Journal ofFood Ennineerinn 25 i 19951409-425

Co&right 0 1595 Els&ier Science Limited

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0260-8774/9S/S!,.SO
0260-8774(94)00010-3

Rheological Characterization of Mayonnaise. Part II:

Flow and Viscoelastic Properties at Different Oil and
Xanthan Gum Concentrations
L. Ma & G. V. Barbosa-Chovas
Department

of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman,

WA 99 164-6 120, USA
(Accepted 3 March 1994)

ABSTRACT
The flow and viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise at diflerent oil and
xanthan gum concentrations (75-85X and 05-I.!% (w/w), respectively)
were investigated in the rotational and oscillatory mode using a
plate-plate rheometer. Yield stress, which was determined using a static
method, and steady measurements were corrected to account for slippage.
The corrected flow curves were fitted with the Herschel-Bulkley model,
and it was found that the flow index (n), consistency index (K), and yield
stress were greatly aflected by the oil and xanthan gum concentrations.
Viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise were characterized using small
amplitude oscillate y shear, and it was observed that mayonnaise
exhibited weak gel-like properties. The gel strength depends on the oil and
xanthan gum concentrations. The magnitude of elastic modulus and
complex viscosity increased with the increase of oil or xanthan gum
concentrations.
INTRODUCTION
Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water (O/W ) emulsion prepared from vegetable oil, egg
yolk, acidified ingredients, citric acid and/or maleic acid, and optional ingredients, i.e. salt, nutritive sweetener, stabilizer, thickener and crystallization
inhibitor (Code of Federal Regulations, 1986). Due to the commercial importance of mayonnaise, the rheological characteristics of mayonnaise have been
extensively studied. The flow properties (consistency index, K; flow behavior
index, n; and yield stress, to) of mayonnaise have been studied by Elliott and
Ganz (1977), Figoni and Shoemaker (1983), Kiosseoglou and Sherman
(1983a), Paredes et al. (1988, 1989), Yilmazer et al. (1991), and Yilmazer and
Kokini ( 1992). Several rheological equations, such as the power law, the Casson
model, and the Herschel-Bulkley
model, have been used to describe the stress
409

410

L. Ma, G. I/ Barbosa-C&ovas

response to deformation in mayonnaise (Bistany & Kokini, 1983; Paredes et al.,

1988, 1989). However, the reported flow parameters (K, n, and rO)are different
from reference to reference due to differences in selected measuring ranges,
corrections considered, and types of products.
One of the three parameters mentioned above, yield stress, may be defined as
a minimum shear stress required to initiate flow. The existence of yield stress in
fluids is still a controversial topic (Barnes & Walters, 1985; Cheng, 1986;
Hartnett & Hu, 1989; Evans, 1992; Schurz, 1992; Steffe, 1992). However, there
is little doubt that yield stress is an engineering reality (Hartnett & Hu, 1989)
which may strongly influence process calculations. Yield stress imparts stability
to food emulsions in low-stress situations (e.g. during storage and transportation, where the stress involved is usually lower than the yield stress). Hence, the
possibility of any structural change leading to instability is minimized (Rahalkar,
1992).
There is no single best technique among the many available methods to
evaluate the yield stress (Steffe, 1992). The classical method to obtain the yield
stress value is to extrapolate the shear stress versus shear rate curves. Alternative approaches include static methods such as controlled shear stress tests and
the vane method. The static methods have the advantage that the threedimensional structure of the material is not disturbed prior to measurement
(Kee & During, 1990). Other methods, such as determining the yield stress from
squeezing flow, have been proposed by Gencer and Peleg ( 1984) and
Campanella and Peleg ( 198 7 b).
A small amplitude oscillatory experiment, carried within the linear viscoelastic region, has the advantage of minimizing destruction in the sample since
little or no permanent structure breakdown occurs during the dynamic
measurements (Elliott & Ganz, 1977). This approach allows a relationship
between the results obtained and the actual structure of material to be drawn
(Murioz & Sherman, 1990). Fisbach and Kokini (1987) used viscoelastic studies
in predicting the storage stability of salad dressings. The dynamic viscoelastic
properties have also been used to study the structure of salad dressings (Bistany
& Kokini, 1983; Muiioz & Sherman, 1990).
Although many investigations have been conducted on the stability, flow and
viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise and salad dressings (Kiosseoglou &
Sherman, 1983~; Yilmazer et al., 1991), relatively few studies have taken into
account slippage effects during shear measurements, and few studies have been
conducted on the flow and viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise at different oil
or xanthan gum concentrations. The objectives of this study are to: (1) characterize the flow of mayonnaise at different oil and xanthan gum concentrations in
terms of consistency index (K), flow index (n) and yield stress ( zo) after
correcting slippage; and (2) characterize the viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise at different oil and xanthan concentrations.
MATERIALS

