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MBA Information Systems 1st Year Assignment

Annamalai University

7: Research Methods For Management

SELF DECLARATION

I declare that the assignment submitted by me is not a

verbatim/photo static copy from the
website/book/journals/manuscripts.

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Question #2: Explain various data collection tools and which one
is the best in your view. Why?
Answer:-

Introduction
Data in computing (or data processing) are often represented by a combination of items
organized in rows and multiple variables organized in columns. Data are typically the results of
measurements and can be visualized using graphs or images. Data as an abstract concept can be
viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are
derived.
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study.
Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately
lead to invalid results.

Importance of data
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an
analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions
under study. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the
quality of the findings of a study.
Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. The
scientific process of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends
on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy.
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative),
accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of
appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Consequences from improperly collected data include

inability to answer research questions accurately

inability to repeat and validate the study

distorted findings resulting in wasted resources

misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation

compromising decisions for public policy

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causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of
investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results
are used to support public policy recommendations.

Data collection tools

In data collection, the researcher should be very clear on what type of data is
to be used for the research. There are two types of data namely primary data
and secondary data.
Primary Data
Primary data are generally, information gathered by the researcher for the
purpose of the project at hand. When the data are collected for the first time
using experiments, surveys which is known as primary data. So, in case of
primary data it is always the responsibility of the researcher to decide on
further processing of data.
There are several methods of data collection each with its advantages and
disadvantages.
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
Other methods used to collect primary data are
4. Warranty Cards
5. Distributor Audits
6. Pantry audits
7. Consumer Panels
Secondary Data
It is merely a compilation of the available data. It is the researcher who
decides to collect secondary data for his research that can be collected
through various sources. In the case of secondary data the researcher may
not face severe problems that are usually associated with primary data
collection.
Before using secondary data following characteristics must be kept in mind
Reliability of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the
reliability
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of data?
Were they collected by using proper method?
At what time were they collected?
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Was there any bias of the complier?

What level f accuracy was desired?
Was it achieved?
Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
necessarily be found in another enquiry. Hence if the available data are
found to be suitable, they should not be used by the researcher .in the
context, the researcher must be very carefully scrutinize the definition of
various units and terms of collection used at the time of collecting the data
from the primary source originally. Similarly the object scope and nature of
an original enquiry must also be studied .if the researcher finds differences
the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should be used.
Adequacy of the data: if the level of accuracy achieved in data found
inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as
inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be
considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either
narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data. Published data
may be available with following sources:
Various publications of central, state or local governments
Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
Technical and trade journals
Books, magazines, newspapers
Reports and publication from various associations connected with industry
and business
Public records and statistics
Historical documents

Functions of data collection tools

The tools of data collection translate the research objectives into specific questions/ items, the
responses to which will provide the data required to achieve the research objectives. Information
gathered through the tools provides descriptions of characteristics of individuals, institutions or
other phenomena under study. It is useful for measuring the various variables pertaining to the
study. The variables and their interrelationships are analyzed for testing the hypothesis or for
exploring the content areas set by the research objectives. The tools of data collection translate
the research objectives into specific questions/ items, the responses to which will provide the
data required to achieve the research objectives. In order to achieve this pur-pose, each
question/item must convey to the respondent the idea or group of ideas required by the research
objectives, and each item must obtain a response which can be analysed for fulfilling the
research objectives.
Information gathered through the tools provides descriptions of char-acteristics of individuals,
institutions or other phenomena under study. It is useful for measuring the various variables
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pertaining to the study. The variables and their interrelationships are analysed for testing the
hypothesis or for exploring the content areas set by the research objec-tives.

A brief description of the various tools of data collection is given below.

1. Observation
Observation schedule is a form on which observations of an object or a phenomenon are
recorded. The items to be observed are determined with reference to the nature and objectives of
the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the order in
which the observer would observe them. The schedule must be devised as to provide the required
verifiable and quantifiable data and to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed
items. The units of observation must be simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate
precise and uniform recording. This is a form on which observations of an object or a
phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed are determined with reference to the nature
and objectives of the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed in the
schedule in the order in which the observer would observe them.
The schedule must be so devised as to provide the required verifiable and quantifiable data and
to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items. The units of observation must be
simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and uniform recording.

