, there has been little examination of the potential relevance of perfectionism for other life
domains. However, recent research in vocational and industrial/
organizational psychology has begun to reexamine the role of personality in understanding individual differences in unsuccessful
career choice (e.g., Mount & Barrick, 1995; Tokar, Fisher, & Subich,
1998). Problems in career decision-making and commitment, or
career indecision, consist of difculties in acquiring occupational
information, in identifying and evaluating alternative career options, and in selecting and committing to a single alternative. To
the extent that certain personality traits facilitate or inhibit a persons engaging in successful career decision-making and commit-

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 5184425046.


E-mail address: rfhremote@aol.com (R.F. Haase).
0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.013

ment, then identication of personality characteristics that play a


critical role is important.
Although there has been some research on the role of neuroticism in career indecision (e.g., Slaney, 1988) not until recently
has there been a comprehensive model of personality to guide
researchers on the possible role of personality in the development
of career interests and career decision-making skills. The Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Piedmont,
1998) offers an empirically validated, taxonomic model of the
structure and nature of personality traits. One advantage in using
the FFM in studying personality and career indecision is that it offers a comprehensive description of personality from which
hypotheses can be generated regarding the relevance of particular
traits for career indecision.
The purpose of the present study was to assess the unique role
of particular FFM traits plus MP and AP in predicting career indecision. Although previous research in career indecision has assessed
the role of some variables reecting neuroticism (including perfectionism), this research has examined neuroticism in isolation from
other FFM traits and without separating perfectionism into its two
components. For instance, Leong and Chervinko (1996) found that
measures of anxiety, self-consciousness, and perfectionism were
inversely related to career decision-making self-efcacy. However,
when aspects of neuroticism are tested outside of the full FFM, it is
difcult to determine whether neuroticism should be given greater
or lesser weight in predicting career indecision than other potentially relevant traits such as extraversion and conscientiousness.
Also, if MP, for example, is a possible facet of neuroticism, then it
is essential that its potential contribution in predicting career indecision be tested after rst accounting for variance due to the higher
order trait of neuroticism. Such an analysis would help determine

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J. Page et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 811815

whether the more specic trait of MP has relevance for problems of


career indecision beyond that explained by the general trait of
neuroticism.
Two variables were chosen to evaluate career indecision. The
rst variable was career decision-making self-efcacy (CDMSE)
which involves the possession of self-efcacy beliefs regarding
ones own decision-making competencies for such tasks as accurate self-appraisal, gathering occupational information, goal
selection, and planning how to implement ones career goals
(Hackett & Betz, 1981). The second variable was certainty of career commitment which is dened as a persons willingness to
maintain their occupational preference in the face of obstacles,
the belief that ones preference will be achieved, and forming a
cognitive and emotional attachment to ones preference (Jordaan,
1983).
The rst purpose of this study was to examine the unique relationships between certain FFM traits and the two indices of career
indecision. Theoretical denitions derived from Piedmont (1998)
were used to generate predictions of the relevance of each factor
to each career indecision variable. For neuroticism (N), it was predicted that N would be inversely related with CDMSE because the
negative emotions and feelings of vulnerability indicative of N
should be related to the belief that one is less capable of performing the tasks that are necessary for successful career decision-making. Likewise, it was predicted that N would be inversely related
with certainty of career commitment because greater negative affect and feelings of vulnerability should undermine a persons certainty about the appropriateness and the likelihood that they
would achieve their career goal.
For extraversion (E), it was predicted that E would be positively
related to CDMSE because the social poise and positive feelings reected in this characteristic should increase the persons tendency
to complete the tasks necessary for successful career decisionmaking. Likewise, it was predicted that E would be positively related with certainty of career commitment because an extravert
is more likely to evaluate situations in an optimistic fashion thereby increasing a persons certainty that they would achieve their career goal. For openness (O), no unique relationship was predicted
between O and CDMSE. Reed, Bruch, and Haase (2004) found that
O was either unrelated or inversely related with engaging in some
specic occupational exploration tasks (e.g., gathering occupational information). This nding suggests that people higher in
openness may view some job exploration tasks as uninteresting
compared to seeking a variety of experiences for their own sake.
Consequently, because of mixed evidence no relationship was expected between O and CDMSE. In contrast, an inverse relationship
was predicted between O and certainty of career commitment because there is evidence that more open people tend to have a
greater number and variety of career interests (Tokar et al,
1998). Given the greater amount and diversity of their interests,
it was expected that open people would have more difculty making a commitment to a particular vocational preference.
For conscientiousness (C), it was predicted that C would be positively related with CDMSE because greater competence, organization, dutifulness, and achievement striving are requisite
characteristics that insure the completion of exploration tasks
which in turn should lead to stronger self-efcacy beliefs about
ones decision-making abilities. In addition, it was predicted that
C would be related to certainty of career commitment because
the more deliberate, organized, and highly disciplined manner of
the conscientious person should enhance this persons condence
that they have selected an appropriate career alternative that is
attainable.
Agreeableness (A), the fth and nal FFM trait, pertains to interpersonal tendencies such as altruism, trust, modesty, and sympathy for others. We did not predict any relationship between A

