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www.iflscience.com

 Focus
Brief

on:

discussion of living primates

Long-term

environmental patterns

Overview

of some of the early

primate taxa & evolutionary patterns

Review

of evidence for bipedalism

Overview

of the early hominins

www.neanderthalers.nl

Primates
Primates

are a group of
mammals that includes
monkeys, apes & humans

Atypical

as a group - follow a
generalised form that is not
specialised relative to particular
adaptive strategies
occupy every
environmental niche on the
planet

www.biologycorner.com

Primates

novataxa.blogspot.com

Primates
www.wildchimpanzees.org

Placental

mammals

Characterised

by:

Body

hair

Long

pregnancy, live births

Mammary
Large

glands

brains

Generalised,

differentiated teeth

www.wildchimpanzees.org

 Erect,

generalised skeleton

Prehensile
Five

hands & feet

digits

Opposable

Nails

thumb

www.210countries.com

vs. claws

Binocular

vision

Diurnal

(most)

www.scientificamerican.com

www.factzoo.com

Most

primates are arboreal

All except humans spend at least some time in the trees
6

 Generalised

limb structure = different ways of moving

pixgood.com

www.nhc.ed.ac.uk

Most

are quadrupedal

Vertical

climbing & leaping

Brachiation
www.gibbons.de

Primary Classification of Primates

Kingdom

Animalia (animals)

Sub-Kingdom
Phylum

Metazoans (multi-celled animals)

Chordata (animals with a spinal chord)

Sub-Phylum

Vertebrata (animals with vertebral

column)
Class

Mammalia (mammals)

Sub-Class

Eutheria (placental mammals)

8

 Order

photoity.com

Two

Primates

www.animalphotos.me

www.sodahead.com

suborders

Strepsirhinii:
Haplorhinii:

lemurs (Madagascar), lorises (SE Asia)

tarsiers (SE Asia), monkeys, apes

9

 The

Haplorhini (or dry nosed primates) contains the

Anthropoidea, which can also be further divided
www.studyblue.com

Platyrrhini

(Parvorder) - New
World Monkeys
Central & South America,
prehensile tail, arboreal
www.naturfakta.no

Catarrhini

(Parvorder) - Old
World Monkeys
Africa & SE Asia, non-prehensile
tail, quadrupedal, knuckle
walking, terrestrial & arboreal
10

 Hominoidea

(superfamily) - grouping that emphasises

the close relationship amongst apes & humans

wwf.panda.org

www.zoochat.com

www.reuters.com

Includes

gibbons (lesser apes; family Hylobatidae) + all

living & extinct great apes & humans

Hominidae

(family) - No tails, large bodied, complex

social behavior & cognition, longest maturation
11

 Further

terminology:

Hominids

modern &
extinct great apes
Modern humans,
chimpanzees, gorillas &
orang-utans (plus
immediate ancestors)
- modern
humans, extinct human
species & immediate
ancestors

theadvancedapes.com

Hominins

www.sciencephoto.com

12

Environmental Patterns
Long-term

patterns of climate/environmental change

contextualises the story of primate & human evolution

muzeum.geology.cz

article.wn.com

Paleocene

- cool & dry, becoming warm & humid

towards the Eocene boundary (~60mya)
13

 Oligocene

(~35mya) - first signs of glacial cooling with

the formation of a belt of pack ice around Antarctica

muzeum.geology.cz

www.gbwf.org

Miocene

(~22mya) tropical forests and woodland,

Sahara Desert not yet developed

Mid

Miocene drier, more open habitats started to

spread with dwindling forested areas
14

 ~14-11mya

- major drop in world temperatures, large ice

sheets formed on high ground in low latitudes, spread of
grassland due to drier cooling phase

www.celsias.com

environment.nationalgeographic.com

~3.2mya

large ice sheets formed on the northern

continents
15

 ~2.5mya

as early Homo species appear in tropical Africa,

glaciation intensified, and the earth entered its present
phase of constantly fluctuating climate

Fagan 2009 People of the Earth

Increased

trends in dry, cool conditions with grassland/

savannah expansion due to increased aridity
16

 Changes

culminated during the Quaternary or

Pleistocene, beginning ~1.8mya with the advent of the
Ice Age

hdw.eweb4.com

Dry,

more open habitats and extensive spread of

grasslands across east Africa
17

Primate Evolution Fossil Evidence

Close

relationship between primates (& especially

hominids at behavioural, physical & genetic levels) can
be explained by a common ancestry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution

www.dailymail.co.uk

18

 Primates

likely evolved during the Paleocene (~65 mya) but there is a lack of fossil evidence

Large

numbers of
primate fossils
date to the
Eocene (~55 mya)

Most

common
Eocene mammal
(>200 species)
www.bio.utexas.edu

19

 Early

Anthropoids Emerge in late Eocene EoceneOligocene boundary (~35 mya) - smaller than living
anthropoids (Fayum sequence: Egypt)

www2.cnrs.fr

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptopithecus

Oligocene

(~34-23 mya) - Cooler climate, continental

drift separates Old and New World Monkeys (isolation &
adaptive radiation)
20

 Eosimias

(Anthropoid?)

