Composition of milk fat

What is milk fat?

From a chemical point of view fats are essentially triacylglycerides, i.e. substances made up of three fatty acids and
glycerol.

Milk fat is characterised by very wide fatty acid distribution, ranging from butyric acid to arachidonic acid. In addition
to saturated (medium and long-chain) fatty acids it also contains physiologically important unsaturated and shortchain fatty acids in amounts of up to 40 %. Milk fat also contains mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids, free fatty
acids, cholesterol, fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, enzymes, as well as aromatic and decomposition substances.
The composition of milk is affected by various factors, the most important of which are:

Fodder: influences the content of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids as well as vitamin E and A

Lactation stage: influences the content of short- and long-chain fatty acids

Heredity, state of health, animal age: influences the predisposition of unsaturated fatty acids to lipolysis and
oxidation.

How is milk fat present in milk?

Milk fat is present in milk in the form of globules approx. 1-10 m in diameter. These globules are enclosed and
protected by a membrane called the primary fat globule membrane. This membrane is composed predominantly of
substances with an emulsifying character, particularly phospholipids, lipoproteins and cholesterol, which contribute to
the uniform distribution of fat globules in the aqueous phase. Obviously the membrane is not formed until the final
stage of milk creation, but despite this the milk fat is fully protected when it leaves the teat. The fat globule membrane
can be damaged even during milking, resulting in free fat.

The fat globules are reduced in size by mechanical or thermal action, leading to a shortage of primary membrane
material since the surface of the fat globules increases when viewed as a whole. In this case milk proteins are called
upon to form the so-called secondary fat globule membrane, causing casein and serum proteins and, increasingly,
enzymes such as lipase to bind with the fat globule membrane.

How does the composition of milk fat depend on fodder?

Green fodder and dried fodder

As a rule green fodder produces milk with a high fraction of unsaturated fatty acids. Dried fodder causes a reduction
in unsaturated fatty acids. This increases the melting point and hardness of the milk fat, as the long-chain fatty acids
of the milk fat are absorbed from the feed.
When this happens the polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) are generally hydrogenated in the
digestive tract. Normally a double bond is maintained, so oleic acid represents the most important fatty acid in milk
fat. Cows also have what is known as a desaturase enzyme, which can reconstitute oleic acid from stearic acid. This
mechanism allows the "melting point" of the milk fat always to be kept below body temperature.
Unsaturated fatty acids are plentiful in young, high quality green fodder, but scarce in dried fodder, beet and maize
silage.

Extremely high fractions of oleic acid are found during alpine summering (up to 30 %).

The data in the table below are based on a wide-ranging study carried out by FAM in 1997. Extreme values such as
those occurring during alpine summering have not been taken into account, as the proportion of production is low
when measured against overall Swiss milk production.

Fatty acid methyl ester

Butyric acid methyl ester
Caproic acid methyl ester
Caprylic acid methyl ester
Capric acid methyl ester
Caproleic acid methyl ester
Lauric acid methyl ester
Myristic acid methyl ester
Myristoleic acid methyl ester
Pentadecanoic acid methyl ester
Pentadecylic acid methyl ester
Palmitic acid methyl ester
Palmitoleic acid methyl ester
Heptadecanoic acid methyl ester
Heptadecenoic acid methyl ester
Stearic acid methyl ester
Oleic acid methyl ester
Linoleic acid methyl ester
Linolenic acid methyl ester
Arachidic acid methyl ester
EPA-methyl ester
DHA-methyl ester

Winter butter
4.35
2.63
1.4
3.0
0.3
3.78
11.53
1.28
1.18
0.3
32.03
1.75
0.65
0.38
8.8
21.1
1.95
1.08
0.65
0.15
<0.1

Summer butter
4.35
2.63
1.4
2.83
0.3
3.5
10.65
1.25
1.1
0.3
27.0
1.63
0.6
0.38
9.68
25.8
2.3
1.28
1.25
0.2
<0.1

Table 1: Average fatty acid

composition of milk fat in
summer and winter, given in
relative percentages of fatty
acid methyl esters.

EPA: Eicosapentaensure
DHA: Docosapentaensure

Addition of oilseed to fodder

Even in winter the fraction of unsaturated fatty acids can be increased by adding oilseed (rape, sunflower, linseed) to
the feed in amounts of 0.4 to 1.0 kg per day. This virtually eliminates the seasonal differences in milk fat composition.
The addition of specialist fats to the feed can raise the fractions of linoleic and linolenic acid from a normal 2.5 % to
as much as 8 % and that of oleic acid to 35 %.

What does fat deterioration mean?

A whole range of processes fall under the heading of fat deterioration, for example:

the formation of free fat (irreversible as a rule)

the lipolysis of milk fat (formation of free fatty acids and mono/diglycerides)

oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (formation of highly volatile breakdown products such as aldehydes,
ketones, esters, lactones and alcohols as well as short-chain mono- and dicarboxylic acids)

In a wider sense fat deterioration can even denote processes which lead to the oxidation of cholesterol or the
enzymatic cleavage of phospholipids, and to proteolytic changes in the fat globule membrane.

