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MathematicoDeductiveTheory(ClarkL.Hull1943)|PrinciplesofLearning

PrinciplesofLearning
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MathematicoDeductiveTheory(ClarkL.Hull
1943)
Thecontributionsofthreemoreindividualsremaintobediscussedinthissectionthe
mathematicodeductivetheoryofClarkL.Hull(18841952),thecontiguousconditioningtheoryof
EdwinR.Guthrie(18861959),andthestimulussamplingtheoryofWilliamK.Estes(b.1919).All
threearesignificanttothestudyofbehaviorallearningtheory,buthavevirtuallynodirect
influenceontodayspracticeofinstructionaldesign.Withtheexceptionofafewinlinecitations
theyarecompletelyabsentfromthesamplingofcollegeundergraduateeducationalpsychology
booksreviewedaspartofthisstudy(e.g.Eggen&Kauchak,1999;ODonnelletal.,2007;Ormrod,
2003;Sternberg&Williams,2010;Woolfolk,1998;2010).Itisdifficulttosayconclusivelywhy
thesetheorieshavenotinfluencedinstructionaldesigninthesamewaythatthetheoriesof
Thorndike,Pavlov,WatsonandSkinnerhave.Itmaybethatpractitionerswereturnedoffbythe
mathematicalbasisofthetheoriesofHullandEstes,andGuthriestheorymaynothaveseemeda
verygoodfittothedesigningofgoalbasedcurriculum,inasmuchasGuthriewasnotconcerned
withthesuccessorfailureofachievementsbutratherwithwhathecalledmovements.Though
notasinfluentialastheforegoingtheories,eachprovidesanimportantperspectiveonlearning,
andprovidesvaluabledatatoinformtheidentificationofprinciplesoflearningforthepresent
study.Eachwillbediscussedbriefly.
developmentofHullstheorycanbedividedintoroughlythreeperiods.From1929to1943the
theorywaspublishedinseveralminiatureformalizationsinwhichportionsoftheprojected
theorywereelaborated(see,forexampleHull,1942).Thesecondperiod,from1943to1949,began
withthepublicationofPrinciplesofBehavior(Hull,1943),whichcontainedperhapsthemost
influentialformulationofthetheory.Thisformulationwasradicallyrevisedbyaresearch
memorandumdistributedin1945(seeKoch,1954,p.1).Duringthethirdperiodthepostulates
werefurtherrevisedandwerepublishedin1951inEssentialsofBehavior(Hull,1951).Koch(1954)
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givesaverydetailedanalysisofHullstheoryineachofthesethreeperiodsthatiscomparableto,
andinagreementwith,theconclusionsmadeinHullsownposthumouspublicationofABehavior
System(1952).[1]
Hullstheorywasexpressedintheformofpostulatesbasedonthefollowingmethodology:
Thetypicalprocedureinscienceistoadoptapostulatetentatively,deduceoneormoreofits
logicalimplicationsconcerningobservablephenomena,andthencheckthevalidityofthe
deductionsbyobservation.Ifthedeductionisingenuinedisagreementwithobservation,the
postulatemustbeeitherabandonedorsomodifiedthatitimpliesnosuchconflictingstatement.
If,however,thedeductionsandtheobservationsagree,thepostulategainsindependability.By
successiveagreementsunderaverywidevarietyofconditionsitmayattainahighdegreeof
justifiedcredibility,butneverabsolutecertainty.(Hull,1943,p.15)
Thepostulates,aspresentedbyHull(1943)inPrinciplesofBehavior,aresummarizedbelow.[2]
1.Postulate1Sensoryinput(theafferentneuralimpulse)andthestimulustrace(afferent
impulsedecay):
Whenastimulusenergy(S)impingesonasuitablereceptororgan,anafferentneuralimpulse(s)
isgeneratedandispropagatedalongconnectedfibrousbranchesofnervecellsinthegeneral
directionoftheeffectororgans,viathebrain.Duringthecontinuedactionofthestimulusenergy
(S),thisafferentimpulse(s),afterashortlatency,risesquicklytoamaximumofintensity,
followingwhichitgraduallyfallstoarelativelylowvalueasasimpledecayfunctionofthe
maximum.Afterterminationoftheactionofthestimulusenergy(S)onthereceptor,theafferent
impulse(s)continuesitsactivityinthecentralnervoustissueforsomeseconds,gradually
