Renmin Ye
Research and Accountability Houston ISD
USA
Kuo-Pao Chang
Ming Chuan University
Taiwan
This study discusses and compares five types of bullying in middle schools among ten Asia-Pacific countries. The
study does this in the following ways. It explores the impact of students genders and family backgrounds on the
bullying, finds interactions of the victimization of bullying and relevant attitudes toward schools, teachers and
schoolmates, and reveals the relationships between the experiences of bullying and the difficulties, pressures and
achievements of academic study in each country.
understanding students ethics and behavior education, schools counseling and support systems (as well as the
general improvement of the situation in the Asia-Pacific region), and for cross-cultural education comparisons.
Keywords: bullying, stolen, hurt, made fun of, left out, do things didnt want, cross-cultural comparison, TIMSS
Background
393
adolescents (Bi & Li, 2006). Research has also indicated that
staff at all school levels underestimated the number of
students involved in frequent bullying, and staff with greater
efficiency for handling bullying situations were more likely
to intervene and less likely to make the bullying situation
worse (Bradshaw, Sawyer, & OBrennan, 2007).
Although research programs involving the examination
of bullying in schools have been conducted in certain Asia
Pacific countries, a systemic comparison and analysis on
bullying cross Asia Pacific schools has not been undertaken.
As a rapidly developing region, Asia-Pacific countries have
similar cultural and societal concepts, traditions, and
experiences. In educational research fields, it was especially
valuable to compare teachers, students, and school
environments among the countries, and discussions of these
results can promote communication, collaboration and
development within the region (Hinaga, 2004; Marcotullio,
2006; Marginson, 2004; Romano, Goh, & Wahl, 2005).
Studies of bullying in schools were meaningful, but bullying
was difficult to address, particularly at the secondary school
level (Brunner & Lewis, 2007). To gain an insight into the
trends and differences of bullying in secondary schools
across the region, and relationships between the bullying and
factors of students genders, families, attitudes and academic
study, a large international database, and the results of the
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
were used. The findings should generate meaningful
information and possible explanations for some of the
factors, influences and possible remedies at work in the field
of bullying in schools of the Asia Pacific region, and provide
indications for further possible research.
Methods
Sources for the Data
The TIMSS began in 1995, and it was re-assessed in
1999 and 2003. This study used the items from the TIMSS
2003 Student Questionnaire. The variables mainly included
five types of bullying in schools (see Appendices in detail).
The students nationality, genders, family backgrounds, their
attitudes toward schools, teachers and schoolmates, and
students academic study difficulties, pressures and
achievement scores (Mathematics and Science) were also
included.
Participants
Results
Comparisons of Bullying in Schools by Country
Statistical Analysis
The descriptive methods and figures were used to show
the general trends of the five types of bullying in schools.
