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CHAPTER 2
Chemical Bonding

Chapter Scopes

Bond energies, bond lengths & bond

polarities
Drawing Lewis structure and calculate the
formal charge

Forms of Chemical Bonds

1) Intramolecular bond forces hold the
atoms _______ a molecule
Ionic / Electrovalent Bond
Covalent Bond
Metallic Bond
2) Intermolecular bond forces ________ the
molecules
Hydrogen bonding
Van der Waals
3) Co-ordinate / Dative Bond

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Chapter Scopes

Electrovalent / ionic bonding

Covalent bonding
Co-ordinate / dative covalent bonding
Intermolecular bonding (including
hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals)
Metallic bonding
Electronegativity

Chemical Bond
Chemical bond the force of attraction
that binds atoms together in a chemical
compound
When atoms react to form chemical
bonds, only the electrons in the ______
___________ are involved

Electrons In An Atom
2 groups of electrons:
a) Valence electrons
outermost shell electrons
chemical properties
= group number in periodic table
b) Core electrons
inner shell electrons
not involved in chemical behaviour

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Valence & Core Electrons

B (1s22s22p1)
Core e- = [He]

Bond & Lone Pairs Electrons

Valence electrons are distributed as
shared (bond pairs) & unshared (lone
pairs)

Valence e- = 2s22p1

Core e- = [Ar]3d10
Valence e- = 4s24p5

Lewis Symbol &

Lewis Structures

Cl

Br ([Ar]3d104s24p5)

lone pair e-

Shared or bond pair eThis is called a LEWIS ELECTRON DOT

structure (Lewis Structure)

Building A Lewis Electron

Dot Structure

Lewis symbol a chemical symbol to

represent the nucleus & core electrons of
an atom, together with dots placed around
the symbol to represent the valence
electron
For example: Si

Electron configuration:

Si
[Ne]3s2 3p2

Example 1: Ammonia, NH3

1) Decide on the central atom;
 Never H
 Central atom is atom of lowest affinity
for electrons.
Therefore, N is central.
2) Count valence electrons
H = 1, N = 5
Total = (3 x 1) + 5 = 8 electrons / 4 pairs

3) Form a single bond between the central

atom and each surrounding atom

Example 2: Carbon Dioxide, CO2

1) Central atom = _______
2) Valence electrons = __ e- or __ pairs e3) Form bonds
O C O 6 pairs of electrons
are now left

4) Remaining electrons form LONE PAIRS

to complete octet (8 e-) as needed

4) Place lone pairs on outer atoms

3 BOND PAIRS and 1 LONE PAIR

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Example 3: Sulfur Dioxide, SO2

1) Central atom = _____
2) Valence electrons = __ e- or ___ pairs e3) Form bonds
Leave 14 e4) Remaining pairs become lone pairs, first
on outside atoms and then on central
atom

5) So that C has an octet, we shall form

DOUBLE BONDS between C & O

Each atom is surrounded

by an octet of electrons

5) Form double bond so that has an octet

but note that there are 2 ways of doing this
bring in left pair

or bring in right pair

Resonance Structures
2 or more Lewis structures can be drawn
for a molecule or polyatomic ion
For example:
a) Sulfur dioxide, SO2

This leads to the following structures

b) Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

These equivalent structures are called

RESONANCE STRUCTURES

Octet Rule

Exceptions To Octet Rule

Octet rule the tendency of molecules &

polyatomic ions to gain, lose or share
electrons until they are surrounded by __
valence electrons
Each atom has a share in 4 pairs of
electrons, so each has achieved a stable
noble gas configuration

Exceptions when molecules & ions have:

a) fewer than 4 pairs of electrons (8 valence
electrons) on a central atom (BF3)
b) more than 4 pairs of electrons (8 valence
electrons) on a central atom (PCl5, SF6)
c) have an odd number of electrons (NO,
NO2)

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Formal Atom Charges

Example:
Carbon Dioxide, CO2

The formal charge for an atom in a

molecule / ion is the charge calculated for
that atom based on the Lewis structure of
the molecule / ion
Formal charge
= Group number 1/2 (no. of bonding
electrons) (no. of lone pair electrons)
= No. valence electrons in free atom
1/2 (no. of bonding electrons) (no. of
lone pair electrons)