AND METHODS

Materials
Vegetable oil (Wesson Vegetable Oil, Hunt-Wesson, Inc., Fullerton, CA) and
fresh grade A brown eggs were purchased from local supermarkets. The eggs

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

411

were broken, and the yolks were separated from the albumen. The vitelline
membranes were then punctured, and the liquid yolk collected. A 20% (w/w)
acetic acid was prepared from analytical grade glacial acetic acid (99.5%
minimum concentration). Sodium chloride and sucrose were analytical grade
reagents. Pure food grade xanthan gum was obtained from Sanofi BioIndustries, Waukesga, WI.
Mayonnaise

preparation

The mayonnaise samples were prepared following procedures described by

Kiosseoglou and Sherman ( 1983 b) and Gates ( 198 1).
A rotary mixer (Sunbeam Mixmaster, Milwaukee, WI) was used. Egg yolks.
sugar, and salt were introduced into a stainless steel bowl (diameter = 150 mm
and height = 120 mm). They were mixed together at speed 4 for 2 min. Then,
one-twentieth of the oil was slowly added. The mixer was then operated at
speed 3. One-tenth of an acetic acid-water solution was added towards the end
of the oil addition. The oil and acetic acid-water solution were added alternately
while the mixer was kept at speed 3. When all the oil and acetic acid-water
solutions were added, the mixer was set at speed 4 for 3 min. The mayonnaise
sample was transferred to a 250 ml beaker, sealed with parafilm, and stored on
the reagent shelf (cu. 2 1C) overnight.
In order to study the effect of oil and xanthan gum concentrations on the
properties of mayonnaise, two series of samples were prepared. Tables 1 and 2
list the mayonnaise formulations with different oil and xanthan concentrations.
One series of mayonnaise samples was prepared with different oil concentrations, but the other ingredients (salt, sugar, and acetic acid) were kept constant,
and no xanthan gum was added. The second series of mayonnaise samples was
prepared with several xanthan gum concentrations, but the oil concentration
and other ingredients were kept constant.
Rheological measurements

Rheological measurements
were performed
with a rheometer
(PhysicaRheolab@ MC20/UM, Physica USA Inc., Spring, TX) using both controlled

Formulation

of Mayonnaise

TABLE 1
Preparation at Different Oil Concentrations
02 concentration (w/w)

Oil k)
Water (g)
20% Acetic acid (g)
Egg yolk (g)
Sugar (g)
Salt (8)

75%

80%

85%

1.50
32.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
050

160
22.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
0.50

170
12.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
0.50

412

L. Mu, G. I/ Barbosa-Ckovas

TABLE 2
Formulation of Mayonnaise Preparation at Different Xanthan Gum Concentrations
Xanthan gum concentration (w/w)

Xanthan gum (g)

Gil (8)
Water(g)
20% Acetic acid (g)
Egg yolk (8)
Sugar (8)
Salt (8)

1.00
100
81.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
0.50

2.00
100
80.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
0.50

3.00
100
79.4
2.0
12.0
3.10
0.50

shear rate and controlled shear stress with a plate-plate geometry of 50 mm

diameter. The measurements were conducted at two gap distances of 1.00 and
1.50 mm. Special care was taken to minimize the effect of the work softening
when the mayonnaise sample was initially loaded on the plate each time (Kokini
& Dickie, 198 1). The mayonnaise sample was removed in one stroke from the
container (250 ml beaker) using a plastic spatula and was subsequently
deposited onto the plate. The sample filled up the whole gap by lowering the
upper plate down to the designed gap. The extra sample around the edge of the
plate was trimmed with the plastic spatula.
In this study, all samples were allowed to rest after loading to allow sample
relaxation and temperature equilibration. A preliminary test was conducted on
the effect of resting time (0, 1,3,5, 10,20, and 30 min) after loading the sample.
It was found that 5 min of resting was enough to get a reproducible result. The
data reported are the averages of three replicates. All experiments were
conducted at a temperature of 20 f O*lC, and a fresh sample was loaded for
each measurement. The corrected flow curve was calculated from data
measured at two different gaps using the following equation (Yoshimura &
Prudhomme, 1988):
jR