2. Interview
Interview guide is used for non-directive and depth interviews. It does not contain a complete list
of items on which information has to be elicited from a respondent: it just contains only the
broad topics or areas to be covered in the interview.
Interview guide serves as a suggestive reference or prompter during interview. It aids in focusing
attention on salient points relating to the study and in securing comparable data in different
interviews by the same or different interviewers.
Interview schedule and mailed Questionnaire, these tools are widely used in surveys. Both are
complete lists of questions on which information is elicited from the respondents. While the
interviewer fills out a schedule, the respondent completes a questionnaire. This is a form on
which observations of an object or a phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed are
determined with reference to the nature and objectives of the study. They are grouped into
appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the order in which the observer would
observe them.
The schedule must be so devised as to provide the required verifiable and quantifiable data and
to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items. The units of observation must be
simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and uniform recording.

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3. Questionnaire
Schedules and questionnaires are the most common instruments of data
collection. These two types of tools have much in common. Both of them
contain a set of questions logically related to a problem under study; both
aim at eliciting responses from the respondents; in both cases the content,
response structure, the wordings of questions, question sequence, etc. are
the same for all respondents. While a schedule is used as a tool for
interviewing, a questionnaire is used for mailing.
This difference in usage gives rise to a subtle difference between these two
recording forms. That is, the interviewer in a face-to-face interviewing fills a
schedule, whereas the respondent himself fills in a questionnaire. The tool is
referred to as a schedule when it is used for interviewing; and it is called a
questionnaire when it is sent to a respondent for completion and return.
Questionnaire is more effective as the respondent completes the
questionnaire and gives the correct information after dually crosschecking.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionaires to respondents is
most extensively employed in various economic an business survey.
The Process of Questionnaire Construction
The process of construction of a questionnaire is a rational process involving
much time, effort and thought. It consists of the following major steps:
1. Data need determination: As a mailed questionnaire is an instrument
for gathering data for a specific study, its construction should flow
logically from the data required for the given study.
2. Preparation of Dummy tables: The best way to ensure the
requirements of information is to develop dummy tables in which to
display the data to be gathered.
3. Determination of the respondents level: Who are our respondents?
Are they persons with specialized knowledge relating to the problem
under study? Or are they lay people? What is their level of knowledge and
understanding? The choice of words and concepts depends upon the level
of the respondents' knowledge.
4. Data gathering method decision: Which communication mode is most
appropriate - mailing? The choice of question structure depends largely on
the communication mode chosen.
5. Questionnaire drafting: After determining the data required for the
study, a broad outline of the questionnaire may be drafted, listing the
various broad categories of data. The sequence of these groupings must
be decided. The questions to be asked under each group heading must be
listed. All conceivable items relevant to the 'data need' should be
compiled.
6. Evaluation of the draft Questionnaire: In consultation with other
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qualified persons, the researcher must rigorously examine each question

in the draft questionnaire.
7. Pre-testing: The revised draft must be pre-tested in order to identify the
weaknesses of the questionnaire and to make the required further
revisions to rectify them.
8. Specification of procedures: After the questionnaire is finalized after
pre-tests, the procedures, relating to its use must be specified.
9. Designing the format: The format should be suited to the needs of the
research. The instrument should be divided into different sections relating
to the different aspects of the problem.
10. Question formulation and wording : With regard to this aspect of
questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be
very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a
survey, Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased
picture of the true state of affairs.
Question Construction
A survey questionnaire is useful for collecting various types of information,
viz.
Factual information - facts about the respondents: sex, age, marital
status, education, religion, caste or social class, income and occupation;
and facts about events and circumstances.
Psychological information such as attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and
expectations, and
Behavioral information, like social participation, and so on.

Research objectives and frame of reference should be defined

beforehand, including the questionnaire's context of time, budget,
manpower, intrusion and privacy.

How (randomly or not) and from where (your sampling frame) you
select the respondents will determine whether you will be able to
generalize your findings to the larger population.

The nature of the expected responses should be defined and retained

for interpretation of the responses, be it preferences (of products or
services), facts, beliefs, feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or
standards of action.

Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher and an

unwelcome imposition on the respondents. All questions should
contribute to the objective(s) of the research.

If you "research backwards" and determine what you want to say in the
report (i.e., Package A is more/less preferred by X% of the sample vs.

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Package B, and y% compared to Package C) then even though you

don't know the exact answers yet, you will be certain to ask all the
questions you need - and only the ones you need - in such a way
(metrics) to write your report.

The topics should fit the respondents frame of reference. Their

background may affect their interpretation of the questions.
Respondents should have enough information or expertise to answer
the questions truthfully.

The type of scale, index, or typology to be used shall be determined.

The level of measurement you use will determine what you can do with
and conclude from the data. If the response option is yes/no then you
will only know how many or what percent of your sample answered
yes/no. You cannot, however, conclude what the average respondent
answered.

The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice, open) should fit the

statistical data analysis techniques available and your goals.

Questions and prepared responses to choose from should be neutral as

to intended outcome. A biased question or questionnaire encourages
respondents to answer one way rather than another.[2] Even questions
without bias may leave respondents with expectations.

The order or natural grouping of questions is often relevant. Prior

previous questions may bias later questions.

The wording should be kept simple: no technical or specialized words.

The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words, equivocal sentence

structures and negatives may cause misunderstanding, possibly
invalidating questionnaire results. Double negatives should be
reworded as positives.

If a survey question actually contains more than one issue, the

researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering. Care
should be taken to ask one question at a time.

The list of possible responses should be collectively exhaustive.

Respondents should not find themselves with no category that fits their
situation. One solution is to use a final category for other ________.

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The possible responses should also be mutually exclusive. Categories

should not overlap. Respondents should not find themselves in more
than one category, for example in both the married category and the
single category - there may be need for separate questions on
marital status and living situation.

Writing style should be conversational, yet concise and accurate and

appropriate to the target audience.

Many people will not answer personal or intimate questions. For this
reason, questions about age, income, marital status, etc. are generally
placed at the end of the survey. This way, even if the respondent
refuses to answer these "personal" questions, he/she will have already
answered the research questions

Once the information need is determined, we can

construction. This involves four major decision areas, are:
Question relevance and content,
Question wording,
Response form, and
Question order or sequence.

begin

question

Question order or Sequence

The order in which questions are arranged in a schedule/questionnaire is as
important as question wording. It has two major implications. First, an
appropriate sequence can ease the respondent's task in answering. Second,
the sequence can either create or avoid biases due to context effects, i.e.,
the effects of preceding questions on the response to later questions.
Questionare tries to ask scenario question in order to test the complexity
mind of the intverviewer and behavourial response.
Measurement Scales and Indices
Scales are devised for measuring variables in social science research. During
the past few decades thousands of scales have been designed by
researchers in sociology, psychology, education, psychiatry, ethics,
behavioral science, economics, administration and other fields.
Indices and scales are often used interchangeably to refer to all sorts of
measures, absolute or relative, single or composite, simple or elaborate.
Scaling refers to the procedure by which numbers or scores assigned to the
various degrees of opinions, attitude and other concepts.
Pilot Studies and Pre-Tests
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Pilot Study
It is difficult to plan a major study or project without adequate knowledge of
its subject matter, the population it is to cover, their level of knowledge and
understanding and the like.
What are the issues involved?
What are the concepts associated with the subject matter?
How can they be operationalised?
What method of study is appropriate?
How long the study will take?
How much money it will cost?
These and other related questions call for a good deal of knowledge of the
subject matter of the study and its dimensions. In order to gain such preknowledge of the subject matter of an extensive study, a preliminary
investigation is conducted.
Pre-test
While a pilot study is a full-fledged miniature study of a problem, pre-test is a
trial test of a specific aspect of the study such as method of data collection
or data collection instrument - interview schedule, mailed questionnaire or
measurement scale. A questionnaire of data collection is designed with
reference to the data requirements of the study. Pre-testing of a draft
questionnaire is indispensable. Pre-testing means trial administration of the
instrument to a sample of respondents before finalizing it.
Pre-testing has several purposes:
To test whether the questionnaire would elicit responses required to
achieve the research objectives,
To test whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate,
To test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the
understanding of the respondents,
To test the other qualitative aspects of the instrument like question
structure and question sequence, and
To develop appropriate procedure for administering the instrument with
reference to field conditions.
4. Warranty Cards
Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The
information sought is printed in the form of questions on the warranty cards
which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to
the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
5. Distributor Audits
Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
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manufacturers through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get