Chi-Square analysis was conducted to compare the bullying
between male and female students. Multiple linear
regression was applied to analyze the influences of students
family backgrounds on bullying. A t-test was used to reveal
the impact of the bullying on students' attitudes toward
schools, teachers and schoolmates, and the Spearman
Correlation was employed to explore the relationships
between students experiences of bullying and academic
study difficulties, pressures and achievement in each country.
stolen
hurt
didn't want
made fun
left out
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Australia
Hong
Kong
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
395
Malaysia
New
Zealand
Philippines Singapore
Taiwan
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Australia
Hong
Kong
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
New
Zealand
Philippines Singapore
Taiwan
hurt
didn't want
made fun
left out
2 / p
2 / p
2 / p
2 / p
2 / p
26.3
95.5
19.8
199.4
9.5
23.2
28.9
63.3
16.8
0.7
39.9
***
38.7
***
14.0
***
40.1
***
16.0
Hong
12.6
24.9
10.0
201.5
11.9
29.8
38.4
62.1
4.6
42.7
Kong
17.7
***
25.4
***
17.4
***
49.6
***
9.4
***
Indonesia
21.0
0.9
26.8
47.2
8.9
86.5
33.6
13.8
13.7
20.9
22.0
35.4
***
17.4
***
38.4
***
18.2
***
2.6
Australia
5.7
15.1
8.5
356.5
7.4
29.2
24.5
39.5
6.7
8.6
***
30.0
***
12.0
***
32.7
***
5.6
16.4
133.9
2.7
228.4
7.8
74.8
9.9
126.4
1.7
29.9
***
14.4
***
15.5
***
21.2
***
2.0
18.6
43.7
4.4
206.6
11.8
0.8
26.7
36.9
5.6
10.2
26.2
***
16.0
***
12.6
34.5
***
7.8
**
New
31.5
81.3
18.0
181.5
10.9
21.0
28.8
65.0
15.7
0.0
Zealand
46.0
***
37.9
***
16.1
***
41.6
***
15.8
Philippines
38.1
4.2
33.2
17.8
41.7
23.3
58.4
0.2
26.2
50.1
40.6
38.2
***
47.6
***
58.9
34.1
***
16.8
82.5
11.6
105.7
11.2
9.2
32.8
47.3
14.7
3.9
26.5
***
21.4
***
13.8
**
41.4
***
12.9
12.4
71.2
20.5
126.3
22.2
36.8
29.6
35.8
3.8
70.3
21.0
***
34.2
***
29.4
***
37.4
***
9.6
***
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
Singapore
Taiwan
396
0.8
Table 2
Multiple Regression for Harassment of Bullying in School by Family Backgrounds
Learning Condition
Numbers of Books
Parents' Education
Immigrant Condition
Language
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Australia
-0.06
-3.80
***
0.06
3.59
***
-0.01
-0.75
-0.02
-1.22
0.03
1.84
.006
Hong Kong
-0.04
-2.47
0.06
3.90
***
-0.01
-1.00
-0.04
-2.48
0.02
1.67
.006
Indonesia
-0.01
-0.83
0.03
2.02
0.00
0.15
0.03
2.55
-0.02
-1.54
.003
Japan
-0.01
-0.86
0.04
3.05
**
0.03
2.02
-0.02
-1.32
0.11
7.62
***
.015
Korea
-0.01
-1.04
0.04
2.47
-0.04
-3.04
**
0.04
2.81
0.05
3.29
**
.006
Malaysia
-0.03
-1.96
0.02
1.41
0.01
0.79
0.02
1.20
-0.01
-0.52
New Zealand
-0.04
-2.17
0.02
1.39
-0.01
-0.87
-0.02
-1.08
0.07
3.41
Philippines
-0.02
-1.78
-0.01
-0.98
-0.06
-4.41
0.04
3.52
0.02
1.24
Singapore
-0.08
-5.79
0.00
0.17
0.00
0.24
-0.02
-1.56
0.03
2.20
Taiwan
-0.02
-1.38
0.03
1.95
-0.01
-0.42
0.05
3.79
0.01
0.49
***
397
***
***
***
***
r2
.001
***
.005
.007
.008
.004
had better attitudes than those who had (Yes). The results
from Australia, Japan and Singapore were typical cases of
these negative relationships, and students who were bullied
in schools tended to have negative attitudes toward schools,
Table 3
T-test Comparison of Students' Attitudes toward School between Whether being Bullied in School
stolen
hurt
didn't want
made fun
left out
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Austra