In addition to the detrimental sensory changes produced by fat deterioration, e.g. aroma defects (rancid, metallic,
oxidative, tallowy, fishy) and cap or plug formation or butter separation, fat deterioration also has technological
drawbacks.

Being emulsifiers, the fatty acids and mono- or diglycerides which are formed reduce the separation effect during
centrifuging. In difficult cases the fat content of the buttermilk or whey may even increase.

Mechanical fat deterioration

Every mechanical process contributes towards the formation of free fat and hence to fat deterioration. In raw milk
products free fat is subject to attack by microbial lipase or lipase in the milk itself, thereby allowing the formation of
free fatty acids. Thermal or other (e.g. Ultra High Pressure) inactivation processes do stop lipolysis, but only in
exceptional cases can the freed fat be provided with another membrane. Every mechanical treatment must therefore
be carried out as gently as possible.

Microbiological fat deterioration

Micro-organisms, especially psychrothropic bacteria, are able to form lipases and proteases which can be very heatresistant. Thermal treatments at temperatures in excess of 90C have to be used if sizeable amounts of enzymes are
formed in raw products over several days' refrigerated storage.
Even under these conditions, however, the complete inactivation of microbial enzymes cannot be totally guaranteed.
Long (refrigerated) storage periods of raw milk or raw cream should therefore be avoided.

Thermomechanical fat deterioration

Every thermal treatment is of necessity associated with mechanical action. Heat treatment, depending on the degree
of heating, causes a reduction in fat globule size. This also entails the risk of free fat formation. Although gentle
thermisation or pasteurisation can reduce free fat content, at least analytically, high heat treatment temperatures
produce increased levels of free fat and changes in the fat globule membrane. The secondary membranes formed
may construct cross-linked structures by building bridges with the embedded casein mycelles. Unless this is
expressly required it must be prevented by suitable technological means (e.g. two-stage homogenisation).

Cream treatment
During cream treatment the temperature ranges from 63C (30 min) to 110C (3-5 s) and depends on the intended
use and quality of the original cream.

High pasteurisation temperatures are designed to promote oxidation stability and inhibit microbial lipase. However
these advantages are offset by disadvantages like a cooked taste and increased risk of reinfection.

Cream ripening processes

Following pasteurisation the cream is often subjected to graduated heat treatment, the object being intraglobular
fractionation of the milk fat. Optimum success in separating the solid and liquid fat fractions by "cold-warm-cold
ripening" produces a reduction in butter hardness.
This is known as physical cream ripening.

This cream ripening process can take the following shape:

Cream is cooled to 4-8C after pasteurisation and several hours' storage

Heating to 18-22C (depending on fat hardness) for at least 2-4 hours

Gradual cooling (formation of large disc-shaped crystals) to 6-8C and storage (cooling may also be carried
out in two stages)

The cream is brought to buttermaking temperature (10-13C) prior to making the butter.

If a butter produced in summer is not to be too soft, the cream is warm-cold ripened to give a harder butter, produced
by stronger crystal cross-linking. As consumers currently prefer soft butter, this variant of cream ripening is not used
very frequently (probably not at all in Switzerland).

Procedure: After pasteurisation the cream is cooled to 20-22C and stored for several hours. Cooling is carried out in
two stages, initially to 14-16C, then to under 10C after a few hours.

In each case cooling should be carried out quickly to obtain intensive crystal cross-linking.

As well as being ripened physically, the cream is also ripened bacterialogically using a "starter". The object of this
measure is to:

obtain an aromatic butter

increase the butter's recontamination protection by means of a low pH value

achieve a low buttermilk fat content

The starter contains lactic and citric acids as well as aromatic substances, chiefly diacetyl. This is formed from
acetoin in the presence of oxygen and a pH value below 5.2 (the citric acid is freed as a precursor molecule).
Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris, Streptococcus diacetylactis and possibly Lactobacillus cremoris are
typical starter bacteria. Ripening takes place at between 18-21C and as a rule lasts for over 10 hours. In this phase
the cream can only be stirred slowly and gently. Not until casein precipitation has started (from approx. pH 4.8) can

the now viscous cream be stirred, pumped and cooled. Premature stirring produces a buttermilk of excessive fat
content. Physical ripening must be combined with aromatic ripening in sour cream butter production.

Buttermaking methods
Various processes are used in butter production.
The commonest are:

Batch process (churn):

The buttermaking cream is churned for 30-45 minutes until butter grains form and the buttermilk separates out.
The butter grains are generally washed with water, then kneaded to form as homogenous a butter mass as
possible.

Continuous buttermaker:
The cream is continuously pumped in and churned by rapidly rotating beaters. The cream emulsion is broken
after approx. 30 seconds, forming butter grains and buttermilk. Most of the buttermilk drains away, the
remainder is worked into the butter. The butter is then kneaded in several stages until homogeneous. In a final
treatment metered amounts of salt suspensions as well as lactic acid concentrates and aromatic concentrates
can be added and worked in (NIZO process).