the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such information to
estimate market size, market share, and seasonal purchasing pattern and so
on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by
observation.
6. Pantry audits
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of
goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an
inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in
pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of the consumers
pantry. The usual objective in the pantry audit is to find out what types of
consumers but certain products and certain brands, the assumption being
that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumers preferences.
7. Consumer Panels
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as
consumer panel, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an
understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and
the same is made available to investigator on demands. In other words, a
consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed
repeatedly over a period of time.

Conclusion
The intent of adopting data collection method in research is to gather data.
Selection of appropriate methods for data collection can be based on
following factors:
Nature scope and object of enquiry: this constitutes the most important
factor affecting the choice of a particular method .the method selected
should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted in the
researcher, this factor is also important in deciding whether the data already
available are to be used not yet available are to be collected.
Availability of funds: availability of funds for the research project
determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of
data. When the funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he
will have to select a comparatively cheaper method. Finance in fact is big
constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation
Time factor: availability of time has also to be taken into account in
deciding particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively
more time whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively
shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher thus affects the
selection of the method by which the data is collected.
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Precision required: precision required is yet another important factor to be

considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.
I consider Questionnaire to be the best data collection method based on the
following factors.
Versatility: Probably the greatest advantage of the questionnaire method is
its versatility. Almost every problem of marketing research can be
approached from the questionnaire standpoint. Every marketing problem
involves people. Therefore, ideas relative to the problem and its solution can
be obtained by asking these people about the problem. Many problems can
be studied only by questionnaire.
Knowledge, opinions, motivations, and intentions are usually not open to
observation. Except where records have been maintained, past events such
as purchases of specific products can be studied only trough the
questionnaire method. Similarly, it is normally feasible to observe personal
activities, such as brushing teeth. All this does not mean that the
questionnaire method can be used satisfactorily to solve all marketing
problems. It can be used, however, to get some data relative to most
problems.
Speed and cost: Questioning is usually faster and cheaper than observing.
Interviewers have more control over their data gathering activities than do
observers. As a result, less time is typically wasted in a questionnaire study.
For example, in a research study to find whether consumers prefer coke in
bottles or cans, one could either ask people their preference or wait in
package stores to observe which containers customers ask for when they
come in to buy coke. The alter method would require observers to wait until
customers came into the store to buy coke.
Interviewers however, could proceed from one interviewee to another with
no wait in between. Thus, the lost time would be less with the questionnaire
method. Some events that take place over a time period, such as the
number of trips to the supermarket in a week, would require lengthy
observation, but a question on this behavior can be answered in a few
seconds. In many cases, however, this advantage of the questionnaire may
be negligible

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Question 4:
a) Descriptive method Describe.
b) Write a note on report writing
Answer (a):

Descriptive Methods
The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis
that will be applied to a given topic. It is used to obtain information concerning the current status
of the phenomena to describe what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation
study which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek
to determine changes over time. Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition
of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize
elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to
the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given
topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause
and effect.
Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to know the
characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, occupation, income or
education. The objective of descriptive research is to answer the "who, what,
when, where and how" of the subject under study/ investigation. Descriptive
studies are normally factual and simple. However, such studies can be
complex, demanding scientific skill on the part of researcher.

