Lab Report 1

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to get comfortable with different forms of measurement and conversions in order
to work with the concepts and use them in later labs.
Lab Observations:
In this lab there were not many things to observe, but that does not mean that I did not learn a lot from this lab.
I began by using a ruler and string to measure several objects such as my favorite sandals, my index finger, pencil,
the width of my debit card and the circumference of my head and thigh. After measuring these items, I calculated
the conversions necessary with a calculator (as it am not a very good math student). I also calculated the value of
uncertainty for each measurement. After doing this in table 1.1, I was able to calculate the volume of my head in
table 1.2. I next moved on to length measurements which I was given measurements to convert between
kilometers, meters, miles and feet. The next two tables called for mass and volume conversion which I was able to
calculate. The last two tables were temperature conversion and binary fission bacteria growth. I completed all
tables and now feel confident in my conversion skills with all the opportunities that I was given to practice with in
this lab.
Lab Answers:
1. Using a metric ruler, determine the length of the items in Table 1.1 below:
In the final column, you are to estimate your measurement precision. To do this, measure each item a second or even third
time. How close are the measurements? If there is a range of values for the length you measure, record the average
difference between measurement values as your uncertainty. If your measured value for a given object appears the same
after repeated measurements, this does not necessarily mean that your uncertainty is zero. Look closely at your ruler or
measurement device and estimate the smallest unit of length that you would be able to discriminate with it. Every
measurement device has limits. For instance, very few people use a ruler with a precision greater than 1/3 or 1/2 of a
millimeter; in many cases, even this precision is difficult or impossible to obtain. Typically +/- 1 mm is standard for
measuring flat objects with a ruler, but this uncertainty can be expected to go up when the object has significant curvature or
its length is not quite so well defined.
To measure the circumference (length around) of your head or thigh, wrap a piece of string around it and mark where the
string meets itself. Then lay the string out flat and measure the length with your ruler.
Table 1.1. Metric measurements and uncertainties.
meters
cm
Your favorite shoe
0.2794
Your index finger
0.08382
A pencil
0.0787
Fingernail of your pinky 0.010668
Width of a credit card
0.003556
The circumference of
0.6350
your thigh
The circumference of
0.5334
your head
2. Measure and record volume in Table 1.2.

mm

inches

27.94
8.382
7.874
1.0668
0.3556
63.50

279.4
83.82
78.74
10.668
3.556
635

11
3.3
3.1
.42
.14
25

Uncertainty

+/-.25
+/-.2
+/-.25
+/-.2
+/-.1
+/-1

53.34

533.4

21

+/-1

Estimate the rough volume of your head by using the circumference (denoted C) and multiplying out this formula (based on
the volume of a sphere =4r3/3 = C3/(6
Volume 1/59 C C C = C3/59
Estimate the uncertainty in your head volume (V, called "delta V") calculation by using the uncertainty in your
measurement of the circumference of your head (denoted C) and multiplying through the following formula:
V 3/59 C C C = 3/59 C2 C
Table 1.2. Head volume and uncertainty estimates.
Circumference
Uncertainty in
Head Volume
(C)
Circumference
(C)
1/59 C3
21
22.42
156.7 cm3

Uncertainty in
Head Volume (V)
3/59 C2 C
+/-1

3. Complete the conversions in Table 1.3. The first row has been done.
Table 1.3. Length conversions.
Length
km
2.0 km
2.0
705 m
.705
3.25 miles
5.23
300 ft
.091

m
2,000
705
5230.3
91.44

miles
1.24
.438
3.25
.05

feet
6,562
2312.9
17160
300

4. Complete the conversions in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4. Mass conversions.
Weight
kg
5.0 kg
5.0
400 g
.4
50 pounds
22.67

g
5000
400
22679.6

pounds (lbs)
11.02
.881
50

ml
6000
600
11356.23

gallons
1.585
.158
3

5. Complete the conversions in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5. Volume conversions.
Volume
liters
6.0 liters (l)
6.0
600 ml
.6
3 gallons
11.35
6. Complete the conversions in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6. Temperature conversions.
Temperature
C

100 C
27 C
-2 C
27 F
95 F
-40 F

100
27
-2
2.77
35
-40

212
80.6
28.4
27
95
-40

7. Population biologists use the term Doubling time to refer to how long it takes a population to double in size. This concept is
particularly useful when the average time for a given individual to reproduce is fairly constant in a species. Consider a
bacterial population that can reproduce by dividing into two daughter cells (binary fission) from an original single individual
cell. Assume a doubling time of ten minutes and fill out the following table. At time zero there is one bacterium, ten minutes
later there are two bacteria, ten minutes after that there are 4 bacteria, etc. Fill in the blanks in Table 1.7.
Table 1.7. Population growth.
Number of
1
Bacteria
Time

8
30 min

1 hour

2 hour

First
exceeds
10,000
2 h 12 min

Conclusion:
This lab helped me learn about measurement and the conversion methods in different types of
measurement. By measuring everyday objects and converting them to different forms of measurement several
times, this helped me to grasp the concepts and methods presented. First I measured metrically where I learned
that my favorite sandal is 11 inches long, meaning that it is also 0.2794 meters, 27.94 centimeters and 279.4
millimeters. I learned that this was the case in metric measurements, but also in length, mass, volume and
temperature conversions. I found that it was very interesting in the temperature conversions that -40 F is also -40
C. The last section integrated some of the learning material that I gained from the virtual labs when we worked with
binary fission. The replication of bacteria in binary fission is very rapid and has made me very scared of the
bacteria all around me. This lab was very helpful in learning how different units of measure convert differently and
this may be very beneficial to me in future experiments.

Lab Report 2

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to observe and recognize different catalase activities and pH changes.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I first collected all necessary materials and read through the experiment before beginning. I
gathered some glasses from my kitchen, making sure that the one that held the ammonia was disposable. I then
peeled and chopped up a white potato and added it to glasses 2-4. I then added water to glass one, water to glass
two, vinegar to glass three, and ammonia to glass four. Next I let the glasses sit for five minutes so that the
potatoes could have time to absorb the various liquids before adding in the hydrogen peroxide to each solution.
When I added the hydrogen peroxide it seemed that glass four was showing the largest reaction, but this changed
within a few minutes as the bubbles in cup two grew largely as time passed. I then recorded my observations in
regards to the catalase reactions by describing each cups number of bubbles, size of bubbles, an estimation of pH
and the amount of catalase activity.
Lab Answers:
1. Fill in the following table. Compare all cups. Use relative terms to describe the size and number of bubbles in each cup. For
instance, describe the Number of Bubbles using the terms: No bubbling, Moderate bubbling, Good bubbling, Very good
bubbling. To describe average bubble size use the terms: Very small, Small, Large, or Very large. To describe pH without
access to pH detectors, simply use the pH chart earlier in this chapter to describe each as acidic, neutral, or basic. To
describe the Catalase Activity, use your data on the size and number of bubbles to estimate the amount of gas produced in
the Catalase mediated process. Use the following terms: Very Low, Low, Moderate, High, Very high
Table 2.1. Catalase reaction observations.
Cup Number of Bubbles Size of
Bubbles
1
No Bubbling
None
2

Very good Bubbling

Very Large

pH
Neutra
l
Neutra
l

Catalase
Activity
Very Low
Very High

3
4

Moderate Bubbling
Good Bubbling

Small
Large

Acidic
Basic

Low
High

2. Bubbling indicates the formation of what chemical?

Bubbling means that oxygen is being released from the solution due to the catalyst activity.
3. Describe the activity of Catalase as pH increases. Do you think that other enzymes are likely to behave in this way as well?
Why or why not.
The catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction and breakdown of molecules I think that other enzymes will act
similarly.
4. Assume that you have a pH meter which would enable you to very accurately measure the pH of a solution. Describe an
experimental design that would allow you to pinpoint the exact pH at which Catalase is the most active.
If I was going to use pH strips, I would monitor the pH in many phases of the experiment. I would first test the pH
with the water only, then after I added the potatoes, then 5-10 minutes later after the solutions absorbed into the
potatoes and after I added the hydrogen peroxide. This would ensure that I could identify definitively what changes
occurred in pH throughout the duration of the experiment.
5. Regarding cup #1:
a) Describe the utility of cup #1 as a control.
Cup one served as a control in this experiment. Without this cup, I wouldnt have been able to see a great contrat
and identify which elements had the greatest amount of catalyst activity.
b) What other material did you introduce to this cup? Describe what you observed. How does Catalase activity in the material
you investigated compare to potato?
I did not introduce any other material in this cup because I used it to compare it to other cups as a control. I
imagine using other types of materials would create different reactions based on the material.
Conclusion:
I found this experiment to be very fun and also informational. I did not think that potatoes would change the
reaction activity so largely from glass one to glass two, this was very surprising and interesting to learn. I liked that
this experiment was simple but also very easy to understand and measure results. I learned that the catalyst
reaction can be very different dependent on which material are used to conduct the experiment. I think that using
pH strips as described in question 5b would have enhanced this experiment but without them I was still able to
measure visual differences between the reactions. I would like to do this experiment with pH strips in the future,
they are just difficult to find at times.

