Chapter 11
Temperature Measurement
11.1 Introduction
Temperature is a very widely measured and frequently controlled variable used in
numerous indrustial applications. In general, chemical reactions in the industrial processes
and products are temperature dependent and the desired quality of a product is possible
only if the temperature is accurately measured and maintained. Further, it forms an
important governing parameter in the thermodynamic and heat transfer operations like
steam raising,gas turbines in power generations and also in numerous propulsion system.
In addition, in the heat treatment of steel and alumunium alloys, temperature measurement
and control plays a crucial role in incorporating the desired material properties in the
finished heat-treated products. The other areas where measurement and control of
temperature is essential are : plastic manufacture, nuclear reactor components, milk and
dairy products, plant furnace and molten metals, heating and air-conditioning systems,
space shuttle components, blades of gas turbines, etc.
A number of definitions of temperature have been proposed. In a laymans
language one could define this as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an
environment measured on a definite scale. Another simplified definition of temperature is
based on its equivalence to a driving force or potential that caused the flow of energy as
heat. Thus, we can define temperature as a condition of a body by virtue of which heat is
transferred to or from other bodies. Further, in the kinetic theory of gases and in statistical
thermodynamics, it is shown that temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of
molecules or atoms of which the material is made of. Finally, the definition of temperature
in thermodynamics sense is based on th ideal Carnot-cycle. According to this, it is defined
as quantity whose difference is proportional to the work obtained from a Carnot engine
operating between a hot source and a cold receiver.
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It may be noted that there is a marked difference between the quantities temperature
and heat. Temperature may be defined as degreeof heat whereas heat is taken to mean as
quantity of heat. For example, a bucket of warm water would melt more ice than a small
spoon of boiling water. The warm water in the bucket obviously contains greater quantity
of heat than that in the spoon containing boiling water. But its temperature is lower than
the boiling water, a fact that is readily apparent if a finger is dipped in both the vessels.
Temperature is a fundamental quantity, much the same way as mass,length and
time.The law that is used in temperature measurement is known as the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.This state that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
then they are all in thermal equilibrium with each other. In the words, all the three bodies
would have the same temperature. Thus, if one can set up a reproducible means of
establishing a range of temperature and allowing thermal equilibrium to reach in each case.
In the other words, the thermometer is calibrated against a standard and is subsequently
used to read unknown temperatures.
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(11.2)
[ ]
T2
T1
Rankine
[ ]
T2
T1
Kelvin
(11.3)
The boiling and freezing points of water at pressure of one atmosphere (101.3
kN/m2) are taken as 1000 and 00 on the Celcius scale and 2120 and 320 on the Fahrenheit
scale. The following relationship between Fahrenheit and Celcius and Rankine scales can
be easily derived :
0
F = 32 +
R=
9
5
9
5
(11.4)
(11.5)
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Table 11.1
Temperature (0C)
13.18
- 259.34
20.28
- 252.87
54.361
- 218.789
90.188
-182.962
273.16
0.01
373.15
100
692.73
419.58
1235.58
961.93
1337.58
1064.43
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Temperature (0C)
194.674
-74.476
234.288
-38.862
273.15
544.592
271.442
600.652
327.502
717.824
444.674
903.87
630.74
933.52
660.37
1357.6
1084.5
2045
1772
3660
3387
Secondary points
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An in crease in temperature causes the deflection of the free end of the strip as
shown in fig. 11.1(b), assuming that metal A has the higher coefficient of
expansion. The deflection with the temperature is nearly linear, depending mainly
on the coefficient of linear thermal expansion. Invar is commonly employed as the
low expansion metal. This is an iron-nicel alloy containing 36% nicel. Its
coefficientof thermal expansion is around 1/20 th of the ordinary metals. Brass is
used as high expansion material for the measurement of low temperatures, whereas
nickel alloys are used when higher temperatures have to be measured. A plain
bimetallic strip is somewhat insensitive, but the sensitivity is imprived by using a
longer strip in a helical from as shown in fig. 11.2.