The Nature of Descriptive Research

The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for
measurement and observation (Borg & Gall, 1989). Researchers may work for many
years to perfect such instrumentation so that the resulting measurement will be
accurate, reliable, and generalizable. Instruments such as the electron microscope,
standardized tests for various purposes, the United States census, Michael Simonson's
questionnaires about computer usage, and scores of thoroughly validated questionnaires
are examples of some instruments that yield valuable descriptive data. Once the
instruments are developed, they can be used to describe phenomena of interest to the
researchers.
The intent of some descriptive research is to produce statistical information about
aspects of education that interests policy makers and educators. The National Center for
Education Statistics specializes in this kind of research

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1. The descriptive function of research is dependent on instrumentation for

measurement and observation. Once instruments are developed, they can
be used to describe phenomena of interest to the researchers.
2. Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It involves
gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates,
depicts, and describes the data collection.
3. Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like
other types of research, descriptive research can include multiple
variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it requires only one
variable.
4. Three main purposes of research are to describe, explain, and validate
findings. Description emerges this creative exploration, and serves to
organize the findings in order to fit them with explanations, and then test
or validate those explanations.
5. Descriptive studies report summary data such as measures of central
tendency including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean,
variation, percentage, and correlation between variables

Descriptive Research Methods

Following methods are used for data collection in descriptive research:

1. Case Studies
2. Observational Research
3. Survey Research
4. Interviews
5. Mailed Questionnaires
1. Case Studies
Case study is detailed analysis of a single (or limited number) of people or events. Case studies
are usually interesting because of the unusualness of the case. The major problem with case
studies is the problem of objectivity. The person who is presenting the case usually has some
theoretical orientation. It is acceptable for a theoretical orientation to affect ones interpretation
of events. It is not surprising that case studies often seem to provide very compelling evidence
for a theory. Case studies can therefore assist psychology by illustrating how a theory could be
applied to a person or events and by assisting with the development of hypotheses for more
systematic testing. Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of
indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena.
Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for
making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies expectancy effects and atypical individuals.
Expectancy effects include the experimenters underlying biases that might affect the actions
taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants
descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from
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external validity.

2. Observational Research
Observational research has a long tradition across a large number of disciplines. Observational
methods are concerned with naturally occurring behaviours observed in natural contexts or in
contexts that are contrived to be realistic. Unless the observation is unobtrusive, there may be
some subject reactivity to being observed. This often decreases with time, a process called
habituation. Observers cannot usually observe all behaviours all of the time. They may use a
behavioural checklist and may also use time sampling or event sampling procedures. It is
important to assess observer bias by the use of inter-observer reliability.
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human
behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method
naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants
in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory
observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the
results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with
naturalistic observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper
than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are
important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.
Observational research may also pose ethical problems. These can arise
when the behaviours being observed are not public behaviours and when the
observer joins a group in order to observe the members behaviour
participant observation. Thick, rich descriptions of phenomena can also
emerge from qualitative studies, case studies, observational studies,
interviews, and portfolio assessments.
3. Survey Research
Structured questions to assess peoples beliefs, attitudes, and self-reports of behavior. If the
researcher wishes to generalize the responses to a population, it is important to have a
representative sample. Surveys that rely on self-selection produce non-generalizable
results. Surveys also provide information for co relational research. One can correlate responses
to some questions with responses to other questions. survey method research, participants answer
questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the
questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable
and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written
so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
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Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closedended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions
Survey question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the questions are
unambiguous and non-leading, people may display a social desirability bias
and give positive or socially acceptable and desirable answers. Survey
methods include:
The interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed as the
best method for obtaining a high rate of responses but is also very costly.
Phone surveys, which are less expensive but have a higher non-response
rate.
Written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a very high
non-response rate. Follow-up messages can help increase the response
rate.
4. Interviews
Face-to-face interviews and telephone interviews provide an opportunity to follow a line of
questioning to obtain more in-depth information. To increase the reliability of data collected by
interviews, it is important to follow certain guidelines and to train all interviewers to use the
same techniques. Personal-interview procedures Have a number of advantageous e.g., Promote
the highest response rate, allows researcher to probe for adequate answers, offer opportunity to
use multiple methods of data collection such as observations and visual cues but it require more
staff time and travel, more expense than telephone interviews and mailed questionnaires, certain
populations are more difficult to reach due to physical factors.
Telephone interview less time consuming, less expensive, can also employ random dialling to
access a truly randomized sample but sampling limitation due to restrictions imposed by access
to telephones, lack of ability to provide visual information, and lack of ability for the researcher
to observe the participant. Many organizations will conduct interviews by telephone to narrow a
field of candidates. Telephone interviews may also be used as a preliminary interview for
candidates who live far away from the jobsite.It is important to treat this interview as you would
a face-to-face connection. Arrange for a quiet space and time to schedule the conversation. Clear
a work surface to minimize distractions.
5. Mailed Questionnaires
Good questionnaires provide a script for the entire process that the
researchers are to follow. Provide definitions for any terminology that might
be confusing- use complete sentences, and offer a limited set of answers.
Major advantages of one can reach large numbers of people from wide
geographic areas, respondents have time to reflect on their answers or check
information prior to responding, and relatively low cost of administration but
through mail lower response rate and the need to take special care with
designing questions that will be self-administered. Simple formats that allow
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users simply to check responses on the questionnaire work the best. Letter of
transmittal on letterhead, content of letter, and its presentation will have an
influence on the response rate. Within the body of the letter, it is important
to state the purpose of the research, the importance of study, the
importance of respondents, a reasonable but specific time limit, an
assurance of confidentiality, an offer to share results, and a thank you.
Concise wording should make it possible to keep this letter to one page.
Uses of Descriptive Research
a. The major objective of descriptive research is to describe something usually market characteristics or functions
b. As a result, descriptive research is preplanned and structured. It is
typically based on large representative samples.
Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons
To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers,
salespeople, or organizations, or market areas.
To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a
certain behavior.
To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.
To make specific predictions. E.g. what will be retail sales of Shoppers stop
for fashion in the Mumbai area.
To collect demographic information of consumers/users of a product under
study.
For finding out views and attitudes of customers, e.g. how many
customers prefer branded goods or ISI marked goods?
Make predictions about future marketing trends, consumer needs or
expectations or possible sales after n years.
To discover the relationship between certain variables, e.g. sale among
rural population and urban population or rate of savings among low,
middle and higher income groups.