Lab Report 3

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to experiment with different materials and conditions to create the optimal
conditions to which the carbon cycle can be carried out.
Lab Observations:
To set up this experiment, I gathered all materials and read through the procedures before beginning the
experiment. I first began by drinking a lot of diet coke to clear out the bottles for the experiment then washed them
so that they would be ready for the experiment, I then took all the bottles and labeled the bottles and caps with
permanent marker so that I would be able to keep track of which bottles contained each element. I then began
putting the yeast in each bottle, followed by the allotted amount of water and sugar as described in table 2.1. I then
measured the height of each solution to make sure that if there were any changes during the experiment I would be
able to observe them. I then added the balloons to the top of each bottle and placed bottles 2-6 in a large pot with
just enough water so they would not float, and added the meat thermometer to the pot as well so that I could
monitor the temperature within the pot. I then turned the heat on low and waited for 20 minutes and observed and
recorded the results below. I also took before and after pictures (the first two above from right when I started to the
third picture of how they turned out after 20 minutes).
Lab Answers:
1. List the following experimental materials:
a) Kind of yeast used: Fleischmanns Fresh Active Yeast
b) Kind of water used: Tap water
c) Average temperature of the water bath during the experiment: 110 F
d) Average room temperature during the experiment (estimate if necessary): 78 F
e) Duration of yeast solutions exposure to bath: 20 Minutes
2. List your results in Tables 3.1 - 3.4.
Table 3.1. Independent variables and experimental conditions.

Bottle

Sugar

Yeast

Water

1
2
3
4

1 teasp
1 teasp
1 teasp
1/3
teasp
No
Sugar
2 teasp

2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp

5
6

To be heated in warm water bath?

cup
cup
cup
cup

Yeast solution
height (in cm)
3.048
3.048
3.048
3.048

cup

3.048

Yes.

No Yeast

Yes.

No Yeast cup

Table 3.2. Observations of dependent variables.

Bottle
Balloon size
Yeast growth
1
.75 inches
Low growth
2
2.20 inches
Large growth
3
2.20 inches
Large growth
4
1.45 inches
Medium growth
5
1 inch
Low/Medium
growth
6
None
None

No. Leave this bottle at room temp.

Yes.
Yes. Replicates bottle #2
Yes.

Other observations
Small expansion of balloon
Large expansion of balloon
Large expansion of balloon
Medium expansion of balloon
Small/Medium expansion of balloon
No expansion

Table 3.3. Balloon size and solution height measurements.

Bottle Circumference, Uncertainty in C, Radius
C (cm)
C
(long axis,
R;
cm)
1
1.905
+/-1
0.635
2
5.08
+/-1
1.524
3
5.08
+/-1
1.524
4
3.175
+/-1
1.016
5
2.54
+/-1
0.762
6
0
+/-0
0

Uncertainty in R,
R

New height of
yeast solution
(in cm)

+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-0

1.905
5.08
5.08
3.175
2.54
0

3. In Table 3.4, record yeast growth and estimated volume of each balloon on Bottles 1-6.
a) Yeast growth = New height (in Table 3.3) - Original height (in Table 3.1)
b) If the balloon did not inflate, it has a volume of zero.
c) To estimate the volume of each balloon, use the following formula for the approximate volume of an ellipsoid with a horizontal
circumference C and long axis radius R (from Table 3.3):
Volume 2/19 (C C R)
d) To estimate the fractional uncertainty in the volume, use this formula:
V 2 (C + R) / C
Table 3.4. Yeast growth and balloon volume.

Bottle

Independent Variable

1
2
3
4
5
6

No heating
Control 1
Control 2
1/3 teaspoon sugar
No sugar
No yeast

Yeast growth:
(Change in
solution height)
None
2.5 cm
2.5
1.25
.75
0

Balloon Volume
(cm3)
None
15.63
15.63
7.81
.625
0

Uncertainty in
Balloon Volume
estimate (V)
+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-1
+/-0

4. Outline the experimental questions in this yeast activity (in a paragraph or two).
The goal of the experiment was to examine the elements of cellular respiration and the production of
carbon dioxide in the yeast. There were many variables to this experiment which is why six bottles were needed to
carry out this experiment. The use of these different variables was to see which would have an effect on the yeast
and if so, what kind of effect. The use of balloons captures the CO2 that is being released during the experiment.
5. Describe what is measured by the balloon volume. How does it correlate with yeast growth?
The volume of the balloon is determines by the amount of CO2 released during the experiment.
6. Compare Bottles # 2 & 3. Are they very different? Discuss the utility of having a duplicate measurement when considering the
precision of your experimental technique.
Bottles two and three I my experiment came out almost identical. This is a good thing considering the same
conditions were given to both of these bottles. This duplication validates the results reached for both bottles as
accurate.
7. Compare Bottles # 1 to 2 & 3 and discuss the effect of temperature on cellular respiration in yeast.
Temperature obviously has an effect on cellular respiration as these bottles displayed. If temperature had
no effect, the results of these bottles would be similar but they did not end up being similar. Yeast did not appear to
be active without the temperature change aided by the water temperature.
8. Compare Bottles # 2, 3, 4, 5 and discuss the effect of sugar on cellular respiration in yeast.
Comparing these bottles shows that sugar also plays a role in the activation of yeast. When no sugar was
present, there was little expansion of the balloon. Once sugar was added, it had a positive correlation to the
amount of yeast activation.
9. Discuss results obtained with your experimental Bottle #6 in comparison with the other experimental conditions.
This bottle exemplified that fact that the combination of these materials without yeast does not have the
same effect. This means that the yeast is the central material in this experiment because without it the same results
are not present.
10. In a paragraph or two, describe your conclusions, thoughts about what you learned about cellular respiration, and/or things
that went wrong.
The combination of yeast, sugar, water and increased temperature are the elements needed to produce
CO2 which was evident in the balloons. Sugar increases the amount of CO2 released when added to yeast and
water, so if I were to redo this experiment, I would add more yeast and sugar to another bottle to see if I could
create more carbon dioxide than even in bottle two and three. These varying elements cannot work alone and are
all required to create optimal CO2 production. One thing I would do differently would be to buy more yeast, as this
experiment requires a lot more than I expected, as I only bought a little since it was rather expensive.
Conclusion:
I really liked conducting this experiment because the results were really evident and therefore drawing
conclusions about the varying elements was pretty easy. I was very happy that I feel that I accurately measured
enough for the two controls, bottles two & three to come out with very similar results. I also was able to learn about
how different materials can have a very different outcome based on their quantity such as the addition and
subtraction of sugar in varying bottles. I really liked creating my own carbon cycle and it was both fun and

educational, I did not know that the amount of sugar would have such a great effect on the experiment so this
surprised me. I really enjoyed doing this experiment and it was a very great design for a home experiment.

Lab Report 4
Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment was to visually examine DNA as well as see influence DNA has on the
appearance of an individual.
Lab Observations:
The first part of this lab required me to gather materials, read through the procedures and chill the rubbing
alcohol for the experiment. After chilling the alcohol, I brought it out to proceed with the experiment. I then swished
water around in my mouth to extract the DNA needed for the experiment, I was also instructed to scratch the sides
of my mouth with my teeth in order to make a large about of DNA present for the experiment. I then added salt to
the solution as well as dish soap. After adding these elements I stirred the solution without creating bubbles
within. I then added the chilled alcohol and observed that the alcohol layered on top of the solution and observe
the DNA present itself and used a paper clip to investigate the solution. The DNA seemed stringy and it appeared to
form islands.
In the second part of this experiment, I examined my own phenotypes in order to examine which possible
genotypes these could correlate to. I also did this with my familys phenotypes. I filled in the tables supplied with
this information.
Lab Answers:
1. Describe what you can see in the final DNA extraction solution. Is the precipitant bubbly or stringy? Does it stick together or
does it form many islands?
The DNA strands stick together in the solution and form a strand when pulled out of the solution.
2. List your phenotype for the tongue rolling, ear attachment, and hitch-hiker thumb traits in Table 4.1. Use the following
notation:
a) If you can roll your tongue, then your phenotype is R. If you cannot, then your phenotype is r.
b) If your earlobes are unattached, then your phenotype is U. If your earlobes are attached, then your phenotype is u.
c) If you do not have a hitch-hiker thumb, then your phenotype is H. If you do have a hitch-hiker thumb, then your phenotype is
h.
Use the information above to determine your possible genotypes and record them in Table 4.1. Notice that the phenotype
for a given trait is recorded with a single letter, whereas the genotype requires two letters per trait.
Then, using what you have figured about your genotype, infer the different possible genotypes that your parents could have
had. For instance, if you determine that your possible genotype for earlobe attachment is UU or Uu, then the possible
parental genotypes are:
Possible parents of UU: UU UU; UU Uu; Uu Uu
Possible parents of Uu: UU Uu; UU uu; Uu Uu; Uu uu
For this question, do not ask your parents about their phenotypes! You will do this in question 3. Question 2 is an exercise
in inference based on your understanding of genetics.