H, l/aR, - HzYaR,
H, -4

where yaR, is the apparent shear rate at a gap distance of H,; jaR, is the apparent
shear rate at a gap distance of H,; H,, Hz are the gap distance between the upper
disk and bottom disk; and yR is the corrected shear rate.
The yield stress was determined from the corrected flow curves using the
static method - the stress initiate flow (Steffe, 1992; DeKee et al., 1986; Buscall
et al., 1987; James et al., 1987). With the measured yield stress, the flow
parameters (consistency index, K and flow index, n) were determined using the
Herschel-Bulkley model:
t= q+Kj

(2)

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

413

where r is the stress (Pa), r,, is the yield stress (Pa); K is the consistency index
(Pas); IZis the flow index; and j is the shear rate (s- ).
Viscoelastic measurements
were also performed
using the plate-plate
rheometer (@= 50 mm) (Physica-Rheolab@ MC20/UM Physica USA Inc.,
Spring, TX). The gap between plates was 1.0 and 1.5 mm. All experiments were
carried out at 20 f O*lC.
For comparison,
two standard fluids with different viscosities (fluid
HTlOOOOO and fluid 30000; Brookfield
Engineering
Laboratory,
Inc..
Stoughton, MA) were used to calibrate the instrument under different gaps (1.0
and 15 mm) and different geometries (plate-plate geometry and cone-plate
geometry) in order to exclude the possibility of instrument artifacts. The results
from the calibration tests proved that the viscoelastic estimate had a margin of
error of roughly 5% or less.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Flow properties

of mayonnaise

The flow curves of the model mayonnaise measured at two different gaps are
presented in Figs 1 and 2. Differences in the flow curves measured at two
different gaps indicate the existence of slippage in the shear measurements
(Yoshimura & Prudhomme, 1988). The corrected flow curves of the mayonnaise samples with different oil and xanthan concentrations using eqn (1) are
also presented in Figs 1 and 2.
The yield stress was determined by a static method - stress to initiate flow
(DeKee et al., 1986; Buscall et al., 1987; James et uf., 1987; Steffe, 1992) -based
on the corrected flow curves in Figs 1 and 2. It was noted that the yield stress
determined from measured curves was smaller than the yield stress determined
from corrected curves (Figs 1 and 2). At a very small shear stress, the mavonnaise sample between the gap behaved as a solid body due to the three-dimensional network structures (Princen, 1985; Rahalkar, 1992); thus, no apparent
flow was observed. When shear stress was increased to a certain magnitude
which was less than the true yield value of the bulk sample, an apparent flow was
observed. This observed flow was due to deformation in the boundary layer
(slip layer), since the bulk mayonnaise still behaved as a solid and did not flow at
the stress below the true yield value. When the stress was greater than the true
yield stress of the bulk sample in the gap, all of the sample, including the
boundary layer in the gap, was deformed and flowed. Therefore, the yield stress
determined from the measured flow curves would be smaller than that
determined from the corrected flow curves. The yield stress determined from
the measured flow curves was called apparent stress, t, and the yield stress
determined from corrected flow curves was called true yield stress, tO) or yield
stress, r,). The comparisons of apparent yield stress and the true yield stress of
mayonnaise with different oil and xanthan gum concentrations are presented in
Table 3.
The yield stress for the mayonnaise ranged from 23 to 235 Pa and increased
with the oil concentrations
(Table 3). A more compact three-dimensional
network was formed between the egg protein molecules and absorbed droplets

414

L. Ma, G. I/ Barbosa-Canovas

,
2mo

30.M)

40.00

50.00

60.00

200

250

300

Shear stress (Pa)

(0)

50

100

150

Shear stress (Pa)

(b)

0.00

50.00

100.00 159.m 200.00 250.00 300.00 359.00 4cn.m 459co

Shear stress (Pa)

Cc)
Fig. 1. Actual flow curve of mayonnaise calculated by means of eqn (1). Also shown
are the flow curves measured at two different gaps. (a) 75% oil concentration; (b) 80% oil
concentration; (c) 85% oil concentration. 1.0 mm gap; -A1.5 mm gap;
corrected.