Impact and Future Role of Descriptive Research

Although descriptive studies are important, most research studies involve
questions about causes, because it is not always possible to isolate the
variables that will explain those causes, descriptive research can play an
important role in providing information from another perspective.
By gathering descriptions of "what is," and comparing them to what we
would like," researcher can see the area that needs to be addressed.
Descriptive statistics can provide information that can help:
Isolate the variables that will eventually be used to measure cause and
effect
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Provide surrounding information that will aid logical interpretations of

research questions within the context of a specific situation
Descriptive research has gained acceptance as a valid form of research, and
in recent years the number of descriptive studies published in research
journals and conference proceedings has increased because Researchers
have realized that trying to mimic scientific research does not work, so
researchers need to address the questions at hand and be willing to use a
variety of methodologies to ensure the most appropriate and accurate
investigation. Rapidly changing technologies make it likely to be observing
students using media in new ways and for new purposes.
Answer (b):

Report Writing
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for
the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented
and/or written. A research report can be defined as the presentation of the
research findings directed to a specific purpose. Research report is
considered a major component of the research study fir the research task
remain incomplete till the report has been presented and /or written.

Importance of Report
The research report is important for the following reasons.
1. The result of research can be effectively communicated to management
2. The report is the only aspect of the study, which executives are exposed
to and their consecutive evaluation of the project rests with the
effectiveness of the written and oral presentation.
3. The report presentations are typically the responsibility of the project
worthiness. So the communication effectiveness and usefulness of the
information provided plays a crucial role in determining whether that
project will be continued in future.

Guidelines to prepare a report

The general guidelines that should be followed for any report are as follows:
1. Consider the audience: the information resulting from research is
ultimately important to the management, who will use the results to make
decisions. Decision makers are interested in a clear, concise, accurate and
interesting report, which directly focuses on their information needs with
the minimum of technological jargons.
2. Be concise but precise: the report must be concise and must focus on
the crucial elements of the project. It should not include unimportant
issues. Researchers should know how much emphasis has to given to
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each area.
3. Be objective yet effective: the research report must be of an objective
presentation of the research findings.
The researcher violates the
standard of the objectivity if the findings are presented in a distorted or
slanted manner. The writing style of the report should be interesting, with
the sentence structure short and to the point.
4. Understand the results and draw conclusions: the managers who
read the report are expecting to see interpretive conclusions in the report.
The researcher should understand the results and be able to interpret it
effectively to management.