Table 4.1. Personal phenotype and genotype; inferred possible parental genotypes.
Trait
Your
Your possible
Inferred possible parental genotypes
Phenotype Genotypes
Tongue rolling
R
RR
RR x Rr or RR x RR
(R or r)
U
Uu
UU x Uu or UU x UU
Earlobe attachment
(U or u)
h
hh
Hh x hh or hh x hh
Hitch-hiker thumb
(H or h)

3. Complete Table 4.2 for you, any blood relatives that you can ask (i.e., parents, siblings, children, etc.), and at least five
unrelated Others (e.g., spouse, friends, co-workers, etc.). As before, phenotypes for a given trait are recorded with a
single letter. You may wish to report separately on your children and spouse in Table 4.3.
Table 4.2. Observed parental, sibling, and others phenotypes,
Trait
Mothers
Fathers
Relatives
Phenotype Phenotype Phenotype(s)
Tongue rolling
Rr
RR
RR
(R or r)
Earlobe attachment
Uu
UU
Uu
(U or u)
Hitch-hiker thumb
hh
hh
Hh
(H or h)

Others
Phenotype(s)
Rr
uu
HH

In Table 4.2, are there any traits that are particularly common or uncommon among you and your relatives, compared to the
unrelated others?
In my family, although the gene for a hitchhikers thumb is recessive, many people in my family express this
trait. This implies that many people carry a gene that is hh or Hh in my family and it is more common in my
particular family than it is in general.
Conclusion:
I really enjoyed learning about DNA and the ways that it presents itself in physical characteristics. I have
never observed my own DNA, so I thought that being able to see it with the help of a few materials was really
interesting. I also earned about which phenotypes are evident in my own appearance as well as those of my family
and relatives. I found that in regard to tongue rolling and earlobes I carry dominate traits, but in regards to a hitchhikers thumb I carry a recessive trait and this is a trait that is present in my family very commonly. I really enjoyed
learning visually in all of these labs as it really aided my understanding of the concepts presented.

Lab Report 5
Purpose:

The purpose of this lab was to examine the life cycle of seeds and germination as well as learn how seeds are
dispersed by parent plants.
Lab Observations:
During the first portion of the lab I collected all the materials necessary for this experiment. I found a pinecone
from a tree near my house. With the pine cone, I followed all lab experiment instructions and recorded my results
below. The change in the pine cone suggested that water plays a large role in germination. The water acted as the
activation to release seeds in the pine cone.
In the second portion of the lab I learned about vascular transport by examining it in a celery stock as it filled
with water. This part of the lab helped convey the travel that water makes from the root to the top of plants.
The third part of the experiment consisted of gaining knowledge in the area of seed dispersal. I learned how
important it is for a parent plant to use various modes of transport to disperse seeds in order to increase their
likelihood of survival. I also learned how fire, smoke and heat can also be a catalyst to seed release in some plants
or trees and be beneficial to their ecology.
Lab Answers:
1. Anatomy of a pine.
a) Place your open seed cone into a cup of tap water.
b) Record: Time into water 10 minutes Cone appearance Pine cone begins to swell
c) Let the cone sit in the water for at least 30 minutes.
d) Record: Time out of water 5 minutes Cone appearance Pine cone has swollen more and now the scales of
the cone are beginning to become brittle and cracked. There is also a general color change in the pine cone as
well as a newly exposed seed.
2. Vascular transport.
a) Examine the top of the celery stalk. Record your observations:
The bottom of the celery stalk appears to be lighter than the green top. The top is green and leafy, it also
appears to be holding most of the water meaning that water may have traveled from bottom to top.
b) Make a cross-section cut where the celery stalk has not been split. Record your observations:
The cross section examined appears to be plentiful in water, with stringy fibers within it.
3. Answer the following questions about seed dispersal.
a) Why is it important for a parent plant to disperse its seeds? Notice that this is not asking why reproduction is
important.
It is important that parent plants disperse their seeds in order to create multiple environments for the seeds
so that they do not have to compete for nutrients and are able to flourish.
b) What do gymnosperms use to disperse seeds? What do angiosperms use?
Gymnosperms use the natural elements that are available to them to disperse their seeds, these elements
include but are not limited to water and wind. Angiosperms take advantage of the transport of fruits and
flowers by other animals to disperse their seeds.
c) Some gymnosperms, such as redwoods, release seeds only after a fire. Suggest a reason why this is done.
The heat, smoke and carbon dioxide produced by the fire acts as a catalyst for the seeds to be released.
Redwoods are so accustomed to fires that it has become a part of their lifecycle.
d) Design an experiment that would test the hypothesis that you posed in c).
A possible experiment could be testing the effect of fire, smoke and heat and then combinations of the
elements on the redwood seeds.
4. Which direction does xylem flow? What about phloem?
Xylem grows up starting from the roots and moving into the stem and upward. Phloem grows from the
source to designated sugar sinks.
5. Use Figure 5.4 to answer this question. What is the function of:
a) radicle? The radicle is the first element to emerge from a seed in order to absorb nutrients such as

b) hypocotyl? The hypocotyl is responsible for the maturation from seed to plant.
c) epicotyl? The epicotyl is the embryonic representation of what will later mature into a plants leaves.
Conclusion:
In this lab I learned about plants and how germination and production of seeds is very important to their
life cycles. In the pine cone, it was seen that water was used as an agent to influence the seed into being released.
In the second part of the lab, the celery was used to show how water is transported throughout a plant and this
gave a more visual representation about how water travels. This lab showed how different plants and trees such as
the redwoods use environmental elements to aid in their own germination processes and these elements can
actually act to release seeds. This lab showed many of the ways that plants participate in processes which aid their
life cycle and reproduction.

Lab Report 6
Purpose:
To understand the germination of seeds and the impact of various elements on the germination process.
Lab Observations:
The first step in the process of this lab was collecting all the necessary materials and first reading over the
instructions before I began, luckily I began this lab early so I was able to germinate the radish seeds and even
keep them a few days longer than required to view any additional changes. When I was viewing the celery in
the cups, the cup that had little to no salt seems to show that water traveled up from the base into the leaves.
When salt was added, the process was much slower. Based on the unequal distribution, salt pushed water out
of the celery rather than into it. I think that the celery was trying to avoid root damage from the salt so it pushed
down rather than up.
Salt seemed to have negative effects in both portions of this experiment as it also seemed to slow the rate
of germination in radishes. The more salt present, the slower the process of germination was able to be carried
out.
Lab Answers:

Lab 6A: Water transport and salinity

1. Examine the top of the celery stalks. Are there differences between the celery in the high salt and low salt water
conditions? Record your observations.
The celery that is exposed to larger amounts of salt begins to become slightly wilted. This could be because
water is being pushed out of the celery and into the salt water because of concentration. If the concentration is not
equal on both sides of the membrane then there will be movement of water molecules so the concentration must
be unequal.
2. Record the distance (cm) traveled by the red dye in high salt conditions (S), the blue dye in high salt conditions (S), the
red dye in low salt conditions (non-S) and the blue dye in low salt conditions (non-S).
Table 6.1
Distance (cm)
Red dye (S)

4.1 cm

Blue dye (S)

4.1 cm

Red dye (non-S)

4.1 cm

Blue dye (non-S)

4.1 cm

3. From Question 2 above, did the dyes travel at the same rate? What can you conclude about the effect of salinity on
water transport in celery from this experiment? Propose a biological or physical explanation for your conclusion.
The dyes changed the color of the leaves on the celery, but higher concentrations of slat slowed this
process. The eaves of celery changed colors completely whereas the stems changed in color slightly. Because
there was more of an unequal concentration in the solutions with larger salt contents it took longer for the
molecules to travel.