Alfa process:
Cream (or butter) is adjusted to the desired fat content and heated. Phase reversal is initiated by shock cooling
in scrape chillers. The buttermaking process is completed using pinworkers and resting tubes. The result is
often a hard, brittle butter which needs further processing in butter homogenisators. Calorie-reduced butter
products, butter spreads or reconstituted products (e.g. cholesterol-free butter) are frequently produced in a
Combinator (Alfa process). As a rule the Alfa process is used to make reconstituted butter after blending the
source materials. The manufacture of butter products from individual source products such as milk fat, skim
milk, buttermilk, starters and other milk constituents is used mainly in mass production.

The bottom limit technologically feasible for butter fat is 610-620 g/kg. The manufacture of products with an even
lower fat content calls for the use of customised technologies and increased protein- (emulsifier) levels. Basically both
sour cream and sweet cream can be turned into butter by all the processes, although butter is increasingly being
produced using the NIZO process in order to exploit the advantages of sweet buttermilk. In the NIZO process butter
produced from sweet cream is converted to sour cream butter in the final buttermaker stage using biological lactic
acid concentrates and aromatic concentrates. This butter is described either as soured butter, mildly soured butter,

alternative or other butter. The advantage of the process is that it produces sweet buttermilk which is much easier
to utilize than sour buttermilk (powder production).

Butter types

A basic distinction is made between butter produced exclusively from sweet cream and butter made from a blend of
sweet cream and whey cream.

In standard butter production the non-fat dry matter content is low, only 1.2 - 1.5 % on average. If butter produced by
churning is washed, the content is even significantly below 1 %. From a nutritional point of view the non-fat dry mass
is of little importance, although it can have a major impact in bacteriological and sensory terms. Therefore in order to
avoid detrimental changes in butter products, care must be taken to ensure good distribution of the aqueous phase,
with the droplet size not exceeding 10 Micrometer.
The following butter products are on the market in Switzerland:

Traditional butter
By traditional butter is meant soured butter made from sour cream as well as soured butter made from sweet cream
and soured directly afterwards, or sweet cream butter (salted or unsalted, with salted butter taking only a small
market share).

Cheesemaking butter
This butter is produced from a blend of sweet cream and whey cream (60:40) without acidulation. Market share is
very small (local sales). There is also a type of whey butter made from sweet cream and whey cream supplied to
central buttermaking plants. The important point here is that the whey cream is not acidulated so that the copper level
in the whey butter can be kept low.

In addition, butter produced by cheesemakers is delivered to central buttermaking plants. If these butters meet the
quality requirements for table butter they are given final pasteurisation using the Alfa process and then also marketed
as whey butter. However butter from commercial production is often directly processed into rendered butter.

Cooking butter (Die Butter)

A blend of sweet cream and whey cream (95:5). Both domestic and foreign soured butter is used to make sweet
cream butter. Freshly produced sweet cream butter is increasingly being used in addition to stored traditional butter,
or a blend of sweet cream and whey cream is even turned into butter and unmoulded straight away.

Rendered butter
Examples of other designations are clarified butter, anhydrous milk fat, butter oil or ghee. The different designations
are specifically used internationally to differentiate the quality.

Anhydrous milk fat (AMF) meets the highest quality requirements and comprises 99.9 % milk fat. Butter oil and ghee,
on the other hand, are not as pure and their quality not as highly ranked.

The bulk of production is from butter. The butter is melted, centrifuged to separate off the serum phase, extracted with
steam and heated to a high temperature under vacuum. If rendered butter is intended for use as cooking butter, a
suitable flavour is produced using small buttermilk additives in the final stage of production.

AMF has recently been made directly from cream. Here the cream is concentrated and broken in special separators,
the process in principle then following that used when butter is the starting product. The evacuation of air by means of
inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, can also be used instead of steam extraction. This process is often employed in vegetable oil
production, but has not proved successful in experiments on milk fat.

Rendered butter is therefore practically pure milk fat produced from domestic or foreign sweet cream butter as well as
from cheesemaking butter or whey butter.

Soft rendered butter

Cooking butter foamed up with nitrogen. The nitrogen increases the volume by 30 %, giving a relatively soft but brittle
clarified butter.

Creamed cooking butter

A cooking butter, creamy at room temperature, made from rendered butter, olein and stearin fractions.

Light butter
A calorie-reduced butter with a fat content of 50 %. It contains an increased protein content (3-5 %) and as a rule is
very spreadable at refrigerator temperature. The starting product is traditional butter which is blended with milk
constituents to the level required.

Butter spreads
Blended products made from butter and other food ingredients. They must have a minimum fat content of 51 %.
Unlike other butter products they may contain non-milk fats if admixture makes this unavoidable.

Baking butter
Baking butter is an intermediate product made from butter and a high-melting milk fat fraction (Stearin fraction).

Other intermediate products available are margarine products with a high butter content (up to 30%). There is also a
new fat spread made from half butter, half margarine.