Genus
First

of early primates

discovered and identified in 1999 China

Dates

www.niu.edu

to 40-45mya (middle Eocene)

blogs.scienceforums.net

www.age-of-the-sage.org

21

 Eosimias

(Anthropoid?)

Skeleton

similar to common ancestor of Haplorrhini

Likely arboreal & insectivore, possibly nocturnal
Represented by unique or fragmentary specimens
one mandible and lower limb bones

www.niu.edu

blogs.scienceforums.net

www.age-of-the-sage.org

22

 Aegyptopithecus
Discovered

in 1965 in Fayum Province, Egypt

Dates

to 35-33mya (Oligocene) heavily vegetated &

subtropical

Basal

Catarrhine species similar to modern howler

monkeys

www.amnh.org

www.factzoo.com

23

 Aegyptopithecus
Likely

arboreal quadruped (based limbs/hand/feet)

Diurnal, probably frugivore (based on dentition)
Sexually dimorphic

primatology.net

www.pnas.org

24

 Apidium

planet.uwc.ac.za

Commonly

occurs in Fayum
Province, Egypt

Dates

to ~35-33mya
(Oligocene)

Closely

tied to Eosimmiidae

Diurnal

& arboreal
quadrupedal & leaping
locomotion

Squirrel-sized;

sexually
dimorphic (teeth)

Herbivores

- frugivorous
faculty.cascadia.edu

25

www.ign.com

Apes

evolved in Africa during the Miocene, sometime

around ~25-23mya following continental separation &
stabilisation

wwf.panda.org

The

Age of Hominoids period of comparatively

warmer climate
26

 Proconsul
Probably

the best known of

the early apes

Eastern

Africa - Kenya &

Uganda (1909)

25-23mya

(Miocene)

Monkey-like;

more complex

www.dinosoria.com

brain
Quadruped;

arboreal climbers
non-suspensory

Herbivores
Sexual

- frugivorous

dimorphism

de.wikipedia.org

27

 Dryopithecus

commons.wikimedia.org

Discovered

in France in 1856 found in Hungary, Spain, &

China

18

to 8mya?? (Miocene)
www.ambientum.com

Suspensory

adaptation
(forelimbs); arboreal &
brachiator

~4

foot tall, more closely

resembles monkey than
modern ape

Herbivores

frugivorous
28

 Dryopithecus
Variability

between Dryopithecus & Sivapithecus insight into hominid origins & phylogenetic divide
between Asian & Afro-European great apes

Dryopithecus

is probably the forebear of African apes

& humans
bookcoverimgs.com

primatology.net

29

forum.zoologist.ru

Sivapithecus
18

to 8mya?? (Miocene)

19thC - India,
Pakistan & Asia

Discovered

Possibly

forebear of orang-

sv.wikipedia.org

utan
Herbivore

(leafy diet)

Mixture

of features
quadrupedal & brachiating

Suggests

that this species may

have been semi-terrestrial at
best
30

 Basic

anatomical pattern of the larger Hominoidea

appeared ~18-12mya

Molecular

evidence suggests divergence between

African great apes & human line ~8mya for gorillas and
~ 6mya for chimpanzees.
31

 Hominin

family tree Ardipithecus group

http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-family-tree

32

 Sahelanthropus

tchadensis

7-6mya

in West-Central
Africa (Chad - 2001)

Combination

of apelike &
humanlike features

Small brain, sloping face,

prominent brow ridges &
elongated skull (similar to
chimpanzee)
Small canine teeth, short midfacial, foramen magnum
further forward than
quadrupedal primates

www.talkorigins.org

smithsonianscience.org

33

 Orrorin

tugenensis

6.2-5.8mya,
13

antropologiayecologiaupel.blogspot.com.es

central Kenya (2001)

fossils from 5 individuals

Size

similar to female chimpanzee

(~30-50kg)

Low

rounded molars & small

canines herbivore

Long,

curved finger bones,

apelike canines & premolars

Femur

similar size to large apes,

angle close to modern humans
www.msu.edu

34

 Ardipithecus

kaddaba

5.8-5.2mya,

Middle Awash,
Ethiopia (1997)