Lab 6B: Seed germination and environmental conditions

4. Observe the radish seed and sprout. Are radishes monocots or dicots? How can you tell?
The appearance of cotyledons and leaves during germination signify that a radish is a dicot.
5. Describe the results of your experiment in Table 6.2. How many sprouted seeds were present in each group per day?
Include any other relevant observations, such as appearance, color, etc. Include any alternative treatments or
conditions.
Table 6.2. Seed germination.
Initial date (Day 0): 05/25/2014
Record # sprouts, appearance, etc. per day.
Saline solution
Day 1:
Day 2:
Day 3:
2 Sprouted
0 Sprouted 0 Sprouted
Seeds, Large
Seeds,
Seeds, Slight
Change in
0% ("0" cup)
Solid
Splitting
Growth
0 Sprouted 0 Sprouted
1 Sprouted
3.1% ("1/32" cup)
Seeds
Seeds
Seed
0 Sprouted
0 Sprouted 0 Sprouted
Seeds, Slight
6.3% ("1/16 cup)
Seeds
Seeds
Splitting
0 Sprouted
0 Sprouted 0 Sprouted
Seeds, Slight
12.5% ("1/8" cup)
Seeds
Seeds
Splitting
0 Sprouted 0 Sprouted
0 Sprouted
25% ("1/4" cup)
Seeds
Seeds
Seeds
0 Sprouted
Seeds,
0 Sprouted
0 Sprouted
Cloudy
Seeds, Cloudy
Seeds, Cloudy
50% ("1/2" cup)
Appearance Appearance
Appearance
0 Sprouted
Seeds,
1 Sprouted
2 Sprouted
Evident
Seed, Sugar
Seeds, Sugar is
Alternative: Sugar
Sugar
Less Visible
Slightly Visible

Alternative: Aspirin (2)

0 Sprouted
Seeds

0 Sprouted
Seeds, Slight
Reddish Color

1 Sprouted
Seed, Color
Appears to be
Red

Day 4:
2 Sprouted
Seeds, More
Growth
Evident
2 Sprouted
Seeds
1 Sprouted
Seed
1 Sprouted
Seed
0 Sprouted
Seeds
0 Sprouted
Seeds,
Cloudy
Appearance
2 Sprouted
Seeds, Sugar
Unnoticeable
2 Sprouted
Seeds,
Clearer
Colored
Water

6. From your results in Table 6.2, draw a conclusion about the effect of salinity on sprouting success. Include conclusions
drawn from alternative treatments or conditions.
The presence of salt had a large impact on the germination of seeds. It appears that the more salt that is
present, the slower seeds are able to grow and mature. Large amounts of salt present actually showed very
little progress compared to the less salty brother/sister seeds. The alternates that I used in this experiment,
aspirin and sugar actually seemed to aid in germination of the seeds.

Conclusion:
In this experiment I learned that several natural processes within plants can easily be interrupted from outside
stimulus. Salt had a negative impact on both the celery and radish seeds and the more salt that was present, the
slower their natural processes became. I found also that in the second part of the experiment there were additional
elements added such as sugar and aspirin which actually seemed to benefit the germination process. This
experiment shows that the processes of plants can be positively or negatively affected by several different types of
environmental stimuli.

Lab Report 7
Purpose:
The purpose f this experiment was to show the similarities and differences among living organisms in the
animal kingdom.
Lab Observations:
In the first part of the lab I used my own general knowledge of biology to compare and contrast several living
organisms. I was very surprised to see that fungi and animals seem to be more similar than fungi and plants as I
would have guessed previously. These similarities and differences among living organism caused the creation of
the classifications within the animal kingdom, and was probably created similarly to this experiment because
whoever originally created the classifications weighed the similarities and differences within species as I was
required to in this experiment. In the second part of the experiment, I collected the materials and used a scalpel to
make a cut down the center of each animal to view their internal organs easier. I recorded my findings of both the
worm and mackerel below.
Lab Answers:
Lab 7A: Fungi
1. List four ways that Fungi are similar to plants.
Fungi and plants are similar in that they both: are eukaryotic cells, multicellular, have cell walls and require
nutrients.
2. List four differences between Fungi and plants.
Fungi and plants are different in that they have different types of cell walls (cellulose for plants and chitin for
fungi), only plants participate in photosynthesis, plants have roots whereas fungi do not and lastly fungi are
heterotrophic decomposers and plants are autotrophic producers.
3. List four differences between Fungi and animals.
Animals are consumers and fungi are decomposers. Animals are mobile whereas fungi are fairly stationary.
Fungi have cell walls whereas animals have semipermeable membranes. Animals reproduce sexually whereas
fungi do not.
4. List four ways that Fungi are similar to animals.
Both fungi and animals: contain eukaryotic cells, require oxygen, are heterotrophic and require nutrients.
5. Which two groups are most closely related evolutionarily (explain your answer):
a) Plants and animals,
b) Plants and fungi,
c) Fungi and Animals.
I think that the most distinct similarities are found in animals and fungi because they are both contain
eukaryotic cells, require oxygen, are heterotrophic and require nutrients.
6. List four facts that you learned about Fungi, but did not know before.

I did not know that fungi were decomposers, share similar genes with humans, are heterotrophic and have cell
walls.
Lab 7B: Animalia
7. For the animals that you examined, briefly describe at least three unique or distinctive features for each animal.
The two animals I chose to dissect were a mackerel which had fins, scales, and gills and a worm which was a
hermaphrodite, small, and a decomposer.
8. Compare and contrast the two animals. That is, describe at least four features of their body design that are similar, and
at least four ways in which they differ.
The ways that these two animals are similar are: they both contain eukaryotic cells, they both require nutrients,
they both have bilateral symmetry and both have a mouth and anus. The ways these two animals differ include:
different living environments, the mackerel has gills and the worm does not, the worm has sperm grooves and the
mackerel does not, and the mackerel has some bones whereas the worm does not.
Conclusion:
Many species in the animal kingdom can be both extremely similar but different at the same. Almost every
combination will have similarities and differences. This experiment taught that there can be differences but there
can also be unnoticed similarities. Before being asked to describe the similarities and difference of various living
organisms, I had never really considered the amount of similarities that vastly different organisms can have. For
example, the worm and mackerel I dissected seem to be very different from each other but they do share several
similarities such as they both contain eukaryotic cells, they both require nutrients, they both have bilateral
symmetry and both have a mouth and anus. This experiment really exemplified how the animal kingdom is
classified.

Lab Report 8
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to learn more about human anatomy and physiology to better understand the
functions of various areas of the body.
Lab Observations:
In the first part of the lab I was required to link bones, muscles and arteries based on their locations in relation
to each other. I learned from this that each bone corresponds to a muscle and artery. This shows that the bod is
very dependent upon itself and damage to one area can cause damage to not only bone but muscles and arteries
as well. In the second part of the experiment, I got to use my new knowledge to experiment with my own body. I
followed all given instructions and completed the tables with my findings. I noticed that the two arteries used
showed to have similar but slightly different readings.
Lab Answers:
1. Using Figure 8.1, find each of the listed bones on your body. Then, using Figures 8.2 and 8.3, write in a muscle that
attaches to the bone and an artery that runs alongside the bone.
Bone

Muscle

Artery

Cranium

Temporalis

Vertebral

Clavicle

Deltoid

Sternum

Pectoralis Minor

Subclavian
Ascending Aorta

Humerus

Biceps Bicali

Brachial

Radius or Ulna

Palmaris Longus

Radial

Coxal bone

Pectineus

Common Iliac

Metacarpals

Pronator Teres

Palamar Aches

Femur

Rectus Femoris

Femoral

Tibia

Fibularis Longus

Peroneal

Fibula

Soleus

Posterior Tibial

Metatarsals

Tibialis Anterior

Plantar Arch

2. Record data for heart rate as measured from the carotid artery (see Figure 8.5).
Table 8.1. Heart rate (carotid artery).
A
B
(Resting) (Exercise 1)
Check 1 (15 sec)
5
12
Check 2 (15 sec)
6
12
Check 3 (15 sec)
5
13
Check 4 (15 sec)
5
13
Sum of all checks

21
Heart rate
(beats/min
)

C
(Exercise 2)
15
15
14
14

D
(End Rest)
7
7
7
6

50
Heart rate

58
Heart rate

27
Heart rate

(beats/min)

(beats/min)

(beats/min)

3. Record data for heart rate as measured from the radial artery (see Figure 8.6).
Table 8.2. Heart rate (radial artery).
A
B
C
D
(Resting) (Exercise 1)
(Exercise 2)
(End Rest)
Check 1 (15 sec)
6
12
16
7
Check 2 (15 sec)
5
11
16
7
Check 3 (15 sec)
6
11
15
6
Check 4 (15 sec)
6
11
15
6
Sum of all checks

23
Heart rate
(beats/min
)

45
Heart rate

62
Heart rate

26
Heart rate

(beats/min)

(beats/min)

(beats/min)

4. Discuss your investigation of heart rate, answering the following:

a) How similar was Resting heart rate (beats/min), as measured on the carotid artery vs. the radial artery?