41s

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

4C.CCI 50.M3

60.00

70.00

8O.M)

90.C0

Shear stress (Pa)

(0)
8.W

0.00

50.00

15clm

lM3.00

203.00

250.M)

Shea stress (Pa)

10.00
8.00
8
:
6

6.00

,i,,,,,
0.00

50.00

100.00

1w.m

mm0

250.00

3cKl.00

350.00

4OO.M)

Shear stress (Pa)

Fig. 2. Actual flow curve of mayonnaise calculated by means of eqn (1). Also shown
are the flow curves measured at two different gaps. (a) 50% oil and 0.5% xanthan gum
concentration; (b) 50% oil and 1.0% xanthan gum concentration; (c) 50% oil and 15%
1.0 mm gap; -Axanthan gum concentration.
--+1.5 mm gap; -corrected.

L. Mu, G. I/. Barbosa-Cknovas

416

TABLE 3
Flow Parameters of Mayonnaise

Oil concentr$gn

Apparent
yield
t, (Pal

True yield
tcl (Pa)

K
(Pa.s-7

18
107
228

23
115
235

18.1
127.4
289.9

0.83
0.69
O-24

0.87
0.85
0.87

49
131
195

55
195
305

8.5
11.8
43.5

0.44
0,43
0.78

0.98
0.97
0.86

(w/w, %)

80
85
Xanthan gum concentration
(w/w, %)
0.5
1.0
1.5

(Zosel,

1982; Jaynes,

1985; Gladwell

structure

is responsible

for the increase

et al.,

1986). This compact

network

in yield stress with the increase in oil

concentrations.
The yield stress increased with the increase in the xanthan gum concentrations (Table 3). Xanthan gum was reported to increase the stability of
mayonnaise and emulsion (Hibberd et al., 1987) as well as its structure by the
formation of aggregates of larger size (Yilmazer & Kokini, 1992). Thus, it was
expected that the yield stress would increase with the xanthan gum concentration. The yield stress of some commercial mayonnaises have been studied by
various methods (Elliott & Ganz, 1977; Dickie & Kokini, 1983; DeKee et al.,
1986; Campanella & Peleg, 1987~) and have a very wide range of yield magnitude, from 9 to 91 Pa (Steffe, 1992). This wide range of yield stress value in the
published data was due to differences in the methods as well as shear rate range
selected when extrapolating. The results in the present work, in general, were in
agreement with the published data with low oil or xanthan gum concentrations,
but the yield stress at higher oil or xanthan gum concentrations was greater than
the yield stress in the published data, because the key components (oil and
xanthan gum) varied widely in the model mayonnaise.
With the determined yield stress, the Herschel-Bulkley
model (eqn (2)) was
used to determine the flow properties (consistency index, K, and flow behavior
index, n) of model mayonnaise from the corrected flow curves. The magnitude
of consistency index (K) of the mayonnaise ranged from 18.1 to 289.9 Pa.s and
increased with oil concentrations
(Table 3), which was in agreement with
Gladwell et al. (1986). Similar results were observed with the concentration of
xanthan gum. That is, the magnitude of the consistency index of the mayonnaise
ranged from 8.5 to 435 Pa.s and increased with the xanthan gum concentration.
The flow index (n) of all model mayormaises were less than one (Table 3)
which indicated that they were pseudoplastic fluids (Paredes et al., 1989). The
flow behavior index ranged from 0.83 to 0.24 and decreased with the oil con-

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

417

centration (Table 3). The flow index was not significantly different between
xanthan gum concentration at 0.5 and 1.0% but was different at 1.5%. In general, the flow index for the model mayonnaise was in agreement with previous
reports (Dickie & Kokini, 1983; Steffe, 1992), since the flow index varied
widely from 0.13 to 0.9 1 for some commercial or model mayonnaise due to different methods (i.e. capillary viscometer, cone-plate viscometer, and/or concentric cylinder viscometer) and/or different shear rate range selected. In this study,
it was expected that the flow index would change with the oil and xanthan gum
concentrations,
since the variation of oil and xanthan gum concentrations
changed the levels of structure in mayonnaise (Yilmazer et af., 1991).
Viscoelastic