and the two indices of career indecision because there appears to


be no theoretical or empirical basis for such linkages.
The second purpose of this study was to test whether MP and
AP possessed incremental validity beyond the FFM traits in predicting career indecision. Based on Hill, McIntire, and Bacharach
(1997), it was assumed that MP is most closely related with N
while AP is most closely related with C. It was predicted that MP
would have an inverse relationship with CDMSE because concern
over making mistakes and doubts about ones past actions should
be associated with lower self-efcacy regarding ones ability to
successfully negotiate the career decision-making process. Also, it
was predicted that MP would be inversely related with certainty
of career commitment because concerns about making mistakes
and the perception that other people hold unreasonable expectations about making the correct choice, may result in the person
remaining tentative and unattached to a particular career
preference.
It was predicted that AP would be positively related with
CDMSE because the tendency to adhere to a set of self-standards
should facilitate successful completion of various career exploration tasks that in turn contribute to a greater sense of self-efcacy
when engaging in the career decision-making process. Likewise, for
certainty in career commitment, it was predicted that AP would be
related to greater certainty because possession of a set of self-standards reects the development of a persons unique identity which
should enable the individual to better recognize the appropriateness of a particular career alternative for him or herself.

2. Method
2.1. Participants
The sample consisted of 212 undergraduates (119 women) who
volunteered for a study involving career decision-making and received a $5 remuneration. Participants had a mean age of 21.2
years (SD = 3.56), and 1% were freshmen, 9% were sophomores,
34% were juniors, and 56% were seniors. Among the participants,
43% were Caucasian, 22.6% were African American, 12.3% were Hispanic, 18.4% were Asian, and 2.8% classied themselves as of mixed
racial background.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Five-Factor traits
The Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991) has
44 items consisting of short phrases based on trait adjectives
known to be indicators of the FFM traits. Respondents rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with each phrase on a scale
ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree strongly).
John (1990) reported coefcient alphas of .84, .88, .81, .79, and
.82, respectively for the N, E, O, A, and C scales and John et al. (1991)
reported three-month testretest reliabilities that ranged from .80
to .90. Validity evidence includes substantial convergent validity
with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (Costa et al., 1992) and convergent validity between the BFI and a peer-rating version of the BFI
(Benet-Martinez and John, 1998). In the present sample, alphas
of .79, .82, .78, .75, and .79, respectively, were found for the N, E,
O, A, and C scales.
2.2.2. Perfectionism
Maladaptive perfectionism (MP) and adaptive perfectionism
(AP) scales were formed from relevant subscales of two existing
measures of perfectionism (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate,
1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Following Dunkley, Blankstein, Halsall,
Williams, and Winkworth (2000), the MP scale consisted of the

