AMERICAN VACUUM SOCIETY

CLASSICS

HANDBOOK
OF MATERIALS
AND TECHNIQUES
FOR VACUUM
DEVICES
Walter H. Kohl

AIP
American Institute of Physics

New York

CONTENTS

Preface

1.

Glass
The nature of glassThe composition of glassGas permeation through glassThe mechanical strength of glassChemical strengthening of glassThe annealing of glassStress analysis Volume conductivityElectrolysis in glassSurface conductivityDielectric properties
Glass in radiation fieldsSpecial Processes and Applications: ManipulationCutting and
polishing of small holesThin glass windowsGlass sheet and filmsGlass shrinking
Cleaning of glassParticulate contaminationOutgassingPowdered glassSolder glass

2.

Ceramics

61

Raw materials and body compositions (conventional electrical porcelain, low-loss steatite,
forsterite, mullite, wollastonite, cordierite, zircon porcelain, alumina, sapphire-ruby, beryllia,
magnesia, thoria, titania, urania, zirconia)Space-age refractories (boron, nitride, glass ceramics) Compatibility of ceramics with liquids, solids and gasesPermeation of gasesGeneral techniques (fabrication, die construction and design considerations, glazing)Precision
ceramics

3.

Mica

118

MineralogyMining and preparationChemical and physical properties (thermal conductivity,

thermal expansion, electrical resistivity, dielectric properties, the release of gas)General techniques (fabrication, splitting, sorting, casting, mounting, electrophoretic deposition)Synthetic mica Glass-bonded mica and ceramoplasticsReconstituted micaMica paper or mica
mat, vs. built-up flake mica

4.

Carbon and Graphite

137

Manufacturing processes (carbon black, industrial carbon, electrographite, pyrolytic graphite,

recrystallized, high-density graphite, glassy carbon, cellulose carbon, fibrous carbon)Physical
and chemical propertiesCompatibility with other materialsSpecial Processes and Applications: Graphite anodesOutgassing of anodesMicrowave attenuatorsNuclear applications

5.

Iron and Steel

160

The strength of materialsMechanical, physical, and chemical properties (the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram heat treatment)Commercial iron and steel (wrought stainless steels, martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, semiaustenitic and precipitation hardening steels)Applications of stainless steelsSpecial Processes and Applications:
Outgassing of iron and steelVacuum melting of iron and steelGas permeation in iron and
steelRoll-clad iron and laminatesCopper-base Aliron

6.

Copper and Copper Alloys

Physical characteristics and chemical properties (OFHC Brand copper, other high-purity coppers) Outgassing of copperCopper-base alloys (cupronickels, precipitation-hardenable alloys, chrome copper, beryllium copper, zirconium copper)Dispersion strengtheningSpecial
Processes and Applications: MachiningSpinningShot-peeningWater-cooled
anodes
Air-cooled anodesPinch-off tubulationsEffect of cold-working on r.f. conductivity

181

xii CONTENTS

7.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

204

Physical characteristics and chemical properties (Nickel 200, Nickel 201, Nickel 204, Nickel 205,
Nickel 211, Nickel 212, Nickel 233, Nickel 270, Permanickel alloy, Duranickel alloy 301, Monel
alloys)Outgassing of nickelSpecial Processes and Applications: Rolled-powder nickel
Dispersion-strengthened nickelCarbonized nickelASTM specifications

8.

Precious Metals and Their Alloys

(silver, gold, platinum metals and rhenium)

222

Physical characteristics and chemical properties (age-hardenable silver alloys, dispersionstrengthened silver alloys, dispersion-strengthened platinum alloys, precious metals and gases)
Special Processes and Applications: High-temperature thermocouplesPrecious-metal contacts Precious-metal resistorsPlatinum-cobalt magnetsProtective and conductive coatings
Rhenium

INTRODUCTION TO REFRACTORY METALS (RM)

9.

Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys

249

Mechanical, physical, and chemical propertiesOxidation of tungsten-Tungsten alloys (tungsten-tantalun and tungsten-molybdenum alloys, tungsten-rhenium alloys, other tungsten alloys)
Special Processes and Applications: Non-sag filamentsThe forming of filamentsSlip casting, centrifugal casting, hydrostatic densification, fluid-to-fluid extrusion, shape forming
Vapor platingOxidation-resistant coatings

10.

Molybdenum and Molybdenum Alloys

274

Methods of production (powder metallurgy, consumable-electrode or vacuum-arc melting, electron-beam melting)Mechanical, physical, and chemical propertiesOxidation of molybdenum Protective coatingsMolybdenum AlloysSpecial Processes and Applications: Outgassing of molybdenumFabrication of molybdenum

11.