properties of mayonnaise

Mayonnaise shows viscoelastic properties attributable to a network formed

between lipoproteins which are adsorbed around neighboring oil droplets
(Muiioz & Sherman, 1990). Figure 3 presents the viscoelastic response versus
shear frequency at different gaps (1.00 and 1.50 mm). The data is independent
of the gaps between plates, which demonstrates that there is no structure breakdown or slippage effect. In addition, a test was also conducted on increasing and
decreasing shear frequency (w) on the same sample. The results falling on the
same curve indicated that there was little or no permanent structure breakdown
occurring during the dynamic measurements (Elliott & Ganz, 1977) (data not
shown here). Thus, the dynamic oscillatory test can be used to characterize the
viscoelastic properties of mayonnaise.
The results from small amplitude oscillatory shear tests are expressed in
terms of the elastic modulus ( G) and loss modulus (G). If G ti G, the material
will exhibit a solid behavior (i.e. deformation in the linear range will be essentially elastic or recoverable); however, if G 9 G, the material will behave like a
liquid (i.e. the energy used to deform the material will be viscously dissipated). In
general, a viscoelastic material behaves in a solid-like manner at low frequencies
when the viscoelastic moduli are considered as a function of frequency (Ferry,
1980).
The model mayonnaise with different oil and xanthan gum concentrations
had similar viscoelastic properties in general. But, there were some fine structural differences in the viscoelastic response spectrum (Fig. 4(a)-(f)). It can be
seen that all mayonnaise samples (75-85% oil concentration, and O-5-1.5%
xanthan gum concentration) exhibit a well-pronounced
plateau in G(o) with
G(w) > G(w) for two sequence decades, except the mayonnaise sample at
75% oil concentration. The samples enter the terminal zone at angular frequencies of 0.63 rad/s, which corresponds to a terminal relaxation time on the order of
1.6 s. This system, therefore, behaves as a solid on a time scale of seconds.
According to the phenomenological definition of gel by Almdal er al. ( 1993): . . .
solid-like gels are characterized by a storage modulus, G(w), which exhibits a
pronounced plateau extending to time at least of the order of seconds, and by.a
loss modulus, G(o), which is considerably smaller than the storage modulus m
the plateau region. Thus, it could be accepted that mayonnaise is gel-like in
nature. Comparing Fig. 4(a)-(c) it is found that the mayonnaise at higher oil
concentrations has more pronounced gel-like characteristics than at lower oil
concentrations. It has been reported that there is more packing of oil droplets in

418

L. Ma, G. V Barbosa-CLinovas

5
8

1cKKl;

G (1 .Omm)
G(,,Omm)

-~i~T~~~~yYII~YbY4-S)

b
5
?J

~
-----__.

100:

10
0.1

10

G (1.5mm)

G (1.5mm)

102

Frequency (rod/s)
(0)

r
c
b
8

lcal

EDw

G(1 .Omm)
- - - - - __. G(,,Omm)

~.~~*~~~~Cee-*.*.

5
b

!
Fig. 3.

loo:

10
0.1

10

G(l.5mm)

G(l.5mm)

100

Frequency (rod/s)
,h\

The storage modulus and loss modulus vs frequency. (a) 85% oil concentration;
(b) 50% oil and 1.0% xanthan gum concentration.

higher oil concentrations than in lower oil concentrations (Jaynes, 1985). The
viscoelastic response of model mayonnaise had a very similar pattern (Fig.
4(d)-(f)) at all xanthan gum concentrations, which had less variation than that of
mayonnaise with different oil concentrations.
It is also noticed that the
magnitude of the maximum storage modulus G is of the order of lo4 Pa, so
these gels are very weak and break down easily under shear stress. The
magnitude of storage modulus, loss modulus G(w), is also dependent on the oil
and xanthan concentrations.
The comparison of storage modulus, G(w), for mayonnaise with different oil
and xanthan gum concentrations is presented in Fig. 5. Since the elastic modulus

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

419

..-_i

1'
01

hequency(rad/s)

IO

102

hequency (rod/s)

01

hequency (rod/s)

10

1Cn

hequency (rod/s)

f
loo00
a
5

IMX)

. . . ..mm.mmmm=mmm=~m=
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

&y_____
0.1

10

hequency (rod/s)

103

01

__i_
10

co

tequency (rod/s)

Fig. 4. Dynamic oscillatory response (G and G) of mayonnaise at different oil and

xanthan gum concentrations. (a) 75% oil concentration;
(h) 80% oil concentration; 1,~)
85% oil concentration; (d) 50% oil and 0.5% xanthan gum concentration; (e) 50% oil and
1.0% xanthan gum concentration; (f) 50% oil and 1.5% xanthan gum concentration. m,
storage modulus (G); A , loss modulus (G).

(G) represents the recoverable energy when the material is subjected to

deformation,
the increase in the elastic modulus with oil concentrations
indicates a more solid-like mayonnaise. The fact that mayonnaise showed a
greater elastic modulus value at higher oil concentrations can be attributed to the
formation of a more complex liquid crystal structure (Jaynes, 1985; Gladwell et
al., 1986) (see Fig. 5(a)). The magnitude of the elastic modulus increases with
xanthan concentration
at all shear frequencies (see Fig. 5(b)), so it can be
assumed that most of the viscoelastic behavior can be attributed to the interaction between xanthan gum microgel and emulsion droplets. The association of

420

L. Ma, G. K Barbosa-Crinovas

a
loo00

1ccO

a
8

75%oil

-)-

00% oil -*-

looi

-+-e

2-H

b
10

85%oil

._*_._*_.-._._.-.-.-.a-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.