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J. Page et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 811815

items from Frost et al.s (1990) concern over mistakes scale and the
doubts about actions scale and the items from Hewitt and Fletts
(1991) socially prescribed perfectionism scale. The AP scale consisted of the items from Frost et al.s (1990) personal standards
scale and the items from Hewitt and Fletts (1991) self-oriented
perfectionism scale. Prior to forming the MP and AP scales, raw
scores on the Frost et al. (1990) and the Hewitt and Flett (1991)
items were converted to standard scores and then summed.
Dunkley et al (2000) report coefcient alphas of .87 for concern
about mistakes, .71 for doubts about actions, .84 for socially prescribed perfectionism, .77 for personnel standards, and .88 for
self-oriented perfectionism. Alphas in the present sample were
.89 for concern about mistakes, .74 for doubts about actions, .81
for socially prescribed perfectionism, .79 for personnel standards,
and .87 for self-oriented perfectionism. Dunkley et al. (2000) provide factor analytic results that support the existence of two
underlying dimensions of MP and AP. Also, they found that MP
was associated with appraising negative events as more stressful
and with greater use of maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., avoidant coping), while AP was associated with greater use of adaptive
coping strategies (e.g., problem-solving coping).
2.2.4. Career decision-making self-efcacy
Betz, Klein, and Taylors (1996) 25-item career decision-making
self-efcacy scaleshort form (CDMSESF) was used to assess participants condence in successfully negotiating tasks considered
essential to effective decision-making. Respondents rate their condence in performing these tasks on a scale where 1 = no condence to 5 = complete condence. The CDMSESF evaluates an
individuals self-efcacy relative to ve career choice competencies
postulated in Crites (1978) model of career maturity (e.g., gathering information, goal selection, etc.).
Betz et al. (1996) report an alpha of .93 for the CDMSESF, and
Nilsson, Schmidt, and Meek (2002) found that the short form and
long form of the CDMSE were comparable in internal consistency
reliability. Coefcient alpha for the present sample was .91. For
validity, Betz et al. (1996) and Betz and Serling (1993) found that
the CDMSESF was inversely related with the Career indecision
scale (Osipow, Carney, & Barak, 1976) and with the identity subscale of my vocational situation scale (Holland, Daiger, & Power,
1980).
2.2.3. Commitment to career choice
Blustein, Ellis, and Devenis (1989) 19-item Vocational Exploration and Commitment (VECS) scale was used to assess progress in
career choice commitment. The VECS items encompass the progression from an uncommitted and exploratory posture, to a state
of provisional decidedness, and ultimately to a highly committed
posture. Participants respond on a scale where 1 = never true
about me to 7 = always true about me with a low score indicating a clear and condent level of commitment.

Blustein et al. (1989) report a coefcient alpha of .92 for the


VECS and four week testretest reliability of .90. Alpha in the present sample was .91. For validity, Blustein et al. (1989) and Blustein,
Walbridge, Friedlander, and Palladino (1991) showed that the
VECS was signicantly related in the expected direction with measures of exploratory activity, career indecision, occupational certainty, and decisional stress.
2.3. Procedure
Participants were administered a questionnaire booklet anonymously using a small group format. The order of the measures was
counterbalanced across the sample to control for potential order
effects. Following completion of the questionnaires, participants
were debriefed about the nature of the study.
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary analyses
Separate one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
tests for age, school year, gender, and ethnicity were calculated
to assess for any relationships between these characteristics and
variables in the study. The MANOVAs for age, school year, and ethnicity were not signicant. For gender there was a signicant Pillais trace of .15 where F (6, 204) = 5.98, p < .0001. Subsequent
univariate tests revealed that the multivariate effect was due solely
to a signicant gender difference on neuroticism where women attained a higher score than men. Consequently gender was not adjusted in the analyses that follow.
Bivariate correlations are presented in Table 1. The correlations
between the BFI scales and the perfectionism measures were consistent with Hill et al.s (1997) ndings regarding the associations
between N, C, MP, and AP. For instance, MP was positively related
to N (i.e., r = .39, p < .01) and inversely related to C (i.e., r = .16,
p < .05), while AP was positively related with C (i.e., r = .37,
p < .01) and unrelated with N (i.e., r = .12). The correlations between the FFM traits, MP, and AP and the career variables show
a number of signicant associations that are consistent with the
theoretical predictions of the study. The magnitude of the correlation between the two career indecision variables (i.e., r = .60,
p < .001) is higher than found in previous research (e.g., r = .44,
p < .001, Chung, 2002).
3.2. Major analyses
Separate hierarchical regression analyses were used to evaluate
the unique contributions of the FFM traits, MP, and AP on each career indecision variable. Regression results are displayed in Table 2.
For CDMSESF, the FFM traits accounted for a signicant amount of
predicted variance (i.e., R2 = .274, p < .00001). Inspection of the