Formal Charge (O) = 6 1/2(4) 4 = 0

Transferring of electrons from 1 atom to

another, creating _______ & _______ ions
Electrostatic attraction between 2
oppositely charged ions
For example:

Ionic
compound

The mutual attraction of 2 nuclei for the

same electrons
Sharing of valence electrons between
atoms
A +

For the formation of NaCl:

a) Na (1s22s22p63s1)
Na+ (1s22s22p6)
[Ne] noble gas configuration
b) Cl ([Ne]3s23p5)
Cl- ([Ne]3s23p6)
[Ar] noble gas configuration

1) When 2 atoms approach each other, the

electrons repel one another due to like
charges
Electron-electron repulsion

A region of high electron density resulting

from the overlapping atomic orbitals
between bonded atoms

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Valence Electron Configurations

& Ionic Compound Formation

Formation of Covalent Bond

Example: H H

Covalent Bonding

nonmetal e- transfer from

atom
reducing agent to
oxidizing agent

Na+ Cl

Na Cl

metal
atom

+ Cl

Formal Charge (C) = 4 1/2(8) 0 = 0

Sum of formal charge = 0 + 0 = 0

Ionic Bonding

Na

2) Similarly, their nuclei also repel each

other
Nucleus-nucleus repulsion

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4) The nuclei & the electrons of neighboring

atoms, however, attract each other
Electron-nucleus attraction
5) When the attraction forces > powerful
than repulsive forces, a bond is formed

Polar Covalent Bond in Polar

Molecule
H

 Non-uniform distribution of electron

density between the two atoms

 Due to F is more electronegative than H,

Attraction is greater than repulsion

the F atom tends to exert a stronger

attraction on the bonding e compared to
the H atom

Coordinate Covalent Bonding

 Electron density of the bonding electrons

to be higher around the F atom than the H
atom

 F end of molecule acquires a partial

negative charge while the H end
acquires a partial positive charge

 The covalent bond in the HF molecule is

Dative bond
In some molecules or ions, a single atom
contributes both of the electrons (lone pair
e-) to be a shared pair of electrons
Electron-pair ______ the atom which
donates the lone pair electrons
Electron-pair ______ the atom
accepting the pair of electrons

polarised

Metallic Bonding

Dative bond
A dative bond is represented by an arrow
pointing from the donor of the electron pair
(N atom) to the acceptor of the electron pair
(H atom)

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Metallic bonding
bonding in solid metals
Electrostatic attraction between the
positively charged metal ions & the sea
/cloud of delocalised (mobile) electrons
For example: Cu, Fe, Al.
Electron Sea Model describe the
metallic bonding

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Metallic Bonding
Electron Sea Model
+

e-

Positive
metal ion

In metals, the valence electrons are

associated with a particular metal atom
but are free to move (mobile) throughout
the solid piece of metal
Electrons are free to move away from a
ve electrode to a +ve electrode
(delocalised) when an electrical potential
is applied
With valence electrons now delocalised,
the metal atoms are effectively ionised

Delocalised valence electrons

Effect of Bonding
on Physical Properties
1) Metallic Bonding

 high electrical conductivity

 high thermal conductivity
 ductility and malleability
 grey, black, brown/yellow in appearance
 not soluble
 melting point (depend on bond strength)
 solid at room temperature & non volatile

3) Covalent bond
no electrical and thermal conductivity
no ductility and malleability
water colourless
halogen colour
nonpolar molecules insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents
polar molecule soluble in water
giant structure insoluble in all solvents

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2) Ionic bonding
poor conductor in solid state (electrical
conductivity only in aqueous solution)
no thermal conductivity
no ductility and malleability
most are colourless
soluble in polar solvents but insoluble in
nonpolar solvents
high melting points
solid at room temperature

Intermolecular
Forces of Attraction
In addition to the covalent bonds within a
molecule, there are also other forces of
attraction between molecules
Intermolecular forces of attraction ______
than covalent / ionic bonds
2 types of intermolecular forces:
a) Van der Waals forces
b) Hydrogen bond