The resting heart rate of the carotid artery was slightly higher than that of the radial artery.
b) After Exercise 1, did the data change between checks? How does the Exercise 1 heart rate (beats/min) differ
from the Resting heart rate?
The data slightly varied between checks but I think with the amount of checks overall it averaged
out. The exercise one increased my heart rate to about double of the resting rate.
c) After Exercise 2, did the data change between checks? How does the Exercise 2 heart rate (beats/min) differ
from the Resting and Exercise 1 heart rates?
There was a slight difference between checks in this area as well but they also seemed to average
out. The second exercise showed that there was an increase in heart rate but not as large of a
difference as seen when going from resting to exercise initially.
d) Is End Rest heart rate (beats/min) similar to the original Resting heart rate? If not, describe your physical
condition at the time of the End Rest heart rate.
The end rest heat rate was only slightly higher than the original resting rate but this could be
explained by the fact that it could return to the original rate with slightly more time available.
Conclusion:
In this lab I learned about the human body, its components and their functions and the role that they play in
the body. In the first art of the experiment I found out that each bone has a corresponding muscle and bone. For
example the Femur bone in the leg is supported by the Rectus Femoris muscle and the Femoral Artery. In the
second part of the experiment, I used this new familiarity with my own anatomy to measure my heart rate at two
different artery sites and the measuring the effect of exersize on my heart rate. I found in this part of the
experiment that excersize increases heart rate.

Virtual Lab 1: Virtual Microscopy

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to accurately describe similarities and differences between varying cell types for a
better understanding of cells. The ability to identify different types of cells will help to build a foundation in
understanding future concepts which rely on rudimentary knowledge of cells and their functioning.
Lab Observations:
There are several observable similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells both have DNA, cytoplasm and ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall which is not
permeable and the only area of entry for nutrients, DNA and waste is through the permeable mesosome. In
contrast, Eukaryotic cells have a cell wall which is semi-permeable which means that it is selective of what may
enter and exit the cell. Eukaryotic cells also tend to be more complex as they have many structures that
prokaryotic do not have such as a mitochondria, lysosomes, and rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The
largest difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and prokaryotic
cells do not.
There are also several similar and different elements between plant and animal cells. One similarity between
plant and animal cells is that they have mitochondria. They also both have a nucleus. Lastly, they both have
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. One difference is that plant cells have a vacuole which is used to store water and
nutrients and is vital to a plants survival. Another difference is that plant cells have chloroplasts, which aid in
photosynthesis. Lastly, animal cells have lysosomes and plant cells have glyoxysomes.
Lab Answers:
A. Estimate the size of:
1. An E. Coli cell. 3 x 0.6 m
2 A mitochondrion. 4 x 0.8 m
3. A Red Blood cell. 8 m
4. A hepatitus virus. 45 nm

5. A water molecule. 275 pm

B. Observe the various Cell types and learn to distinguish between Bacterial cells, Plant cells (1, 2), and Animal cells (1, 2,
3)
1. Observe and describe three differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
2. Observe and describe three differences and three similarities between plant and animal cells.
C. Form a hypothesis
1. Hypothesize about how you might be able to sort a mixed population of cells into prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. Try to be practical, build on your understanding of the differences between the two cell classes.
To sort a mixed population of cells which are both prokaryote and eukaryote as well as plant and animal it
would be beneficial to first identify what type of cell wall is present. Selectively permeable walls will be
found in eukaryotic cells and a non-permeable cell wall will be present in prokaryotic cells.
2. Hypothesize about a means to separate out plant cells from a mixed population of eukaryotic
cells.
Once a cell is determined to be eukaryotic, we are left to separate cells as plant or animal cells. To
determine this, we must be familiar with the many organelles and functions of each cell. To identify a plant
cell, we must have chloroplasts and vacuoles present as these are required for a plant cell to function
properly and they will not be found in an animal cell.
Conclusions:
This was a very important first lab. Cells are a very vital aspect of biology and understanding them and
being able to distinguish differences among cells is vital to knowing theirs purposes and processes. Being able to
identify what makes a cell prokaryote or eukaryote is important because they both are present in the human body.
Being able to identify similarities and differences really make you have to know about which elements of a cell are
present in each type. Knowing the type of cell wall a cell contains and the basic elements that a cell will need to
function makes identifying similarities and differences among cells much easier. For example, if in the cell there is
mitochondria present this means that the cell is eukaryote because mitochondria are not present in prokaryote
cells. I found that this interactive work with the varying types of cells was very beneficial to aid my understanding
of the concepts presented. This lab was simple enough to break down the basic characteristic of each of these
types of cells but also created a foundation of knowledge that will be built on as I continue through this course and
lab assignments.

Virtual Lab 2: Cellular Processes

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to expand on the concepts identifies in the first lab on cells and expand upon
the functions and reproduction of cells within living organisms.
Lab Observations:
During the first part of the lab, I was able to experiment with the bacterial growth and I felt that this
demonstration really aided my learning because the growth is very visible and observable in its replication. In the
second part of the experiment I viewed cellular reproduction through the process of mitosis, meiosis and binary
fission. This was very beneficial to see how long the cell was in interphase, as I previously did not understand that
the time spent in this phase was comparatively longer than other phases that the cell goes through. I then viewed
cells go through three different processes: mitosis, meiosis, and binary fission. These three processes are
describes more in detail below in section B3.
I then learned about cellular respiration, which is necessary to provide energy for everyday activities. In
cellular respiration, the cell may harvest energy by breaking down molecules. Energy is also released through
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis and cellular

respiration are important to life of plants, animals and humans and without one, or with an improper balance of the
two there could be detrimental impact on the earth and living organisms.
Lab Answers:
A. Bacterial Growth.
1. Estimate how long it takes for this population of bacteria to double. Hint- this population
doubles multiple times during the duration of this recording.
Based on my observations of the bacteria, it takes about 20 minutes for the bacteria population to double.
B. Cellular reproduction
1. Estimate the percentage of time that a constantly developing cell spends in interphase.
Approximately 80% of time in developing cells is spent in interphase.
2. In a random selection of 100 such cells, estimate the number that would be undergoing mitosis
at any given time.
Based on my observations in this section, I would say that about 50% of cells at all times are undergoing
mitosis, this is because certain cells are required to replicate more often than others.
3. In a couple of paragraphs describe the basic differences between mitosis, meiosis, and binary
fission.
There are many identifiable differences between mitosis, meiosis and binary fission. In prophase the
difference between mitosis and meiosis is that the chromatin fiber in mitosis will coil and fold tightly whereas with
prophase in meiosis the chromatin fibers coil into long thin fibers. Another difference in this stage is that in
meiosis there is a second prophase that must happen as well. In metaphase, mitosis will form two sister
chromatids whereas meiosis will form one tetrad. In anaphase of mitosis the sister chromatids do not separate but
in meiosis the tetrad will separate. Telophase is the last stage for mitosis whereas meiosis will go through a
second cycle before cytokinesis.
In regards to binary fission, this is a practice that is found in the reproduction of bacteria cells. This type of
reproduction is much simpler than mitosis and meiosis. In binary fission, the mesosome replicates and pushes the
two daughter cells apart and creates a cell wall between them.
C. Cellular metabolism
1. In a paragraph or two compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
In cellular respiration oxygen and sugar is needed to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. In
photosynthesis, sunlight water and carbon dioxide is needed to create oxygen and sugar. This means that cellular
respiration creates two of the three elements needed for photosynthesis and photosynthesis creates the two
needed elements for cellular respiration. The sun provides the necessary energy for photosynthesis and broken
down nutrients from food provides the energy for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the
Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
2. Describe the ecological relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are vital for living organisms. They also play very important roles in
each others success. The elements needed to complete one are the elements produced by the other, so they are
vital to each other because one may not be possible without the other.
3. Hypothesize about what might happen if a large number of producers were suddenly removed from the biosphere. Where
might carbon accumulate if the ratio of number of producers to consumers was markedly reduced?
If a large number of producers were eliminated, this would mean that less photosynthesis would occur. The
oxygen produced through photosynthesis is vital to human life. With producers removed, there would be more
cellular respiration and not a comparable amount of photosynthesis to balance the elements. This would mean that
living organisms may die because of the lack of elements created through photosynthesis.
Conclusions:
This lab took the knowledge gained from our first virtual lab and expanded on the basic concepts. First I
observed bacterial growth and learned that bacteria can double in about 20 minutes through the process of binary
fission. This reproduction of a prokaryotic cell is very different than the process of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic

cells also reproduce in two ways, through mitosis and meiosis. Through mitosis, a cell will reproduce to make a
sister cell in asexual reproduction whereas through meiosis will go through two cycles of sexual reproduction.
This lab also covered cellular metabolism by describing the ways that plant and animal cells create energy.
Animal cells create energy through the process of cellular respiration by taking oxygen and sugar from nutrient
ingested from food and turning these elements into carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP). Plant cells on the
other hand use their chloroplast to complete photosynthesis which takes the carbon dioxide created by animal
cells along with water and sunlight (energy) to create oxygen and sugar. This lab exemplified the importance of
cells and their functions to our everyday life and existence and how without these cells and processes we living
organisms would cease to exist.