Table 1
Bivariate correlations among the study variables
Variables

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

.28

.04
.22

.32
.05
.12

.24
.21
.06
.28

Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
MP
AP
CDMSESF
VECS

7
.39
.19
.02
.23
.16

.12
.09
.21
.01
.37
.49

9
.28
.32
.19
.19
.43
.32
.17

.33
.23
.04
.17
.50
.35
.02
.60

Mean

SD

22.59
27.30
31.17
34.43
33.17
90.67
120.93
96.19
64.20

6.32
6.11
4.79
6.15
6.09
22.01
21.30
14.36
20.41

MP, maladaptive perfectionism; AP, adaptive perfectionism; CDMSESF, career decision-making self-efcacy short form; VECS, vocational exploration and commitment scale.
r (212) = .14, p = < .05; r (212) = .18, p = < .01.

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J. Page et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 811815

Table 2
Hierarchical regression analyses testing the unique contributions of FFM traits, MP,
and AP to career indecision
Predictor variables

R2

R2 change

Career decision-making self-efcacy


Step 1
.274
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Step 2
.336
MP
AP
Commitment to career choice
Step 1
.301
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Step 2
.338
MP
AP
FFM, Five Factor
perfectionism.

model;

.274
.14
.18
.13
.03
.35

2.10
2.75
2.03
<1
5.43

.03
.03
.04
n.s.
.0001

.36
.24

4.38
2.91

.001
.01

.21
.08
.00
.03
.44

3.15
<1
<1
<1
7.02

.002
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
.0001

.21
.02

2.47
<1

.01
n.s.

.063

.301

.037

MP,

maladaptive

perfectionism;

AP,

adaptive

standardized beta coefcients in the upper half of Table 2 shows


that N, E, O, and C all made unique contributions to the variance
of CDMSESF. As predicted, a greater degree of N was associated
with lower self-efcacy in decision-making, while higher levels
of E, O, and C were all associated with greater efcacy in decision-making.
After accounting for the contributions of the FFM traits, the second step in the hierarchical analysis showed that the two perfectionism variables added a signicant increment in CDMSESF
variance (i.e., R2 change = .063, p < .001). Inspection of the standardized beta coefcients and their associated t-tests for MP and
AP indicates that both variables make unique contributions to
the predicted variance. As hypothesized, MP was associated with
less self-efcacy in career decision-making, while AP was associated with greater self-efcacy in career decision-making.
Results of the regression analysis for the VECS are displayed in
the lower half of Table 2. This output shows that the FFM traits accounted for a signicant amount of predicted variance (i.e.,
R2 = .301, p < .00001). Inspection of the standardized beta coefcients showed that N and C were the only FFM traits that contributed to the variance in VECS. As predicted, N was associated with
making less progress toward committing to a particular career
alternative, while C was associated with greater progress in making
a commitment. Contrary to expectation, neither O nor E made any
unique contribution to the predicted variance in VECS.
The analysis of the VECS also showed that as a set the two perfectionism variables contributed to a signicant increment in predicted variance (i.e., R2 change = .037, p < .001). However, the
standardized beta coefcients and their t-tests revealed that this
increment was due solely to MP. As predicted, MP was associated
with less progress in making a career commitment. However, contrary to prediction, AP made no contribution to making a career
commitment.
4. Discussion
In general the results were consistent with our predictions
about the role of FFM traits and perfectionism in relation to career
indecision. Our rst goal was to assess the relevance of certain FFM
traits relative to the two indices of career indecision. For the