1
0.1

10

100

10

100

frequency (fad/s)

r
b

1
0.1

frequency (rod/s)

L
Fig. 5.

Effect of mayonnaise

oil and xanthan

modulus.

gum concentration

on the storage

gum in solution resulting in aggregates at concentrations

of 0.5% or
below was reported to be due to hydrogen-bonding (Lim et al., 1984). At high
concentrations, xanthan gum molecules form a viscoelastic structure to stabilize
the emulsion (Hibberd et al., 1987).
Figure 6 presents the absolute magnitude of complex viscosity, ( 17* (, at different oil and xanthan gum concentrations. In Fig. 6(a), the complex viscosity
increases with oil concentrations over the entire experimental shear frequency
range (0.63-62.8 rad/s) due to the higher oil concentrations in mayonnaise
compacting the packing of oil droplets. As oil concentrations decrease, the
mean distance between droplets is greater; thus, a lower complex viscosity is
observed. In Fig. 6(b), the slopes of the curves at all xanthan concentrations are
nearly the same. However, the magnitude of the complex viscosity increases
xanthan

Rheological characterization of mqvonnaise. Part II

421

,I

_L-__c

01

10

75%oil

-----t-

80% oil

85%011

..>

1M)

frequency
~____

10

-.-

0.5% xanthan

-t-

1.O% xanthon

-*-

1 5% xanthan

103

frequency
Fig. 6.

Effect

of mayonnaise

oil and

xanthan
viscosity.

gum

concentration

on the complex

with xanthan concentrations over the entire experimental shear frequency range
(0.63-62.8 rad/s), due to the interaction between xanthan gum microgel and
emulsion droplets.
Loss factor, tan( 6) = G/G, is a dimensionless measure that compares the
amount of energy lost during a test cycle to the amount of energy stored during
this time (Darby, 1976; Ferry, 1980). The loss factor indicates whether elastic or
viscous properties predominate in a sample. The comparison of loss factor for
mayonnaise with different oil and xanthan gum concentrations is presented in
Fig. 7. The slope for 75% oil concentration is greater than that for 80%, while
the slope for 85% oil is near zero (flat). These differences might be due to the
different fine structures or three-dimensional networks formed by a two-phase
emulsion. The difference in loss factor could be considered an index to
distinguish the fine structure at different oil contents of mayonnaise. The quanti-

L. Ma, G. V. Barbosa-Ctinovas

422

a
10.00
-t-

75% oil -t-

80% oil -

85%oil

6
s
8
,o

1.oo

0.10
loO.M3

10.00

1.m

tequency

:;,,(I

0.5% xanthan

A 1.0% xanthan

,,~;::;:x;:~~:::~:~

0.10

,,,,

1o.cKl

1.00

1.5% xanthan

100.00

frequency

Fig. 7.

Effect of mayonnaise oil and xanthan gum concentration on the loss factor.

tative relation among loss factor, elastic modulus, loss modulus, and the network
structure of mayonnaise needs further investigation. However, the shape of the
curves are more or less similar, showing that all the mayonnaise samples at
different xanthan gum concentrations exhibit similar viscoelastic properties.
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that the flow properties determined from direct flow curve
measurements were significantly different from the corrected flow curves after
taking slippage into account. The correction of the flow curve was necessary to
determine the actual flow parameter of mayonnaise. The yield stress and
consistency index increased with oil and xanthan concentrations due to the
formation of a higher level of network structure; the flow behavior index varied

Rheological characterization of mayonnaise. Part II

423

with oil and xanthan concentrations.

The small amplitude
oscillatory
test can
overcome the effect of slippage that occurred in the rotational
shear test. The
small amplitude
oscillatory
shear was useful in correlating
the structure
of
mayonnaise
at different
oil and xanthan
concentrations.
The viscoelastic
response of mayonnaise
indicates that mayonnaise
is gel-like in nature, and the
strength of the gel is dependent
on the oil and xanthan gum concentrations.
The
magnitude
of elastic modulus and complex viscosity increased
with the oil or
xanthan gum concentrations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project

was partially

supported

by a Sigma Xi grant.

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