diminishingtozeroasasimpledecayfunctionofitsvalueatthetimethestimulusenergy(S)
ceasestoact.(p.47)
2.Postulate2Interactionofafferentneuralimpulses:
Allafferentneuralimpulses(s)activeinthenervoussystematanygiveninstant,interactwith
eachotherinsuchawayastochangeeachintosomethingpartiallydifferent(s)inamanner
whichvarieswitheveryconcurrentassociatedafferentimpulseorcombinationofsuchimpulses.
Otherthingsequal,themagnitudeoftheinteractioneffectofoneafferentimpulseonasecondis
anincreasingmonotonicfunctionofthemagnitudeofthefirst.(p.47)
3.Postulate3Innatebehaviortendencies:
Organismsatbirthpossessreceptoreffectorconnections(SUR)which,undercombined
stimulation(S)anddrive(D),havethepotentialityofevokingahierarchyofresponsesthateither
individuallyorincombinationaremorelikelytoterminatetheneedthanwouldbearandom
selectionfromthereactionpotentialsresultingfromotherstimulusanddrivecombinations.(p.
66)
4.Postulate4Habitstrength[3]asafunctionofthetemporalrelationoftheconditionedstimulus
tothereaction:
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Wheneveraneffectoractivity(r>R)andareceptoractivity(S>s)occurinclosetemporal
contiguity(sCr),andthissCriscloselyassociatedwiththediminutionofaneed(G)orwitha
stimuluswhichhasbeencloselyandconsistentlyassociatedwiththediminutionofaneed(Gdot),
therewillresultanincrementtoatendency(SHR)forthatafferentimpulseonlateroccasionsto
evokethatreaction.Theincrementsfromsuccessivereinforcementssummateinamannerwhich
yieldsacombinedhabitstrength(SHR)whichisasimplepositivegrowthfunctionofthenumber
ofreinforcements(N).Theupperlimit(m)ofthiscurveoflearningistheproductof(1)apositive
growthfunctionofthemagnitudeofneedreductionwhichisinvolvedinprimary,orwhichis
associatedwithsecondary,reinforcement;(2)anegativefunctionofthedelay(t)inreinforcement;
and(3)(a)anegativegrowthfunctionofthedegreeofasynchronism(t)ofSdotandRwhenboth
areofbriefduration,or(b),incasetheactionofSisprolongedsoastooverlapthebeginningof
R,anegativegrowthfunctionoftheduration(t)ofthecontinuousactionofSdotonthereceptor
whenRbegins.(p.178)
5.Postulate5Primarystimulusequivalenceandstimulusgeneralization:[4]
TheeffectivehabitstrengthSHbarRisjointly(1)anegativegrowthfunctionofthestrengthofthe
habitatthepointofreinforcement(Sdot)and(2)ofthemagnitudeofthedifference(d)onthe
continuumofthatstimulusbetweentheafferentimpulsesofsdotandsinunitsofdiscrimination
thresholds(j.n.d.s);wheredrepresentsaqualitativedifference,theslopeofthegradientofthe
negativegrowthfunctionissteeperthanwhereitrepresentsaquantitativedifferences.(p.199)
6.Postulate6Primarymotivation:[5][6]
Associatedwitheverydrive(D)isacharacteristicdrivestimulus(SD)whoseintensityisan
increasingmonotonicfunctionofthedriveinquestion.(p.253)
7.Postulate7Reactionpotential:[7]
Anyeffectivehabitstrength(SHbarR)issensitizedintoreactionpotentiality(SER)byallprimary
drivesactivewithinanorganismatagiventime,themagnitudeofthispotentialitybeinga
productobtainedbymultiplyinganincreasingfunctionofSHRbyanincreasingfunctionofD.(p.
253)
8.Postulate8Innateinhibitionfromprimarynegativedrive:
Wheneverareaction(R)isevokedinanorganismthereiscreatedasaresultaprimarynegative
drive(D);(a)thishasaninnatecapacity(IR)toinhibitthereactionpotentiality(SER)tothat
response;(b)theamountofnetinhibition(IdotR)generatedbyasequenceofreactionevocationsis
asimplelinearincreasingfunctionofthenumberofevocations(n);and(c)itisapositively
acceleratedincreasingfunctionofthework(W)involvedintheexecutionoftheresponse;(d)
reactiveinhibition(IR)spontaneouslydissipatesasasimplenegativegrowthfunctionoftime
(t).(p.300)
9.Postulate9Conditionedinhibitionthelearnedresponseofnotresponding:

Stimuli(S)closelyassociatedwiththecessationofaresponse(R)(a)becomeconditionedtothe

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Stimuli(S)closelyassociatedwiththecessationofaresponse(R)(a)becomeconditionedtothe
inhibition(IR)associatedwiththeevocationofthatresponse,therebygeneratingconditioned
inhibition;(b)conditionedinhibitions(SIR)summatephysiologicallywithreactiveinhibition(IR)
againstthereactionpotentialitytoagivenresponseaspositivehabittendenciessummatewith
eachother.(p.300)
10.Postulate10Inhibitorypotentialityvariesfrominstanttoinstance:
Associatedwitheveryreactionpotential(SER)thereexistsaninhibitorypotentiality(SOR)which
oscillatesinamountfrominstanttoinstantaccordingtothenormallawofchance.Theamount
ofthisinhibitorypotentialityassociatedwiththeseveralhabitsofagivenorganismataparticular
instantisuncorrelated,andtheamountofdiminutioninSEbarRatthetimeavailable.(p.319)
11.Postulate11Momentaryeffectivereactionmustexceedreactionthreshold:
Themomentaryeffectivereactionpotential(SEbardotR)mustexceedthereactionthreshold(SLR)
beforeastimulus(S)willevokeagivenreaction(R).(p.344)
12.Postulate12Probabilityofstriatedmusclereactionevocation:
Otherthingsequal,theprobability(p)ofstriatedmusclereactionevocationisanormal
probability(ogival)functionoftheextenttowhichtheeffectivereactionpotential(SEbarR)
exceedsthereactionthreshold(SLR).(p.344)
13.Postulate13Thegreaterthemomentaryeffectivereactionpotential,theshorterwillbethe
latencybetweenstimulusandresponse:
Otherthingsequal,thelatency(StR)ofastimulusevokingastriatedmusclereactionisa
negativelyaccelerateddecreasingmonotonicfunctionofthemomentaryeffectivereaction
potential(SEbardotR),providedthelatterexceedsthereactionthreshold(SLR).(p.344)
14.Postulate14Extinction:
Otherthingsequal,themeannumberofunreinforcedstriatedmusclereactionevocations(n)
requiredtoproduceexperimentalextinctionisasimplelinearincreasingfunctionoftheeffective
reactionpotential(SEbarR)providedthelatterattheoutsetexceedsthereactionthreshold(SLR).
(p.344)
15.Postulate15Amplitudeofresponse:
Otherthingsequal,theamplitude(A)ofresponsesmediatedbytheautonomicnervoussystemis
asimplelinearincreasingfunctionofthemomentaryeffectivereactionpotential(SEbardotR).(p.
344)
16.Postulate16Incompatibleresponse:

Whenthereactionpotentials( E )totwoormoreincompatiblereactions(R)occurinan

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Whenthereactionpotentials(SER)totwoormoreincompatiblereactions(R)occurinan
organismatthesametime,onlythereactionwhosemomentaryeffectivereactionpotential
(SEbardotR)isgreatestwillbeevoked.(p.344)
Inlaterwork,Hullalsodescribedthefollowinginfluentialideas:
1.IncentiveMotivation.In1943,Hullassumedthatthegreatertheamountofrewardthegreater
theamountofdrivereduction.
Fromtheseconsiderations,coupledwiththeamountofreinforcementhypothesis,itmaybe
inferredthatthesuccessfulreactionwillbemorestronglyconditionedtothestimulusaggregate
arisingfromalargepieceoffoodthantothatfromasmallone.Therefore,givenanormalhunger
drive,theorganismwillexecutethecorrectoneofseveralactsoriginallyevokedbythesituation
morepromptly,morevigorously,morecertainly,andmorepersistentlywhenalargeamountof
foodisstimulatingitsreceptorsthanwhentheyarestimulatedbyasmallamount.(pp.131132)
Sincetheamountofneedreductionpresumablyvarieswiththeamountofthereinforcingagent
consumedbytheorganism,itfollowsasastrongprobabilityfromthedependenceof
reinforcementupontheamountofneedreductionthattheincrementofhabitstrength(SHR)per
reinforcementwillbeanincreasingfunctionoftheamountofthereinforcingagentemployed.(p.
132)
Experiments(suchasthosebyCrespi(1942,1944)andZeaman(1949),ascitedinHergenhahn,
1982,p.140)ledHulltoconcludethatorganismslearnjustasrapidlyforasmallrewardasfora
largeone,butperformance,oncethebehaviorislearned,variesaccordingtothesizeofthereward.
2.StimulusIntensityDynamism.Thegreatertheintensityofthestimulus,thegreaterthe
probabilitythatalearnedresponsewillbeelicited(Hergenhahn,1982,p.141).
3.DriveReductionvs.DriveStimulusReduction.Hullstheorywasoriginallytermedadrive
reductiontheoryoflearning.Herevisedthisterminologytodrivestimulusreductionfortwo
reasons.Thefirstisbecauseofthelatencybetweenthetimeadrivesatisfyingrewardis
introducedandtheactualreductionofthedriveitself.Hulldecidedthatdrivereductionwastoo
farremovedfromthepresentationofthereinforcementtoexplainhowlearningwastakingplace.
Thesecondreasonisthata1950studyreportedbySheffieldandRoby(citedinHull,1952,p.153)
foundthathungryratswerereinforcedbynonnutritivesaccharineasubstancethatcouldnot
possiblyhavereducedthehungerdrive.Hullconcludedthattheingestionofthesaccharine
sweetenedwaterreduceshungertension(thedrivestimulus)butnotthedriveitself,andthus
servedasareinforcer.
4.FractionalAntedatingGoalReactions.AsPavlovdiscovered,anorganismcandevelopa
conditionedresponsetostimuliexperiencedjustpriortothebehaviorthatisreinforced.Itisthis
conditionedresponsetoantecedentstimulithatHullreferstoasanticipatorygoalreactions
(1951,p.24)orfractionalantedatinggoalreactions(1952,pp.124155).Thisresponseisa
fractionoftheendgoalresponse.Thisfractionalresponsebringstheorganismclosertotheend

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goal.Astheresponseismade,thefiringofkinestheticreceptorsintheorganismcauses
proprioceptivestimulithatsimultaneouslyreinforcetheresponseandstimulateanadditional
response.
FractionalantedatinggoalreactionswereHullsanswertohowmazelearningoccurred,
suggestingthatchainsareestablishednotonlythroughinstrumentalconditioning,asproposed
bySkinner,butalsothroughclassicalconditioningi.e.,inHullsview,acombinationofthetwo.
Therat,havingbeenrewardedintheendgoalboxofthemaze,beginstoassociate,inanticipatory
fashion,stimulithatitexperiencedjustpriortoenteringthegoalboxwithitsownkinesthetic
responsethatmoveditintothegoalbox,andintocontactwiththereward.Therewardreinforces
theactionsmadeinresponsetostimulijustpriortoenteringthegoalbox.Thestimulijustpriorto
enteringthegoalboxreinforceactionsmadejustpriortoencounteringthosestimuli.Similarly,
eachsetofstimuliencounteredonthewaytothegoalboxbecomesassociatedwiththeprior
responsethatbroughttheratintothatstateandeachservesasacueforaction.Thischain
continuesallthewaybacktothestartofthemazesothatthestimulusofthestartboxislinked
throughonefractionalantedatinggoalresponseafteranothertothegoalbox.
Thesixteenpostulatesandfouradditionalideasstatedaboveleaveouttheverylengthydetails
typicalinHullswriting.Asanexample,Mathematicodeductivetheoryofrotelearning(Hull,1940),
isfilledwithoverthreehundredpagesofmathematicalequationsandproofsoftheoremsderived
fromthebasicpostulates.Theideasareconveyedprimarilythroughsymbolsandsymbolic
relationsmorethanthenarrativeprosecommontothepresentationofmostlearningtheories,and
familiartomostreaders.Doubtlessthisresultedinthetheoryfallingoutsidethegraspof,or
beyondthelimitsofreasonableutilityfor,mosteducationalpractitioners.
Inadditiontothecomplexityofthetheory,thefactthatithadsomefairlyradicalchangesina
relativelyshortperiodoftime,andthefallingoutoffavorofsystemstheoriesbythemid1900s
mayalsoaccountforitslackofadoptioninpracticalpedagogicalapplication.