Mean
2.91
2.73
2.89
2.73
2.87
2.67
2.89
2.78
2.87
2.74
lia
SD
0.89
0.96
0.90
0.96
0.90
1.01
0.90
0.94
0.90
0.99
df / t(p)
4591
6.2***
4593
5.5***
4591
4.9***
4582
3.8***
4587
3.6***
Hong
Mean
2.79
2.70
2.79
2.71
2.77
2.76
2.77
2.77
2.78
2.72
Kong
SD
0.76
0.86
0.76
0.84
0.76
0.85
0.76
0.79
0.77
0.88
df / t(p)
4920
2.6***
4916
2.8**
4917
0.4
4921
0.2
4920
1.4
Mean
3.47
3.50
3.48
3.47
3.49
3.42
3.49
3.46
3.48
3.49
Indo
nesia
Japan
Korea
SD
0.54
0.55
0.54
0.55
0.54
0.58
0.54
0.56
0.54
0.56
df / t(p)
5495
-1.9
5476
0.2
5461
3.2**
5443
1.8
5463
-0.7
Mean
2.91
2.70
2.94
2.75
2.92
2.69
2.97
2.73
2.93
2.46
SD
0.82
0.89
0.81
0.85
0.82
0.88
0.81
0.85
0.81
0.89
df / t(p)
4815
4.7***
4816
6.2***
4810
5.9***
4815
9.2***
4814
9.5***
Mean
2.83
2.73
2.83
2.59
2.82
2.67
2.83
2.67
2.81
2.47
SD
0.72
0.79
0.72
0.87
0.73
0.82
0.73
0.78
0.74
0.89
df / t(p)
5246
4.3***
5244
6.7***
5244
4.7***
5244
5.6***
5245
4.4***
Malay
Mean
3.34
3.28
3.34
3.26
3.35
3.21
3.34
3.31
3.34
3.21
sia
SD
0.62
0.69
0.63
0.69
0.63
0.69
0.63
0.65
0.63
0.71
df / t(p)
5197
2.9**
5202
2.6*
5200
4.9***
5189
1.4
5196
3.6***
Mean
3.01
2.91
3.00
2.89
2.99
2.83
2.98
2.95
2.98
2.91
New
Zealand
SD
0.83
0.93
0.84
0.93
0.84
1.02
0.85
0.90
0.86
0.93
df / t(p)
3625
3.3***
3632
3.5***
3627
4.0***
3616
1.0
3622
1.7
Philip
Mean
3.58
3.57
3.58
3.56
3.60
3.55
3.58
3.57
3.62
3.48
pines
SD
0.64
0.68
0.66
0.66
0.63
0.69
0.65
0.67
0.62
0.72
df / t(p)
6745
0.4
6756
1.0
6718
2.9**
6719
0.2
6757
7.9***
Singa
Mean
3.24
3.14
3.23
3.15
3.23
3.10
3.25
3.17
3.24
3.06
pore
SD
0.72
0.82
0.73
0.81
0.73
0.83
0.73
0.76
0.73
0.84
df / t(p)
5951
4.1***
5952
3.3**
5950
4.6***
5950
4.1***
5952
6.5***
Mean
2.78
2.71
2.79
2.70
2.79
2.70
2.79
2.72
2.78
2.63
SD
0.80
0.88
0.81
0.85
0.80
0.86
0.81
0.84
0.81
0.92
df / t(p)
5361
2.1*
5360
3.4***
5359
3.4***
5360
3.0**
5359
3.4***
Taiwan
Attitudes toward school: Like being in school (range 1-4, disagree to agree)
* p < .05, ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
398
Table 4
T-test Comparison of Students' Attitudes toward Teachers between Whether are Bullying in School
stolen
hurt
didn't want
made fun
left out
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Austra
Mean
3.28
2.98
3.24
3.01
3.21
2.90
3.23
3.08
3.20
3.07
lia
SD
0.72
0.84
0.74
0.84
0.75
0.90
0.75
0.81
0.76
0.84
df / t(p)
4591
12.6***
4592
9.1***
4590
8.9***
4581
6.4***
4587
4.3***
Hong
Mean
3.14
2.94
3.13
3.03
3.13
3.00
3.12
3.10
3.12
2.96
Kong
SD
0.59
0.71
0.59
0.67
0.59
0.72
0.60
0.63
0.60
0.77
df / t(p)
4916
8.3***
4912
4.3***
4913
5.1***
4917
0.9
4916
4.6***
Indo
Mean
3.54
3.53
3.54
3.53
3.55
3.46
3.54
3.53
3.55
3.48
nesia
SD
0.46
0.49
0.46
0.47
0.45
0.53
0.46
0.47
0.45
0.53
df / t(p)
5496
0.6
5480
0.9
5463
5.1***
5445
0.5
5466
4.3***
Mean
2.99
2.78
3.00
2.91
3.00
2.79
3.00
2.93
2.99
2.82
Japan
Korea
Malay
sia
SD
0.64
0.76
0.63
0.71
0.63
0.75
0.63
0.70
0.64
0.79
df / t(p)
4816
5.9***
4817
3.8***
4811
6.7***
4816
3.1**
4815
4.2***
Mean
3.05
2.92
3.03
2.90
3.03
2.91
3.03
2.98
3.02
2.96
SD
0.56
0.63
0.57
0.70
0.57
0.64
0.57
0.62
0.57
0.81
df / t(p)
5249
7.2***
5246
4.6***
5246
4.8***
5246
1.8
5247
0.9
Mean
3.68
3.62
3.67
3.58
3.68
3.54
3.67
3.65
3.67
3.52
SD
0.47
0.52
0.47
0.54
0.47
0.55
0.48
0.49
0.47
0.55
df / t(p)
5198
3.4***
5204
4.2***
5201
6.6***
5190
1.1
5197
5.7***
New
Mean
3.34
3.15
3.32
3.14
3.29
3.12
3.29
3.23
3.29
3.16
Zealand
SD
0.68
0.81
0.70
0.82
0.72
0.86
0.73
0.77
0.73
0.81