Tantalum and Columbium (Niobium) and their Alloys

295

Mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of tantalumOxidationReactionsProtective coatingsTantalum alloysSpecial Processes and Applications: OutgassingClad metals
The fabrication of columbium and its alloysMechanical, physical, and chemical properties
Special Processes and Applications: Cryogenic

12.

Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium and their alloys

321

Titanium: Mechanical, physical, and chemical propertiesPhysical metallurgyTitanium alloys Reactions with gasesZirconium and Hafnium:
Mechanical, physical, and chemical
propertiesSpecial Processes and Applications

INTRODUCTION TO JOINING PROCESSES

13.

Soldering and Brazing

335

Physical principles (surface energy, contact angle, wetting and spreading, alloy formation and
constitutional diagrams, diffusion, oxide reduction in reducing atmospheres)Soldering: solder
compositions, aluminum solders, indium solders, gallium alloys, fusible alloys, solder fluxes,
physical characteristics of solders, test procedures, soldering techniquesBrazing: Brazing
metallurgy, the strength of brazed joints, filler metal compositions, brazing techniques, joint
design, methods of heating, typical metal combinations (copper-to-copper, copper-to-nickel,
copper-to-steel, copper-to-Kovar-type alloys, nickel-to-nickel)High-alloy-steel jointsSolidstate weldingRefractory metal joints (titanium and zirconium joints, beryllium joints)
Graphite jointsOther welding processes

14.

Glass-To-Metal Sealing
Classification of glass-to-metal sealsBond mechanismsStresses in sealsHouskeeper seals
Induction sealsCompression sealsSealing to pure metals (platinum seals, gold and silver

288

CONTENTS

xiii

seals, copper seals, tungsten seals, molybdenum seals, titanium and zirconium seals, tantalum
seals)Sealing to alloys (iron and steel seals, nickel-iron alloy seals, chrome-iron seals, nickelchrome-iron alloy seals, nickel-cobalt-iron alloy seals)Seal FabricationFused Quartz-tometal sealsMicrowave window sealsSilver chloride seals

15.

Ceramic-To-Metal Sealing

441

Advantages of ceramic sealsDisadvantages of ceramic sealsDesign considerationsSealing techniques (dye check, cleaning procedures, sintered-metal-powder seals, low-temperature,
sintered-metal-powder seals, active metal seals, pressed diffusion seals, soldered seals, vaporized
and sputtered substrate seals, molten-salt titanium metallized seals, electroformed seals, graded
powder seals, nonmetallic fusion seals)Bond formationTest procedures (mechanical tests,
leak tests, electrical tests, environmental tests)Special Processes and Applications: Solution
metallizingPin seals and headersHigh-temperature sealsCeramic seals for corrosive environments Fusion bonding of ceramicsCompression band sealsBrazing considerations

16.

Cathodes and Heaters

475

Thermal electron emissionCathode design parametersPure metal cathodes (pure tungsten

cathodes)Thin film cathodes (thoriated tungsten, carburized thoriated tungsten filaments)
Dispenser cathodes (nickel base, pressed and sintered cathodes, boride cathodes, thoria cathodes) Barium, strontium, calcium-oxide cathodesPhysical characteristicsPreparation of
the coatingExhaust procedureCathode ActivationPerformance and lifeNickel-base
alloys for oxide cathodesFilamentary emittersHeaters (the coating of heaters, electrophoretic coating of heaters and cathodes)The cataphoretic deposition of emissive coatings (the
cataphoretic deposition of thoria)Physico-chemical effects in heater-cathode systems

17.

Grid Structures and Coatings

529

Grid structures (receiving tube grids, frame grids, frame grids for disk-seal tubes)Suppression
of primary electron emission from grids (graphite suspensions, gold plating, platinum-coated
grids, titanium grids, other types of coatings) aluminum-clad molybdenumSpecial Processes
and Applications: Ribbon gridsKlystron gridsEmbedded gridsNon-intercepting grids
by partial suppression of cathode emissionCeramic-coated gridsCeramic gridsAligned
gridsMesh screensPlating procedures for grid laterals

18.

Getter Materials

545

Getter requirementsTypes of getter (flash getters, bulk getters and coating getters, tantalum,
titanium, zirconium, zirconium alloys, thorium-thorium alloys)Special Processes and Applications: Gas-doped flash gettersLarge-area metal filmsEvapor-ion and sputter-ion pumps

19.

Secondary Emission

563

Physical characteristics (silver-magnesium alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel-beryllium alloys,

nickel-magnesium alloys, copper-beryllium alloys, aluminum alloys)Suppression of secondary
emissionSecondary-emission devicesSpecial Processes and Applications

20.

Voltage Breakdown

579

Voltage breakdown in air (corona loss)Voltage breakdown over insulating surfacesVoltage

breakdown through bulk dielectricsVoltage breakdown in vacuum (voltage breakdown
mechanisms, design considerations)

Appendix

599

Index

613