[1]Hullsintentionwastowriteathreevolumeseriestocoverinanelementarymannerthe
rangeofordinarymammalianbehavior(Hull,1952,p.vii).ThefirstvolumeisPrinciplesof
Behavior(Hull,1943),updatesandrevisionstowhichwerepublishedinEssentialsofBehavior
(Hull,1951).ThesecondvolumeisABehaviorSystem(1952),themanuscriptforwhichwas
writtenbyHull,buttheproofingandprintofwhichoccurredafterhepassedaway.Thethird
volumewasneverwritten.
[2]ForconvenienceofreferenceIhavelabeledthemwithtitleswhichbrieflysummarizethecore
ideaofthepostulate,forexample,Sensoryinputandthestimulustrace,Interactionofafferent
neuralimpulses,Innatebehaviortendencies,etc.However,thereaderwillpleasenotethat
thesetitlesareassignedbyme,notHull.
[3]Habitstrength,oneofHullsmostimportantconcepts,referstothestrengthoftheassociation
betweenastimulusandaresponse.Asthenumberofpairingsbetweenthetwogoesup,thehabit
strengthgoesup.Themathematicalformulathatdescribesthisrelationshipisasfollows,whereN
isthenumberofpairingsbetweenstimulusandresponse:
0.0305N
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0.0305N
SHR=110

[4]c.f.Thorndikestheoryofidenticalelements(Thorndike,1914a,p.268)andthetransferof
training(p.276).
[5]Hull(1943)explainedthatsignificantempiricalevidencehasledtothetentativeconclusion
thatallprimarydrivesproducetheireffectsbytheactionofvariouschemicalsintheblood(p.
251):
Drivesubstances,suchasthevariousendocrinesecretions,areconceivedeithertobereleasedinto
thebloodbycertainkindsofstrongstimulationorasthemselvesinitiatingstimulationofresident
receptorsthroughtheirevocationofactionbyselectedportionsofthebody,e.g.,theintestinal
tractandthegenitalia.Inbothcasestheenergyeffectingthisreceptoractivationiscalledthedrive
stimulus(SD).(p.252)
[6]HergenhahnandOlsen(1982,p.131148)explainedthispostulateasfollows:
Biologicaldeficiencyintheorganismproducesadrivestate.Eachdrivestatehasspecificstimuli
associatedwithit(e.g.hungerpains,drymouth,etc).Theexistenceofspecificdrivestimuli
makeitpossibletoteachananimaltobehaveinonewayunderonedriveandanotherwayunder
another.
[7]Hullsformulaforreactionpotential:
ReactionPotential=SER=SHRxD
<OperantConditioning(BurrhusFredricSkinner1938)(../dissertation/chapter3literature
review2/thebehavioralperspective/operantconditioningburrhusfredricskinner1938/)
|ContiguousConditioning(EdwinR.Guthrie1930)(../dissertation/chapter3literaturereview
2/thebehavioralperspective/contiguousconditioningedwinrguthrie1930/)>

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