Virtual Lab 3: Genetics

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to work hands on in an interesting experiment in order to aid the learning of
concepts presented relating to genes and genetics.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I really enjoyed working with the interactive tools that the computer offered without actually
experimenting with real flies, Ive never been this grateful for technology. I really enjoyed the experiment, and how
the website allowed for exploration and also offered an explanation to each experiment and practice such as when
the site explained that the experimenter would use ether in order to subdue the flies so they could be viewed under
the microscope. I have had troubles with gene crossing concepts in the past, but actually found that conducting
this virtual lab added a lot of visual representation which made it a lot easier for me to understand the concepts
clearly. When I was able to breed two flies their offspring percentages were very easy for me to understand when I
saw them visually.
I then read about genetic disorders. The three types of genetic disorders are single gene disorders,
chromosomal abnormalities and multifactorial disorders. I read about each of these types and learned about
different diseases within each type.
Lab Answers:
A Phenotype and Genotype of Dragons. You do not have to be able to access the Dragon website to answer these
questions.
1. Define genotype and phenotype.
A genotype is an entire set of genes within a cell or organism. A phenotype is the expression of a particular
gene, produced through a combination of genetic make-up and environment.
2. What is an allele?
One of a pair of genes which controls a certain trait occupying the chromosome.
B. Drosophila Lab. Enter as a guest. Buy and then breed a mutant black bodied female with a wild type (i.e. standard) male.
1. Describe and explain the characteristic of the first generation (F1) of flies. Is the black bodied characteristic dominant or
recessive?
The first generation of flies bread came back with 611 male wild type flies (.5008) and 609 female wild type
flies (.4992). These results show that having a black body is a recessive gene.
2. Assume the black body females genotype to be bb and the wild type males genotype to be WW and fill in the following
Punnet square. Are your breeding results consistent with what you expect from this assumption and the logic of the Punnet
square?
W
W
b

Wb

Wb

Wb

Wb

Breeding results in the Punnet Square are consistent with the results of the cross. In order for a fly to have
a black body, they must display the wb, none of which were displayed in this cross.
3. Breed two of these F1 flies. To do this select a male and a female from the results of your first cross and put them in the
breeding jar. Describe and explain the characteristics of the second generation (F2) flies.
The second generation of flies came back with 454 (.3740) male wild-type flies, 448 (.3690) female wild-type
flies, 156 (.1285) male black-bodied flies and 156 (.1285) female black-bodied flies.
4. Use a Punnet square to predict the ratios of a cross between two Wb individuals. Is this consistent with your experimental
observations?
W
b
W

WW

Wb

Wb

bb

The findings of the second generation of flies are also consistent with the Punnet square. The bb
represents both the male and female black-bodied flies and together that represents 25% of the Punnet square
which makes this example an accurate one.
C. Genetic Disorders Library. Describe the three main classes of genetic disorders and give an example of each.
The three main classes of genetic disorders are single gene disorders, chromosomal abnormalities and
multifactorial disorders. One example of a single gene disorder is Huntington's disease, which means that any
person who has this faulty gene present will eventually have this disease. Down syndrome is chromosomal
abnormality where there is actually an extra copy of a gene present which causes abnormal protein production.
Multifactorial disorders are caused by a combination of genetics and environment, and one example is colon
cancer.
Conclusion:
This lab was very interesting, fun and educational. The online lab aided in learning and made the
experiment easy to understand and learn from. With the experiment, I was able to understand the concepts
presented a lot easier than with previous instances with the same concepts. I learned how different crosses result
with dominate and recessive traits. The crosses made a lot more sense to me because they were accurate in both
the Punnett square and the crosses resulted in the same outcomes. I also found that the genetic disorders were
very easy to understand and interesting to investigate. I did not know the cause of Down syndrome before this
experiment but have worked with many students with this condition so understanding its cause was enlightening.

Virtual Lab 4: Electrophoresis

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to delve into more challenging concepts in biology by using the information from previous
experiments. This lab taught about DNA and blood types and the unique characteristics that make up these complex
aspects of the human body.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I learned that electrophoresis is the way that scientists measure DNA strands. Using the gel,
electric currents pull the DNA to make the DNA visible to the naked eye. During the run a gel activity, I was
required to make the gel, set up the gel apparatus, load the DNA sample into the gel, hook up the electrical current
and run the gel and finally stain the gel and analyze the results. I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp
(base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.

It took me quite some time (and several different computers) to get the second experiment to work, so
maybe a more accessible program would be more beneficial. I began this experience by adding the plasmid
pBR322 to the simulator and selecting the restriction enzymes EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I for the corresponding
lanes. I found this lab to be the most difficult of the virtual labs because it was not very easy to use in general. I
think it is important to note that even though you may select the restrictive enzymes, you must hit the buttons
individually, and you must also turn on the UV light, which is not noted in the instructions otherwise all bands
appear to be travelling at the same rate which is not the case. I then watched the gels move and recorded their
movement and frequencies below.
In section C, I completed the blood type game. The most difficult part of this game (and in real life as I have
experienced) was putting the syringe in the patients arm. This was a helpful and fun to learn about different blood
types and the elements that make them up. I recorded my results from this experiment in the chart below.
Lab Answers:
A.
1. On what basis is electrophoresis able to separate molecules?
It separates the strands based on size, smaller strands move at faster rates.
2. What are the lengths of the three DNA bands that you produce in this lab?
I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp (base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.
B. Electrophoresis. Select the pBR322 plasmid (a circular piece of DNA used as a cloning vector) to analyze (menu in
upper left hand corner of the simulator). You will then see a diagram of the circular plasmid DNA along with the points along
the length of the plasmid where the various restriction enzymes (EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I) will cut the DNA. For
instance notice that the enzyme EcoR 1 only cuts the plasmid at one location at the top of the diagram, whereas the other
enzymes cut the plasmid at other places. To analyzes the DNA we cut it up with different enzymes and slowly piece together
an understanding of the entire sequence.
Load each lane as follows: lane 1 with Bgl 1; lane 2 with EcoR 1; lane 3 with Hinc II; lane 4 with Ple I; lane 5 with
predetermined molecular weight markers.
Run the gel and describe and explain the number of bands in lanes 2 and 4.
Lane two appears to be travelling at the slowest rate and has only one line present. Lane one appears to
have three strands where one is move fairly fast paced with two fairly far behind. Lane four has three strands with
two moving face and one large strand further behind, Lane three only hold two strands and they seem to be
intermediate speed. Lane two is by far the slowest of all.
C. Human Blood Types and Immune System
Complete the following Table
Blood Type

Genotype

Antibodies present

O+

OO

O-

OO

A+

AA, AO

A-

AA, AO

B+

BB, BO

B-

BB, BO

Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A

Can receive blood

from type(s)
O +, OOO+, A+, O-, AO- , AO+, B+, O-, BO-, B-

AB +

AB

AB -

AB

Antigen A, Antigen
B,
Antigen A, Antigen
B,

O+, A+, AB+, B+, A-,

B-, ABO-, A-, AB-

Conclusions:
This lab demonstrated much more complex concepts than the previous labs, but it did so gradually and
was easy to understand. I first learned the process of electrophoresis which is used to measure DNA strands. This
is a very complicated process but the step by step tutorial and interactions made the experiment challenging but
easy to understand with instructions. I really appreciated the way that part A was designed as it really was an
accurate simulation of the process (because I have done it in real life before) and that aided learning as well as
saved time and money on experiment costs. I think that this type of virtual experiment will become very useful you
schools (especially with budget cuts) and will also be a positive and informing learning experience for students.
Part B of the lab I found rather difficult to conduct. The website was not as organized as other labs and had
very difficult technical requirements which required a lot of time and effort prior to even beginning the experiment.
I was able to see the run of the gels clearly and watch them under the UV light, but this application was not very
easy to use and made observations difficult as it required refreshing and restarting the experiment many times. I
did still enjoy learning about this concept and I found it very interesting that the restriction enzymes moved at
different speeds across the gel.
The third part of the experiment was by far my favorite. I would recommend to other students to make sure
you have a detached mouse (rather than a finger-pad laptop mouse) because this will make the experiment a lot
easier to operate. This experiment was not only fun, but it made learning the concepts very easy. I really liked
making my own chart to compare the various blood-types and their inner components as this made them a lot
easier to distinguish from each other. I also enjoyed this because it can be applied to life as well. For example. I am
a type A+ and did not understand exactly what this meant, but now I know that it means that my parents
contributed AA or AO, I have Antigen A and Antibody Anti-B present in my blood and I can receive blood in case of
emergency from anyone who has the blood-types of : O+, A+, O-, or A-.