11

specimens, 5 individuals
cienciazion.blogspot.com

Chimpanzee
Fibrous

size

diet

Bipedal

features, mosaic
woodland & grassland

Routinely

upright? evidence from 1 toe bone

http://humanorigins.si.edu

35

 Ardipithecus

ramidus

~4.4mya,

Awash region,
Ethiopia (1994)

www.oocities.org

>100

specimens,
fragmentary remains of
50 individuals

Non-sexually

dimorphic?
120cm

in height; 50kg
in weight

Likely

omnivorous diet
36

 Ardipithecus

ramidus

Combination
Foot

of traits, may be transitional species

bones - divergent large toe combined & rigid

foot
Pelvis

- adaptations to tree-climbing & bipedal activity

www.naturalhistorymag.com

www.sciencemag.org

37

http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-family-tree

38

39

 Three

main models all

environmentally based
Savanna

model

Woodland

mosaic model

Environmental

variability model

Evolution

of bipedalism - no other
primate is habitually bipedal or moves
with a striding gait

imgarcade.com

40

 The

savanna hypothesis

African

forests became sparse & broken up between

~8-5mya

Division

between west African heavy forests east

African open savanna (favored for terrestrial living)

The

woodland-mosaic hypothesis

Mosaic

of woodland/grassland provided early

hominins the opportunity to feed on the ground and
in the trees

Ground

feeding eventually favoring regular bipedal

activity
41

42

 The

variability hypothesis

Early

hominins experienced a
number of environmental
changes & lived in a range of
habitats (forests, open-canopy
woodlands, savannas)

en.wikipedia.org

Populations

became adapted
to a variety of surroundings &
provided versatility

Faunal

evidence from early

hominin sites also suggests a
reasonable degree of habitat
variability

www.allafricatours.net

43

 Process

of becoming upright & moving bipedally was

complex & occurred over a long period (by 4mya)

Early

hominins likely
evolved in densely
wooded environments

Shift

to dry conditions
+ decreasing forest
density & distribution

Reflects

a long-term
adaptive response

aewhominids.blogspot.com

44

 Skeletal

morphology:

Modifications
Rotation
Shorter

to Pelvic Girdle

of orientation

and broader

Supports

weight & organs

Foramen

magnum

S-shaped

spine

Long,

biology.stackexchange.com

angled femurs

Arched

feet, non-prehensile

biology.stackexchange.com

45

1. Chimpanzee

2. Australopithecus africanus

3. Homo erectus

4. Homo sapiens

origins.swau.edu

www.sciencedaily.com

 Main

east African regions

Cradle of Humanity
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Kenya

Chad
South

Africa
Fagan 2009 People of the Earth

47

 Hominin

family tree Australopithecus group

http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-family-tree

48

The Australopithecines

Body size

38 to 5 tall

~120 lbs

Sexual dimorphism

Brain size

Slightly larger than apes

www.columbia.edu

Chimpanzee

Human
www.jqjacobs.net

Expansion - language area

Dentition

Big molars, small canines

Australopithecus
49

 Locomotion
Laetoli

footprints

Arch

(?) & nondivergent toe

Some

carnivoraforum.com

arboreal traits:

Long,
Long

curved toes

pelvis

Strong

hand

Slightly

lurching gait?

www.modernhumanorigins.net
www.tumblr.com

50

 Australopithecus

anamensis

4.2-3.9mya,

Eastern Africa - Lake

Turkana, Kenya & Ethiopia (1995)

Combination

of traits found in
apes & humans

Tibia

& orientation of the ankle

joint indicate regular bipedalism

www.pinterest.com

Long

forearms & wrist bones

indicate tree climbing

Possibly

the direct descendent of

a species of Ardipithecus
www.antika.it

52

 Australopithecus

anamensis

Long

canines & sectorial

premolar

Eaten

hard, abrasive plant

foods (forest/woodland
environments)

Possibly

female chimpanzee
size; evidence of sexual
dimorphism

www.melkakunture.it

www.jqjacobs.net

Possible

that Au.
anamensis & Au. afarensis
represents a single lineage
that evolved through time
53

 Australopithecus

afarensis

3.85-2.95mya,

Eastern Africa - Ethiopia, Kenya,

Tanzania (1974)

One

of the longest-lived & best-known early human

species

May

be ancestral to later species of Paranthropus,

Australopithecus and Homo

Growth

rates similar to chimpanzees rapid growth

after birth & reached adulthood early

Sexually
Males:

dimorphic - high degree of size variation

151cm; 42kg / Females: 105cm; 29kg

54

 Australopithecus
Combination

afarensis

of ape & human characteristics

biologiaygeologia.org

smithsonianscience.org

Apelike

face (flat nose, strongly projecting lower jaw)

& small braincase

Small

canine teeth & semi-sectorial premolar

Plant-based

diet, insects, probably small vertebrates

55

 Australopithecus

afarensis

Long,

strong arms with curved

fingers climbing adaptation

Short,

broad pelvis & angled-in

thigh bones (body weight directly
above knees)

Short

legs, foot arch (?), nondivergent big toe

Possibly

able to use resources

from woodlands, grasslands &
other diverse environments

Lucy skeleton 40%

complete
pythacli.chez-alice.fr

56

 Australopithecus
Laetoli

afarensis

footprints in Tanzania - hardened volcanic ash

Discovered

in 1978 - 27m long footprint trail, includes

~70 early hominin footprints

Fossils

of Au. afarensis were found nearby to the

footprints and in the same sediment layer

www.studyblue.com

www.nap.edu

www.britannica.com

57

 Australopithecus

afarensis

Au.

afarensis were
capable of walking
upright on two legs what did their bipedal
locomotion look like?