df / t(p)
3630
7.8***
3637
6.8***
3632
4.9***
3621
2.4*
3627
4.0***
Mean
3.64
3.57
3.62
3.60
3.67
3.54
3.63
3.60
3.69
3.42
Philip
pines
SD
0.59
0.66
0.62
0.62
0.57
0.67
0.61
0.63
0.56
0.71
df / t(p)
6749
4.9***
6763
1.2
6726
8.8***
6728
1.7
6765
16.6***
Singa
Mean
3.43
3.27
3.41
3.29
3.41
3.29
3.42
3.36
3.42
3.25
pore
SD
0.62
0.71
0.63
0.70
0.63
0.69
0.63
0.66
0.63
0.72
df / t(p)
5953
7.6***
5955
5.4***
5953
4.9***
5953
3.5***
5955
7.2***
Taiwan
Mean
3.32
3.15
3.32
3.21
3.32
3.21
3.30
3.27
3.30
3.19
SD
0.67
0.76
0.67
0.72
0.67
0.73
0.68
0.71
0.69
0.75
df / t(p)
5361
6.8***
5359
5.5***
5358
4.9***
5359
1.8
5358
2.8**
Attitudes toward teachers: Teachers care about students and want students to do their best (range 1-4, disagree to agree)
* p < .05, ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
399
Table 5
T-test Comparison of Students' Attitudes toward Students between Whether are Bullying in School
stolen
hurt
didn't want
made fun
left out
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Austra
Mean
2.78
2.54
2.78
2.53
2.73
2.51
2.80
2.53
2.73
2.58
lia
SD
0.83
0.92
0.84
0.90
0.85
0.95
0.83
0.89
0.85
0.93
df / t(p)
4586
8.9***
4588
9.0***
4586
5.5***
4577
10.1***
4582
4.3***
Hong
Mean
2.58
2.52
2.60
2.46
2.59
2.48
2.59
2.55
2.58
2.49
Kong
SD
0.76
0.84
0.75
0.85
0.76
0.85
0.76
0.79
0.76
0.87
df / t(p)
4915
2.2*
4911
4.8***
4912
3.6***
4916
2.0*
4915
2.2*
Indo
Mean
2.96
2.96
2.97
2.91
2.97
2.86
2.99
2.89
2.95
3.01
nesia
SD
0.61
0.66
0.61
0.65
0.61
0.68
0.61
0.64
0.62
0.64
df / t(p)
5460
-0.1
5447
3.3**
5433
4.3***
5415
5.7***
5435
-2.6*
Mean
2.68
2.45
2.70
2.52
2.69
2.49
2.73
2.51
2.69
2.35
SD
0.72
0.81
0.71
0.78
0.71
0.81
0.70
0.76
0.71
0.81
df / t(p)
4808
5.7***
4809
7.0***
4803
5.6***
4808
9.3***
4808
7.6***
Mean
2.69
2.56
2.68
2.48
2.68
2.53
2.69
2.53
2.66
2.54
SD
0.71
0.78
0.72
0.80
0.72
0.80
0.72
0.77
0.72
0.90
df / t(p)
5238
5.6***
5236
5.7***
5236
4.8***
5236
5.7***
5237
1.7
Malay
Mean
3.34
3.31
3.34
3.22
3.34
3.24
3.35
3.28
3.34
3.22
sia
SD
0.67
0.73
0.67
0.77
0.67
0.75
0.66
0.73
0.67
0.81
df / t(p)
5198
1.0
5203
3.6***
5201
3.4***
5190
3.5***
5197
3.1**
New
Mean
2.86
2.73
2.86
2.67
2.82
2.77
2.87
2.70
2.84
2.68
Zealand
SD
0.81
0.89
0.83
0.88
0.83
0.92
0.82
0.89
0.84
0.90
df / t(p)
3616
4.4***
3624
6.2***
3618
1.2
3607
6.0***
3613
4.1***
Philip
Mean
3.48
3.45
3.48
3.46
3.50
3.43
3.46
3.48
3.52
3.35
pines
SD
0.69
0.71
0.69
0.70
0.68
0.72
0.70
0.70
0.67
0.75
df / t(p)
6745
1.6
6758
1.0
6722
4.1***
6721
-0.7
6762
9.2***
Singa
Mean
3.07
2.95
3.07
2.95
3.06
2.92
3.10
2.95
3.07
2.88
pore
SD
0.79
0.87
0.79
0.92
0.80
0.90
0.78
0.85
0.79
0.90
df / t(p)
5948
4.6***
5950
4.2***
5948
4.6***
5948
7.2***
5950
6.1***
Mean
2.74
2.71
2.75
2.68
2.75
2.68
2.76
2.68
2.73
2.73
SD
0.80
0.84
0.80
0.83
0.79
0.84
0.79
0.83
0.80
0.90
df / t(p)
5359
0.8
5359
2.9**
5357
3.0**
5359
3.3***
5358
0.1
Japan
Korea
Taiwan
Attitudes toward students: Students try to do their best (range 1-4, disagree to agree)
* p < .05, ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
400
Table 6
Correlation between Harassment of Bullying in Schools and Difficult Levels in Learning
Australia
Hong
Indo
Kong
nesia
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
New
Philip
Singa
Zealand
pines
pore
Taiwan
0.082***
0.080***
0.037**
0.009
0.019
0.065***
0.071***
0.102***
0.071***
0.035**
Hurt
0.063***
0.028
0.047***
0.003
0.004
0.052***
0.055***
0.080***
0.075***
0.044**