Virtual Lab 5: Ecosystem Simulator

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment was to learn how fragile an ecosystem can be. When there are changes in
the presence of other species within an ecosystem it has a large impact on all species.
Lab Observations
In this lab I first had to familiarize myself with the simulator so I played around with it a little before creating
the instructed environments. Once I familiarized myself, I introduced plant A and B to the ecosystem to see what
impact they may have on each other. I found that when these plants were alone together that A increased to the
max population and plant B decreased to zero. I spent a great deal of time trying to create an ecosystem where all
plant types were present at one point. I was able to do this, see below for the exact ecosystem created. I then
diligently worked at creating an ecosystem where all species were present and I found this near impossible to
create after many experimental attempts.
Lab Answers
Read the Overview and launch this ecolosystem simulator. Familiarize yourself with the simulator interface. Notice
that you can control which species are present in your environment initially and what the diets of each species are. The
types of species possible in the program are Plants (A,B,C), Herbivores (A,B,C), Omnivores (A,B) and one top Predator.

You can control the diet of each by indicating what they feed on. By setting up different starting configurations you can
investigate the evolution of this simulated ecological system.
A. In a couple of sentences describe what happens when you start with only two (A&B) and then all three plant
species present.
When A and B are present, the population of A increases and the population of B decreases to zero. When
all three types are present, A and B remain the same as when they were alone together but C is not present
as it is only a producer. When the three types are present, A spikes and B plummets to meet at 200 (in time)
and 5000 (in population).
B. Describe how many herbivores and omnivores you added (and what they eat) in order to create an ecosystem in
which all three plant species can coexist. (if you cannot accomplish the survival of Plant C describe your best
configuration. Describe your ecologies by identifying the species present and their diet, for instance: Omnivore A
eats Herbivore A, Herbivore A eats plant A and plant B, Herbivore B eats plant A, All plants present.
The way in which I created an ecosystem for all plants to exist was pretty difficult and it took me a while to
get. In my ecosystem: omnivore A eats herbivore B, omnivore B eats omnivore A, herbivore A and
herbivore B, herbivore A eats plant B, herbivore B eats plants A, B and C, herbivore C eats plant A and B, all
plants are present.
C. If you can accomplish part B, see if you can get all of the species to coexist. (limit your time on this entire
experiment to 90 minutes
Unfortunately I was unable to create an ecosystem where all species coexist; I tried for about 30 minutes
and was still unable to create the proper combination.
D. If we assume that this simulation is a reasonable oversimplification of a typical ecosystems food web what does it
tell us about biodiversity and ecology- are they robust or fragile? In general is an ecosystems biodiversity
preserved as it responds to change?
This experiment shows that biodiversity and ecology are very fragile. This is shown in how difficult it was
to create an ecosystem where all species were present. Biodiversity is not very well preserved when it
comes to change as the simulator showed how small changes can have a very large impact on an
ecosystem.
Conclusions
In this experiment I was able to create my own ecosystem consisting of top predators, omnivores,
herbivores and plants. It was very difficult to create an ecosystem that properly met the demands of each species
to live. I was able to create an ecosystem where I was able to have each plant (A, B and C) to exist, but not every
species. I think that the difficulty of creating a diverse and flourishing ecosystem was not meant to be an
impossible challenge, but more of a representation of how difficult it really is to create a successful ecosystem in
real life. For example, many ecosystems are negatively affected when outside species are presented (which is why
there are check points at airports and on highways checking for plants or fruits brought from other places). One
small change could have a rather large negative impact on the survival against many species within an ecosystem
which is why it is important that we learn about how much little changes can impact the big picture within
ecosystems.

Virtual Lab 6: Evolution

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment was to identify which features can influence natural selection and what
impact these features can have on a population.
Lab Observations
During the first simulation, I started the experiment with an even mix of guppies and still found that later
in the experiment I ended up creating successive generations that were much more colorful. Since being a colorful
guppy is more of a desirable trait, females preferred to mate with colorful guppies. Over the course of generations,
more percentages of guppies were colorful due to natural selection.
During the second simulation, it appeared that a majority of the desirability of traits in guppies with these
predators lied with the bright and drab guppies compared to the undesirable brightest and drabbest guppies. I
think that since a new predator was introduced, the population lost more guppies and the brightest guppies were
no longer desirable because they were more likely to be eaten by the new predator.
During the third simulation I found that the guppies found the drabbest appearance to be more desirable
when a third predator is introduced. Previously, with fewer predators, the guppies desired to be bright and the
brightest, but due to more predators being present in this simulation, the guppies who were the drabbest were
desirable because they were less likely to be eaten with many predators.
Sex and the Single Guppy
This simulation follows a set of real life experiments in evolution and natural selection. Familiarize yourself with the
interface, guppies, guppy predators, and the experiment. Use an "even mix" of the different guppy color types to start. Run
three experiments one with each of the combination of predators. Each experiment should run for five or more generations.
State the percentage that each color type makes up in your guppy population both before and after you have let five
generations pass. With each experiment state a conclusion that is consistent with your observation.
1. Rivulus only
Number of Guppies: 234
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 75
Male Color
Brightest: 32%
Bright: 24%
Drab: 27%
Drabbest: 17%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
2. Rivulus and Acara
Number of Guppies: 165
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 81
Male Color
Brightest: 8%
Bright: 48%
Drab: 44%
Drabbest: 0%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
3. Rivulus, Acara and Cichlids.
Number of Guppies: 213
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 61
Male Color
Brightest: 9%

Bright: 13%
Drab: 35%
Drabbest: 43%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
What two selection pressures are operative?
The two selection pressures are predators and bright colors. Usually guppies are pressured by the
desirability of having a colorfully bright mate, but they are also pressured by predators as being bright can make
predators notice a guppy because of its colors and eat it.
Conclusion
I found this lab to be very interesting. Of course I have never been able to study guppies on my own (not
would I really want to touch them to do so), so the simulation offered a rare opportunity. I noticed in the first
experiment when the guppies had only one predator, they preferred the brightest colors, but as the amount of
predators increased, the desirability of brightness decreased. When the guppies who were bright dealt with more
predators, they were more likely to stand out and therefore be eaten by predators. I think that these selection
pressures were exemplified in the guppy experiment but can also be applied to other species as well. For example
most Western societies pressure thinness as a desirable trait, but if food were scarce then maybe that would
pressure people to not find thinness as desirable.

Virtual Lab 7: Anatomy and Dissections

I actually dissected fetal pigs my senior year of high school in my advanced biomedical science class and these
are some pictures I collected for my lab report after the dissection.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab was to comparatively view various animals and humans in a dissection in order to
understand the similarities and differences between the various subjects.

