Tommaso d'Aquino, OP (/kwans/; 1225 7 March 1274), also known

asThomas Aquinas, was an Italian[3][4] Dominican friar and Catholic

priest who was an immensely influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in
the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the "Doctor
Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis".[5] He is heralded as the most influential
Western medieval legal scholar and theologist. "Aquinas" is from the county
of Aquino, an area where his family held land until 1137.
He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father
ofThomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much
ofmodern philosophy was conceived in development or opposition of his
ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and
political theory. Unlike many currents in the Church of the time,[6] Thomas
embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle whom he referred to as
"the Philosopher" and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with
the principles of Christianity.[7] The works for which he is best known are
the Summa Theologicaand the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on
Sacred Scripture and on Aristotle are an important part of his body of work.
Furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a
part of the Church's liturgy.[8]
Thomas is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church and is held to be the
model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest
expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times,
under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the
required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons,
as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the
sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology, church history,
liturgy, canon law).[9]
Also honored as a Doctor of the Church, Thomas is considered the Church's
greatest theologian and philosopher. Pope Benedict XV declared: "This
(Dominican) Order ... acquired new luster when the Church declared the
teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the special
praises of the Pontiffs, the master and patron of Catholic schools."[10]
Count Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (Italian: [dovanni piko della mi
randola]; 24 February 1463 17 November 1494) was an ItalianRenaissance
philosopher.[1] He is famed for the events of 1486, when at the age of 23, he
proposed to defend 900 theses on religion, philosophy, natural philosophy,
and magic against all comers, for which he wrote the famousOration on the

Dignity of Man, which has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance",
[2] and a key text of Renaissance humanism and of what has been called the
"Hermetic Reformation
Ren Descartes (/dekrt/;[5] French: [ne dekat]; Latinized: Renatus
Cartesius; adjectival form: "Cartesian";[6] 31 March 1596 11 February
1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who spent
most of his life in the Dutch Republic.
He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much
subsequentWestern philosophy is a response to his writings,[7][8] which are
studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First
Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy
departments. Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally apparent;
the Cartesian coordinate system allowing reference to a point in space as
a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as
geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely,
shapes to be described as equations) was named after him. He is credited
as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and
geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis.
Descartes was also one of the key figures in thescientific revolution and has
been described as an example of genius.
Descartes refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers, and
refused to trust his own senses. He frequently set his views apart from those
of his predecessors. In the opening section of the Passions of the Soul, a
treatise on the early modern version of what are now commonly
called emotions, Descartes goes so far as to assert that he will write on this
topic "as if no one had written on these matters before". Many elements of
his philosophy have precedents in late Aristotelianism, the revived
Stoicism of the 16th century, or in earlier philosophers like Augustine. In his
natural philosophy, he differs from the schools on two major points: First, he
rejects the splitting of corporeal substance into matter and form; second, he
rejects any appeal to final endsdivine or naturalin explaining natural
phenomena.[9] In his theology, he insists on the absolute freedom of God's
act of creation.
Descartes laid the foundation for 17th-century continental rationalism, later
advocated by Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, and opposed by
theempiricist school of thought consisting of Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley,
and Hume. Leibniz, Spinoza and Descartes were all well versed in

mathematics as well as philosophy, and Descartes and Leibniz contributed

greatly to science as well.
His best known philosophical statement is "Cogito ergo sum" (French: Je
pense, donc je suis; I think, therefore I am), found in part IV of Discourse on
the Method (1637 written in French but with inclusion of "Cogito ergo sum")
and 7 of part I of Principles of Philosophy (1644 written in Latin)
Niccol di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (Italian: [nikkol makjavlli]; 3 May 1469
21 June 1527) was an Italian historian, politician, diplomat,
philosopher,humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance.
Heralded as one of the founders of modern political science, and more
specifically political ethics, he was for many years an official in the Florentine
Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs, He also wrote
comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is
renowned in theItalian language. He was secretary to the
Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when
the Medici were out of power. He wrote his most renowned work The
Prince (Il Principe) in 1513 after the Medici had recovered power and he no
longer held a position of responsibility in Florence. His views on the
importance of a strong ruler who was not afraid to be harsh with his subjects
and enemies were most likely influenced by the Italian city-states, which due
to a lack of unification were very vulnerable to other unified nation-states
such as France.
"Machiavellianism" is a widely-used negative term to characterize
unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described in The Prince. The
book itself gained enormous notoriety and wide readership because most
readers assumed the author was teaching and endorsing evil and immoral
behavior. Because of this, the term "Machiavellian" is often associated with
deceit, deviousness, ambition, and brutality, although Machiavelli likely only
used it as stylistic device to gain the reader's attention for his close analysis
of the actual techniques used by rulers.

Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (/hbz/; 5 April 1588 4 December 1679), in

some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury,[a] was an English
philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651
book Leviathan established social contract theory, the foundation of most
later Western political philosophy.[1]