Didn't want
0.113***
0.067***
0.041**
0.021
0.039**
0.017
0.117***
0.139***
0.096***
0.065***
Made fun
0.061***
0.025
0.026
0.030*
0.009
0.062***
0.054**
0.082***
0.070***
0.041**
Left out
0.094***
0.044**
0.045***
0.053***
0.018
0.067***
0.073***
0.169***
0.072***
0.043**
New
Philip
Singa
Zealand
pines
pore
Taiwan
Table 7
Correlation between Harassment of Bullying in Schools and Psychological Pressure for Learning
Australia
Hong
Indo
Kong
nesia
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
0.037*
0.010
0.025
0.030*
0.029*
0.020
0.042
-0.001
-0.011
0.010
Hurt
0.037*
0.028
-0.023
0.063***
0.003
-0.021
0.063***
-0.028*
-0.003
0.024
Didn't want
0.030*
0.031*
-0.009
0.021
0.020
0.001
0.055***
-0.082***
0.000
0.025
Made fun
0.050***
0.039**
-0.014
0.065***
0.058***
0.005
0.078***
-0.012
-0.003
0.025
Left out
0.047**
0.052***
0.005
0.034*
-0.039**
-0.020
0.044**
-0.136***
0.024
0.040**
Table 8
Correlation between Harassment of Bullying in Schools and Academic Achievements
Australia
Hong
Indo
Kong
nesia
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
New
Philip
Singa
Zealand
pines
pore
Taiwan
Academic Achievements
Stolen
Hurt
Didn't want
Made fun
Left out
-0.096***
-0.108***
-0.096***
-0.068***
-0.037**
-0.098***
-0.153***
-0.130***
-0.168***
-0.094***
-0.028
-0.067***
-0.012
0.022
-0.041**
-0.087***
-0.039*
-0.046***
-0.115***
-0.063***
-0.096***
-0.038**
-0.027*
-0.047**
-0.001
-0.002
-0.148***
-0.157***
-0.094***
-0.056***
-0.002
0.020
0.053***
0.007
0.066***
-0.053***
-0.025
-0.053***
-0.111***
-0.014
-0.053***
-0.014
-0.146***
-0.054***
-0.062***
-0.063***
-0.012
-0.259***
-0.017
-0.045***
401
The term country in this paper is from the TIMSS unit, which
does not involve any political argument.
References
Arai, M. (2006). Elder abuse in Japan. Educational
Gerontology, 32(1), 13-23.
Bi, Z., & Li, L. (2006). Relationship between perceptions of
control and victimization of Chinese adolescents.
Frontiers of Education in China, 1(1), 153-160.
Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & OBrennan, L. M. (2007).
403
404
Appendix
Items from TIMSS 2003 Student Questionnaire (8th grade)
3. How often do you speak <language of test> at home?
Answer: 1-Never; 2-sometimes; 3-Almost always; 4always
16. In school, did any of these things happen during the last
month? (Main Items)
a) Something of mine was stolen
b) I was hit or hurt by other student(s) (e.g., shoving,
hitting, kicking)
c) I was made to do things I didnt want to do by other
students
d) I was made fun of or called names
e) I was left out of activities by other students
Answer: Yes or No
4. About how many books are there in your home? (Do not
count magazines, newspapers, or your school books.)
Answer: 1-0-10; 2-11-25; 3-26-100; 4-101-200; 5>200
5. Do you have any of these items at your home?
a) Calculator
b) Computer
c) Study desk/table for your use
d) Dictionary
Answer: Yes or No
[Means of a) - d): Learning condition]
28. How much do you agree with these statements about your
school?
a) I like being in school (Attitude toward school)
b) I think that students in my school try to do their best
(attitude toward students)
c) I think that teachers in my school care about the students
d) I think that teachers in my school want students to do
their best
Answer: 1-Disagree a lot; 2-Disagree a little; 3-Agree
a little; 4-Agree a lot
[Means of c) & d): attitude toward teachers]
405