Lab Observations
During the first portion of this lab, we were given the opportunity to virtually dissect worms and become
more familiar with the terms of anatomy in regards to the body locations and positions. The worm dissection
focused mostly on the sexual reproduction aspect of worms, probably because it is not very similar to human
reproduction. I learned in this lab that worms are not categorized as male or female because some worms are
considered hermaphrodites and have sexual reproduction organs of both sexes. During this lab I identified
different structures of the worm and their physiological functions(below).
In the second part of the experiment, I got to virtually dissect a fetal pig. Using the pig as a reference, I was
able to learn the differences between the pig and humans in anatomical terms and also view some similarities that
we share (such as the lobes of the brain). Dissecting a fetal pig can be useful to understanding human anatomy
and especially the brain since pigs have similar structures but they are just smaller than in humans.
The third part of this experiment focused on human skulls and almost worked similarly as the teachings of
dissections. I took all of the pictures (in lateral view) and print screened them into paint and cropped them so that I
could view all of the skulls next to each other, as I found the comparisons to be difficult when not viewing them
next to each other. I found several patterns of similarities, differences and evolutional changes that have occurred
over the course of time in regards to these skulls. I also was able to create a timeline which aided my
understanding in the time it takes for these evolutional changes to take place.
Lab Answers
A. Dissections
1. Earthworm
a) Identify items 1 & 2 on the external dorsal (back side) surface of the worm.
Item one is the worm's clitellum which aids in mucus production during reproduction. Item two is the
dorsal blood vessel of the worm.
b) Identify items 3, 4, & 5 on the external ventral (belly side) of surface of the worm.
Item 3 is one of a pair of sperm grooves, I found this very interesting because in the description it stated
that two worms exchange sperm in this manner meaning that if worms are exchanging sperm, they are
males or hermaphrodites. Item four refers to the openings of the sperm ducts. Item five is the female
genital pores, making this worm a hermaphrodite by having both male and female reproductive organs.
c) Identify item 2 in the image of the worms internal morphology w/o the digestive tract.
Item two refers to the worms ventral nerve cord which extends the length of its body.
d) Describe sexual reproduction in worms.
Sexual reproduction of a worm is much different than in humans. Some worms are hermaphrodites
meaning they have both male and female reproductive organs. In worms, the sperm exchanged and
stored in sacs then a cocoon is formed and the egg and sperm develop within it.
2. Fetal Pig
a) Use the Anatomical References guide. To what region of the body does dorsal, ventral, anterior, and posterior
refer to?
In regards to the pig, posterior is used to mean towards the feet and anterior refers to the area towards
the head. In the pigs anatomy, dorsal refers to toward the back whereas ventral refers to toward the
front or belly of the pig.
b) Investigate the Nervous system. The pig is similar to the human in many ways.
a. Name four large regions (lobes) of the brain and indicate where they are located and what functions
they have in humans.
The four lobes of the brain are frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The frontal lobe (located anteriorly
and superiorly on humans) is responsible for motor skills, reasoning, language and higher level cognition.
The parietal lobe (located behind the frontal lobe, over the temporal lobe and in front of the occipital) is in
charge of sensory skills which include pressure, touch and pain. The temporal lobe (located beneath the
parietal lobe) is responsible for memory, speech perception, and language skills. The occipital lobe (located
posterior to the parietal lobe) is used to receive and interpret visual stimuli.

B. Comparative Hominid Anatomy

a) Compare the the skull casts of a chimp, Australopithicus, Homo erectus, neanderthal, and modern Homo sapiens.
Be sure to use the lateral view.

By comparing these different views next to each other it is much easier to spot the evolutional changes of the
human skull, such as the growing area of room for the brain and the decrease in jaw size over time.
b) Describe features that are common and different between the cranial structure of these creatures. What patterns do
you see?
In these images, it is seen that the jaw of humans has decreased in size, and the skull size surrounding the
brain has increased. It can also be noted that the alignment of the face used to be more slanted or angular than
it is in the modern human skull.
c) Describe the basic timeline and sequence of evolution for the creatures listed above.
The first skull of the spider monkey was common 38-23 million years ago. The first known human skull
described as the A. afarensis was from 5.2-3.4 million years ago. The homo erectus scull was prevalent about
1.8 million years ago. The Neanderthal skull was said to be from about 125,000-30,000 years ago. The final skull
of the modern homo sapien is said to have developed about 400,000 years ago.
Conclusion
This lab was very interesting as it involved three small experiments that could all be related to each other in
the bigger picture. The dissection of the worm proved that worms are hermaphrodites and therefore reproduce
differently than humans, but they still have similar reproductive organs to humans so by examining the
dissected worm I was able to get a better idea of what human reproductive organs look like. In part B of the
experiment I virtually dissected a fetal pig (which I have also done in real life), and this enabled me to see the

structures of the human brain but in the pig as they are very similar. I liked not having to dissect anymore real
pig babies, because they smelled of formaldehyde and they were messy and the whole thing was a little
nauseating especially since we had to get through a pig uterus to find them in my other class. I think that the
practice of virtual labs with any experiment involving animals is a better idea. In the third part of the lab, I
examined different evolutional landmarks regarding the structure of the human skull. I thought that putting all
the pictures next to each other helped a lot in comparing them and being able to find differences and
similarities. I also enjoyed making the timeline as it aided in the understanding of how long evolution really
takes.

Virtual Lab 8: Human Impact

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to learn about the worlds impact on natural resources as well as our
personal impact and contribution to the depletion of resources. We also learned many steps that can be taken to
conserve resources for the benefit of all.
Lab Observations
This lab did not require a lot of observations but more interaction and personal information to make
personal estimations. First I learned about water foot prints and about the supply of water in the world. I was very
disappointed to learn that nearly 17% of people on earth do not have access to clean water, so those of us who do
have access could be doing more to conserve. I used both calculators to measure my water footprint and found
that both calculators were about the same. I liked being able to see my own footprint and found that there were
many areas that I could improve in in order to reduce my footprint. In the second part of the lab, I learned about
carbon and global warming. Global warming is a very serious issue and without improvement of our carbon
footprints, it could be detrimental to our environment. I used the calculator as instructed, and at first though you
could select next instead of save and add so I had to redo the calculator again and then came to notice that my
carbon footprint is rather large, even compared to the US. I know that most of the carbon emissions I am
responsible for come from my rather old car. If I had the opportunity/money to get a vehicle with less emissions I
would love to, but with the prices of electric and hybrid car currently, myself and many others Im sure do not have
the money to purchase such cars. I also learned that there are many things that I can do to reduce my carbon
footprint and hope to make some positive improvements.
Lab Answers
A. Water footprints
Describe the water crisis. What's its impact on women and children? What is happening with the Ogalala?
The water crisis is the lack of clean drinking water all over the world. According to the website 17% of
the global population (1.1 billion people) lack access to safe water sources. That is a very large amount of
people who are lacking a basic life necessity and people are dying because of it. Based on the estimations,
water availability is not getting any better and there may even be wars over water resources in the future.
Ogalala is the source of 1/3 of our countrys water supply so it is very important and the government
measures water levels every two years. This water source is beginning to dwindle so this may be a large
issue in the near future.
Describe what the water footprint is and how it is estimated.
A water foot print is how much water an individual uses in cubic meter per year. It is roughly estimated
by country, sex, income and the dietary patterns an individual diet.
Report the two estimate of your water footprint (and the calculator(s) that you used).
Using the quick calculator my water footprint was 1806. In the extended calculator, my water
footprint was 1890 which is fairly close to the simple calculator.
Describe three ways that you (or your society) could reduce your water footprint.

I know that a major way I could reduce my water footprint would be through taking shorter showers. I
could also turn off the water when brushing my teeth. I think that the best way to reduce my water foot
print and the countrys as well would be to ingest less meat, as this requires a large amount of water, it
represented 692 out of my 1890 which accounts for almost half of all water consumption.
B. Carbon footprints
Describe what has happened to atmospheric CO2 over the last 100,000 years and how this is thought to be
impacting the climate.
According to the website, before the 1700s climate changes were all natural but now the human race is
having a large negative impact on global warming.
Describe what the carbon footprint is and how it is estimated.
A carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon released through primary or secondary activities which
lead to carbon emission. A carbon footprint is estimated by measuring carbon emission of cars, travel and
everyday activities.
Report the estimate of your carbon footprint (and the calculator(s) that you used).
I used the calculator instructed and my carbon footprint was estimated to be 73.92 metric tons per year
which is rather large.
Describe two ways that you (or your society) could reduce your carbon footprint.
One way that I could reduce my footprint would be to get a better car, as this was 90% of my emission. I
currently drive a 1997 Toyota Camry and this was too old to even be listed, so I hope to get a car in the
future that emits less carbon. Another way I could improve my carbon footprint would be to buy local
products and support the local market rather than supporting overseas shipping which emits a lot of
carbon.
C. Describe two approaches to lowering our carbon footprint as a nation that you would advocate we adapt society
wide.
One of my approaches would be to first offer low cost electric or hybrid vehicles and give more incentives
to car buyers. Personally I would love to lower my carbon footprint, but low carbon emission vehicles are not
affordable so I would like to make these low emission vehicles available to all. A second approach would be to
encourage individuals to shop locally by offering education and incentives. Some people may not even be
aware of carbon emissions through trade, so I think that funding educational programs and incentives like
offering subsidies to local area farmers would be beneficial in reducing the amount of carbon emissions.
Conclusion
In this experiment I learned many things about myself, the environment and how the two interact. Telling
someone the US has a large amount of carbon emissions does not have the same effect as using these
calculators to find your personal contributions. I would have thought that my water use would be above average,
and my carbon emissions would be below average. Surprisingly my water use seemed average but there are many
ways I could still improve such as taking a shorter shower. In regards to carbon emission, I usually try to not
contribute to global warming but my car seems to be high in carbon emissions. Im sure that there are many people
who are like me and would like to have low emission cars, but currently they are not very affordable so that limits
their availability. I learned many ways to lower my own contributions to the depletion of natural resources, so
hopefully this is a step in the right direction and others will hopefully do the same to limit their contributions as
well.