Though on rational grounds a champion of absolutism for the sovereign,

Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal
thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the
artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction
between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political
power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and
a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the
law does not explicitly forbid.[2]
He was one of the founders of modern political philosophy and political
science.[3][4] His understanding of humans as being matter and motion,
obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion, remains
influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation,
and of political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains
one of the major topics of political philosophy.
In addition to political philosophy, Hobbes also contributed to a diverse array
of other fields, including history, geometry,
the physics of gases, theology, ethics, and general philosophy.
Baruch Spinoza (/bruk spnoz/;[3] born Benedito de Espinosa; 24
November 1632 21 February 1677, later Benedict de Spinoza) was
aDutch philosopher of Sephardi Portuguese origin.[2] The breadth and
importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until many years after his
death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century Enlightenment[4] and
modern biblical criticism,[5] including modern conceptions of the self and,
arguably, the universe,[6] he came to be considered one of the
greatrationalists of 17th-century philosophy.[7] His magnum opus, the
posthumousEthics, in which he opposed Descartes' mindbody dualism, has
earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important
thinkers. In theEthics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece,
and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally
turned against themselves and destroyed entirely."[8] Hegel said, "You are
either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."[9] His philosophical
accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century
philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers".[10]
Spinoza's given name varies between different languages: Hebrew:
Baruch Spinoza, Portuguese: Benedito or Bento de
Espinosa and Latin:Benedictus de Spinoza; in all these languages, the given
name means "Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish

community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding

the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish
religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: , a kind of ban, shunning,
ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against him, effectively excluding
him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the
Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.
Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as a lens grinder, turning down
rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching
positions.
Spinoza died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness,
perhaps tuberculosisor silicosis exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while
grinding optical lenses. Spinoza is buried in the churchyard of the
Christian Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague.[11]
John Locke FRS (/lk/; 29 August 1632 28 October 1704), was an
Englishphilosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential
ofEnlightenment thinkers and known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism".
[1][2][3] Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the
tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social
contracttheory. His work greatly affected the development
of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings
influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as
well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical
republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in theUnited States Declaration
of Independence.[4]
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions
ofidentity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers
such as Hume, Rousseau, and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self
through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that, at birth,
the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to Cartesian philosophy
based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born
without innate ideas, and thatknowledge is instead determined only
by experience derived from senseperception.[5]
David Hume (/hjum/; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) 25 August 1776)
was a Scottish historian, philosopher, economist, diplomat and essayist
known today especially for his radical
philosophical empiricism and skepticism.

In light of Hume's central role in the Scottish Enlightenment, and in the

history of Western philosophy,[2] Bryan Magee judged him as a philosopher
"widely regarded as the greatest who has ever written in the English
language."[3]While Hume failed in his attempts to start a university career,
he took part in various diplomatic and military missions of the time. He
wrote The History of England, which became a bestseller, and it became the
standard history of England in its day.
His empirical approach places him with John Locke, George Berkeley, and a
handful of others at the time as a British Empiricist.[4]
Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume strove to create
a total naturalistic "science of man" that examined the psychological basis
ofhuman nature. In opposition to the rationalists who preceded him, most
notablyRen Descartes, he concluded that desire rather
than reason governed human behaviour. He also argued against the
existence of innate ideas, concluding that humans have knowledge only of
things they directly experience. He argued that inductive reasoning and
therefore causality cannot be justified rationally. Our assumptions in favour
of these result from custom and constant conjunction rather than logic. He
concluded that humans have no actual conception of the self, only of
a bundle of sensations associated with the self.
Hume's compatibilist theory of free will proved extremely influential on
subsequent moral philosophy. He was also a sentimentalist who held that
ethics are based on feelings rather than abstract moral principles, and
expounded the isought problem.
Hume has proved extremely influential on subsequent western philosophy,
especially on utilitarianism, logical positivism, William James, the philosophy
of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive philosophy, theology and
other movements and thinkers. In addition, according to philosopher Jerry
Fodor, Hume's Treatise is "the founding document of cognitive science".
[5] Hume engaged with contemporary intellectual luminaries such as JeanJacques Rousseau, James Boswell, and Adam Smith (who acknowledged
Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy). Immanuel
Kant credited Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumbers".[6]
Immanuel Kant (/knt/;[1] German: [manuel kant]; 22 April 1724 12
February 1804) was a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a
central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts
structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality. His

thought continues to have a major influence in contemporary thought,

especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political
philosophy, and aesthetics.[2]
Kant's major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft,
1781),[3] aimed to explain the relationship between reason and human
experience. With this project, he hoped to move beyond what he took to be
failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He attempted to put an
end to what he considered an era of futile and speculative theories of human
experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as David Hume.
Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our
minds. In his view, the mind shapes and structures experience so that, on an
abstract level, all human experience shares certain essential structural
features. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts
of space andtime are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts
of cause andeffect.[4] One important consequence of this view is that one
never has directexperience of things, the so-called noumenal world, and that
what we do experience is the phenomenal world as conveyed by our senses.
These claims summarize Kant's views upon the subjectobject problem. Kant
published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics,
astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical
Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788), the Metaphysics of
Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics, and
the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks
at aesthetics and teleology.
Kant aimed to resolve disputes
between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all
knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and
innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective
without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason
without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free
and proper exercise of reason by the individual was a theme both of the Age
of Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of
philosophy. His ideas influenced many thinkers in Germany during his
lifetime, and he moved philosophy beyond the debate between the
rationalists and empiricists. Kant is seen as a major figure in the history and
development of philosophy.

Jeremy Bentham (/bnm/; 15 February [O.S. 4 February] 1748 6 June

1832) was a British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as
the founder of modern utilitarianism.
Bentham became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law,
and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism.
He advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church
and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to
divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts.[1] He called for
the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the death penalty, and the abolition
of physical punishment, including that of children.[2] He has also become
known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights.[3] Though
strongly in favour of the extension ofindividual legal rights, he opposed the
idea of natural law and natural rights, calling them "nonsense upon stilts".[4]
Bentham's students included his secretary and collaborator James Mill, the
latter's son, John Stuart Mill, the legal philosopher John Austin, as well
asRobert Owen, one of the founders of utopian socialism. Bentham has been
described as the "spiritual founder" of University College London, though he
played little direct part in its foundation.[5]