CDMSESF, results were consistent with our predictions that there


would be an inverse relation between N and CDMSESF while there
would be a positive relation between both E and C and CDMSESF.
These relationships indicate that a greater degree of negative affect
and vulnerability to stress is associated with lower self-efcacy
when making decisions regarding career matters. Alternatively,
the greater degree of energy, activity, and positive affect associated
with higher levels of E was related to greater self-efcacy in career
decision-making. Likewise, the self-discipline, organization, and
deliberate thinking style reective of C appear to be associated
with a greater self-efcacy in career decision-making. Contrary to
our prediction of no relationship, O was positively related with
CDMSESF suggesting that a persons tendency to seek intellectual
stimulation and their attentiveness to inner feelings may promote
greater self-efcacy in career decision-making matters.
For the VECS, the results were consistent with our prediction
that N would be inversely related and C would be positively related
with the VECS. It appears that greater negative emotions and feelings of stress are likely to diminish ones certainty about committing to a particular career alternative while being more organized
and deliberate leads to greater certainty of ones commitment.
Contrary to prediction, E and O were not related to the VECS once
the relationship with the other FFM traits was statistically controlled. These results suggest that E and O may not play a direct
role in increasing a persons certainty about committing to a particular alternative. Thus, regardless of a persons standing on E
and O, it may be the individuals degree of emotional stability
(i.e., low N) and self-discipline (i.e., high C) that is most directly
associated with the certainty of his or her career commitment.
The second goal in this study was to assess whether MP and AP,
as possible facets of N and C respectively, would provide incremental validity when predicting career indecision. For the CDMSESF,
the results showed that both MP and AP added signicant increments to the predicted variance beyond the FFM traits of N, E, O
and C. For the VECS, the results showed that only MP added a signicant increment to the predicted variance beyond N and C. The
general pattern of these results supports the notion that perfectionism has a specic relevance for career indecision beyond that
which is accounted for by certain FFM traits, particularly N and C.
It appears that a fear of making mistakes and believing that
other people hold overly demanding expectations (i.e., MP) may relate to both lower self-efcacy in career decision-making and lack
of certainty in committing to a career choice. Thus, beyond the
negative emotions and vulnerability to stress that are assessed
by N, the self-critical tendencies that are captured by MP are also
necessary for understanding the role that personality may play in
career indecision. Also, possessing a set of self-standards appears
to be related to greater career self-efcacy suggesting that having
an internalized set of goals and standards may increase the persons sense of personal identity which is especially relevant for career decision-making (Hackett & Betz, 1981). Identity development
that results from a persons internalized standards may be a more
specic characteristic that is not tapped by the general trait of C.
Thus, in attempting to describe individual differences that are
associated with career indecision, it is not only important to know
a persons status on higher order FFM traits but also their status on
the lower order facets of MP and AP.
Although the results support the relevance of FFM traits and
perfectionism in predicting career indecision, there are a number
of limitations in this research that necessitate caution when drawing conclusions. First, the study was correlational and cross-sectional in nature; thus, it cannot be assumed that the personality
traits had a causal inuence on the career indecision variables. It
is equally possible, for example, that lower self-efcacy in career
decision-making could contribute to a persons self-report of greater N and less E characteristics. Although it is reasonable to assume

J. Page et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 811815

from a developmental perspective that FFM traits are a precursor


to various vocational attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Tokar et al.,
1998), prospective research designs are needed to test the presumed causal role of personality in career indecision.
A second limitation is the homogeneous make-up of the sample
in age, race, educational background, and socioeconomic status.
Most participants were White, upper-middle class, and between
the ages of 1921. Whether the pattern of relationships found between the FFM traits, MP, and AP and career indecision would generalize, for example, to non-college-bound high school students,
returning adult students or students from more ethnically diverse
backgrounds can not be assumed but requires further research.
The present ndings have several implications for professionals
who work with individuals struggling with career exploration and
decision-making. First, assessment of an incoming students status
on the FFM traits and on MP and AP would provide a means of early
identication of those who may procrastinate in selecting an educational major or career eld. These individuals could be monitored for possible career counseling services if they are having
difculties. Second, the ndings might inform counselors as to
the type of intervention that would be most useful for an individuals career decision-making difculties. For someone who is high
to very high in both N and MP, individual therapy along with career
counseling may be necessary to work through long standing emotional instability that could inhibit career decision-making. However, for someone who is average in N and moderately high in
MP, career counseling could initially focus on identifying the selfcritical beliefs held by the student and then use specic techniques
such as cognitive-behavioral strategies to challenge these beliefs.
Although these are only hypothetical scenarios, they serve to illustrate how knowledge of the specic relationships between FFM
traits, perfectionism, and career indecision may enable counselors
to better serve individuals struggling with their vocational
concerns.
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