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Van der Waals Forces

3 Types of Dipoles

Van der Waals forces are weak

intermolecular forces that contributed by
permanent dipole permanent dipole &
temporary dipole induced dipole
attraction
The larger the molecule size, or the larger
the number of electrons in a molecule, the
larger the Van der Waals forces, & the
higher the melting point/boiling point of
the molecule

1) Permanent dipole-permanent dipole

attractions
 The force of attraction between the
negative end of a ______ molecule & the
positive end of another ______ molecule

2) Dipole-induced dipole attractions

3) Induced dipole-induced dipole attractions

(London Dispersion Forces)
Interaction between ________ molecules
(O2, N2, CO2 & noble gases)
This is caused by the random movement
of the e- in an atom or molecule
For example:
Argon has 18 e- in its atom. Since it is
non-polar, the arrangement of e- is
symmetrical on the average

Interaction between a _____ molecule

& ________ molecule
+

neutral

The nonpolar is polarized by the polar

molecule
polarized
+

When these e- revolve around the

nucleus, the e- density might be higher at
one end than the other & cause a
temporary dipole
Electron cloud
+

dipole dipole attraction

The positive end of the temporary dipole

will distort the e- cloud of the neighboring
atoms giving rise to induced dipoles
temporary dipole then attract one another
-

temporary dipole

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Temporary dipole-induced dipole attractions

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Hydrogen Bonding in
Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)

Hydrogen Bond
A special type of permanent dipole
permanent dipole attraction between a H
atom, which is bonded to:

(a) a small & highly electronegative atom

(O, N or F) of a neighbouring molecule
(b) a lone pair of electrons of another very
electronegative atom

 If 2 molecules of HF are close to another,

the H atom of 1 molecule will be attracted

to the F atom of another molecule

 Electrostatic attraction between the partial

+ve charge on the H atom & the partial
ve charge on F atom

Hydrogen Bonding in
Ammonia (NH3)
+

Bond Properties

Bond Polarity
Bond Order
Bond Length
Bond Energy

In NH3 molecule, the N atom has 1 lone

pair of electrons
Each NH3 molecule can form 1 hydrogen
bond

Bond Polarity
Polar bond in polar molecules the bond
between the two atoms has a partial +ve
end & a partial -ve end (dipole moment)
The unequal _______ of electrons leads to:
a) a partial -ve charge on the more
electronegative element ( )
b) a partial +ve charge on the less
electronegative element ( +)
A covalent molecule is polar if the covalent
bond is polarised

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Electronegativity,
a) a measure of the ability of an atom in a
molecule to attract bonding electrons in
a covalent bond to itself
b) decide whether a bond is polar, which
atom of the bond is -ve & which is +ve
c) increase from left to right across a
period & decrease down a group
 Electronegativity trend: F > O > N > C > H
F > Cl > Br > I

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Bond Order
Bond order
= number of bonding electron pairs
shared by 2 atoms in a molecule
Bond order (BO) =
Number of shared pairs linking X Y
Number of X-Y links

Bond Order
Bond

Type of
bonding

Bond order

C
C

Single

C=
=C

Double

C
C

Triple

Bond Length

Bond Order
Bond order is depends on to 2 important
bond properties:
a) Bond length
the distance between the centers of 2
atoms joined by a bond
b) Bond energy
the energy required to break a bond

Bond Length
Bond length depends on bond order

>

>

The bond lengths become ______ as the

bond orders increase
Bond length:
Single bond > double bond > triple bond

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Bond length depends on size of bonded

atoms
Size of bonded atoms , bond length __

<
HF

<
HCl

HI

Bond Energy
Type of bond

Typical bond energy

(kJ mol-1)
Covalent bonds
200 400
Hydrogen Bonds
20 80
Van der Waals bonds
Less than 20
The relative strengths of chemical bonds:
covalent bonds > hydrogen bonds > Van der
Waals bonds

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Relation of Bond Length & Bond

Strength with Bond Order
The GREATER the number of bonds
(bond order), the HIGHER the bond
strength (energy required)

Summary
Draw Lewis structure & calculate formal
charges
Differentiate all types of bonding
Relate bonding to their properties

The GREATER the number of bonds

(bond order), the SHORTER the length of
bond

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