Did

Au. afarensis spend

more time climbing
trees like other living
African apes, or did
they usually walk
upright like modern
humans?

asunews.asu.edu

58

 Australopithecus
3.3-2.1mya,
Key

africanus

Southern Africa (1924)

fossils are the Taung child and Mrs. Ples

http://humanorigins.si.edu

Anatomically

similar to Au. afarensis - combination of

human-like & ape-like features
59

 Australopithecus

africanus

Round

cranium with a larger

brain & smaller teeth

Long

arms & strongly sloping

face, pronounced jaw
www.gurche.com

Pelvis,

femur & foot bones indicate bipedalism,

shoulder & hand bones indicate climbing adaptation

Sexually

dimorphic = Males: 138cm; 41kg / Females:

115cm; 30kg

Dental

wear indicates tough foods but also a very

variable diet - modern chimpanzees
60

 Australopithecus
2.5mya,

africanus

Middle Awash, Ethiopia

(1990)
Mix

of Homo-like cranial
features, Australopithecus-like
brain size, large Paranthropussized teeth
http://australianmuseum.net.au

Longer
Long,

femurs - longer strides

powerful arms

Tentative

suggestion of stone
tools in association with
butchered animal bone

www.corbisimages.com

61

 Hominin

family tree Paranthropus group

http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-family-tree

62

 Paranthropus

aethiopicus

2.7-2.3mya,

Eastern Africa

(1967)
Strongly

protruding face,
large megadont teeth & a
powerful jaw, welldeveloped sagittal crest =
huge chewing muscles

www.columbia.edu

Features

of the skull similar

to Au. afarensis
(descendent?)

Likely

ancestor of P. boisei
http://humanorigins.si.edu

63

 Paranthropus

robustus

1.8-1.2mya,

Southern Africa

(1938)
Sexually

dimorphic = Males:
1.2m; 54kg / Females: 1m;
40kg

Huge,

broad megadont
cheek teeth, large zygomatic
arches (wide, dish-shaped
face), large sagittal crest

commons.wikimedia.org

Grinding

of tough, fibrous
foods - may have been a
dietary generalist
64

 Paranthropus
2.3-1.2mya,

boisei

Eastern Africa (1959)

P.

boisei thought to descend from

P. aethiopicus, lived alongside
several other species

1975

- discovery of P. boisei and H.

erectus in the same stratigraphic
layer - first example of species
coexistence

www.columbia.edu
www.sci-news.com

Countered

the view of a single

human lineage
65

 Paranthropus

boisei

Characterised

by a specialized skull with adaptations

for heavy chewing

http://humanorigins.si.edu

Strong

sagittal crest, large molars and premolars (4x

larger than modern humans), flaring cheekbones
with very wide and dish-shaped face

P.

boisei commonly ate fruit & other soft foods; also

able to crush & grind tough plant foods
66

 Paranthropus

boisei

This

species lived in environments that were

dominated by grasslands but also includes more
closed, wet habitats associated with rivers and lakes

http://humanorigins.si.edu

May

australianmuseum.net.au

have been over-specialised

67

 Paranthropus

boisei

Cranial

capacity suggests a slight rise in brain size

independent of brain enlargement in Homo

http://humanorigins.si.edu

Male

& female P. boisei individuals were closer in

body size than individuals of other hominin species
preceding them

Sexually

dimorphic = Males: 137cm; 49kg / Females:

124cm; 34kg
68

Australopithecus (likely human ancestors):

Smaller molars

Smaller cheekbones

Earlier

www.evoanth.net

Paranthropus:

Larger molars

Larger cheekbones

Later

Prominent sagittal crest

thehumantimeline.weebly.com

69

Fagan 2009 People of the Earth

70

Based on developmental
relationship, not overall
similarity

Fossil record is incomplete or

heavily fragmented

Early hominins mostly

represented by cranial
remains - postcrania are rare

All evidence for the range of

early hominins so far located
in east and southern Africa

www.pnas.org

71

 Path

of human evolution has been complex & dynamic

www.zmescience.com

From

the early primates through to the

Australopithecines - complicated pattern of evolution &
divergence

Possibly

a complex combination of factors that relate to

significant climate & environmental changes, changes in
flora & fauna, & specific changes in hominin culture
72

73