Report Format

Following outline is generally accepted as the basis format for the more
research projects.
1. Title Page: this should contain a title which conveys the essence of the
study, the date, the name of the organization submitting the report, and
the organization for whom it is prepared. If the research report is
confidential, the name of those individuals to receive the report should be
specified on the title page.
2. Table of Contents: this lists the essence of topics covered in the report,
along with page references. Its purpose is to aid readers in finding a
particular section in the report. If there are many tables, charts or other
exhibits, they should also be listed after the table of contents in a
separate table of illustrations.
3. Executive Summary: can serve two purposes
It may be a report in miniature covering all the aspects in the body of
the report, but in the abbreviated form.
It may be concise summary of major finding and conclusions including
recommendations.
Expect the summary to contain a high density of significant terms since it
is repeating the highlights of the report. A good summary should help the
decision maker and it is designed to be action oriented.
4. Introduction: prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts
of the project: the problem statement, research objectives and
background material. The introduction must clearly explain the nature of
decision problem. It should review the previous research done on the
problem.
5. Problem statement: contains the need for the research project. The
problem is usually represented by a management question. It is followed
by a more detailed set of objectives.
6. Research Objectives: this addresses the purpose of the project. These
may be research question(s) and associated investigative questions.
7. Background: may be of two types
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It may be the preliminary results of exploration from an experience

survey, focus group, or another source.
Alternately it could be secondary data from the literature review.
Background material may be placed before the problem statement or
after the research objectives. It contains information pertinent to the
management problem or the situation that lead to the study.
8. Methodology: purpose of this section is to describe the nature of the
research design, sampling plan, data collection and analysis procedure.
Enough details must be conveyed so that the reader can appreciate the
nature of methodology used, yet the presentation must not be boring and
overpowering. The use of technical jargons must be avoided.
9. Research design: the coverage of the design must be adapted to the
purpose. The type of research adapted and the reason for adapting that
particular type should be explained.
10. Sampling design: it has to explain the sampling frame, sampling
method adapted and sample size. Explanation of the sampling method,
uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other relevant points that need
explanation should be covered with brevity. Calculation of sample size can
be placed either in this part or can be placed in an appendix.
11. Data Collection: this part of report describes the specifics of
gathering the data. Its content depends on the selected design. The data
collection instruments (Questionnaire or interview scheduled) field
instructions can be placed in the appendix.
12. Data Analysis: this section summarizes the methods used to analyze
the data. Describes data handling, preliminary analysis, statistical test,
company programs and other technical information. The rational for the
choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on
assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.
13. Limitations: Every project has weakness, which need to be
communicated in a clear and concise manner. In this process the
researcher should avoid belabouring minor study weakness. Purpose of
this section is not to disparage the quality of research project but rather
to enable the reader to judge the validity of the study results. Generally
the limitations will occur in sampling, no response in adequacies and
methodological weakness. It is the researchers professional responsibility
to clearly inform the reader of these limitations.
14. Findings: the objective of this part is to explain the data rather than
draw conclusions. When the quantitative data can be presented, this
should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics and tables.
15. Summary and Conclusions: summary is a brief statement of
essential findings. The conclusion should clearly link the research findings
with the information needs, and based on this linkage recommendation
for action can be formulated. In some research works the conclusions
were presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference.

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16. Recommendations: the researchers recommendations may be

weighed more heavily in favour of the research findings. There are few
ideas about corrective actions. The recommendations are given for
managerial actions rather than research action.
17. Appendices: purpose of this is to provide a place for material, which
is not absolutely essential to the body of the report. It is designed to serve
the needs of the technically oriented reader. It contains copy of data
collection forms, details of sampling plan, estimates of statistical errors,
interviewers instructions and detailed statistical tables associated with
the data analysis process.
18. Bibliography: the use of secondary data required a bibliography.
Proper citation, style and formats are unique to the purpose of the report.
The instructor, program, institution, or client often specifies style
requirements. It will be given as footnote or endnote format. The author
name, title, publication, year, page number are the important elements to
bibliography.

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