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preferred in industrial application because of its fragility and its lack of adaptability
to remote indication. Further, it introduces time lag in the measurement of dynamic
signals because of relatively high heat capacityof the bulb.
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Mercury-in-steel Thermometer
The mercury-in-steel thermometer has a near-linear scale. Sufficient power is
available to operate a recording pen if required. As a total expansion of mercury is
dependent not only on the bulb temperature but also on the temperatures of the capillary
tube and Bourdon tube, the system is subject to ambient temperature errors. Further, the
magnitude of these error depends on the ratio of the volume of the mercury in the capillary
at the measured temperature to the volume of the bulb. A reduction of the error is obtain by
making the sensing-bulb volume considerably greater than that of the capillary and
Bourdon tubes. This inevitably increase the thermal capacity and hence the thermal lag.
The bulb size is therefore a matter of compromise. The volumes of the capillary and
Bourdon tube are made as small as the transmission distance and the required size of
display could allow. Pressure thermometers are often connected with long capillary
(connecting) tubes for the remote measurements, of the order of 100 m.
Ambient temperature error may be reduced by suitable compensation techniques.
One ambient temperature change on this compensating system cancels the corresponding
on the measuring system.
Another potential cause of error is the change in pressure head which is introduced
by any change in relative levels of the bulb and the display. If the bulb is raised by a height
h from the calibration elevation, then the Bourdon gauge experiences an increase in
preassure equal to gh. This increase in level introduces an error in the indicator. This error
is contanfor any specified relative position of the bulb and display and may the removed by
means of the zero adjustments of the indicating mechanism.
The temperature range over which mercury-in-steel thermometer may be used is
-25 to 5500 C when the mercury is filled under pressure in the steel bulb.
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of various
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(11.6)
R0
= resistance at 00C
a dan b
However , over a limited temperature range around 0C (273K), the following linear
relationship can be applied.
Rt = R0 ( 1 + t )
(11.7)
= 0.0043
Nickel
= 0.0068
Platinum = 0.039
C-1
C-1
C-1
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Rearranging gives:
t2 = t1 +
R 2R1
R0
(11.8)
The variation of resistance of the sensing element is normally measured using some
form of electrical bridge circuit which may employ either the deflection mode of
operation or the null (manually or automatically balanced ) mode. However, particular
attention must be given to the manner in which the thermometer is connected into the
bridge. Leads of same length appropriate to the situation are normally required and any
resistance change there in due to any cause, including temperature, may be credited to the
thermometer element. It is desirable, therefore, that the lead resistance be kept as low as
possible relative to the element resistance. In addition, some modifications may be
employed for providing the lead compensation. For more precise result, either the
Siemens three wire lead arrangement or Callenders four wire lead arrangement may be
employed (Fig. 11.6). Further, it is ssential that the thermo-electric emfs do not affect the
system. These can be eliminated by utilising ac excitation or by manually varying the
polarity of he dc supply.
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3. fairly good operating range which lies between 100 and 300oC,
4. fairly cost and easy adaptability to the available resistance bridge circuits, and
5. the high sensitivity and the availability in extremely small sizes (of the sizes of
a pin head) enable a fast speed of thermal response.
Thus, these devices are extremely useful for dynamic temperature measurement.
However, the disadventages are a highly non-linear resistance-temperature
characteristics and problems of self-heating effects which necessitate the use of much
lower current levels than those with metallic sensors.
The temperature-resistance characteristics of thermistor is of exponential type and
is given by:
[ ( )]
R = R0 exp
where
1 1
T T0
(11.9)
or grade. Using Eq. (11.9) we can obtain the temperature coefficient of resistance as :
dR/dT
R
2
T
(11.10)
Assuming
we get ,
The value of
dR/dT
R
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junctions J1 and J2
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This law is useful in practice because it helps in giving a suitable correction in case
reference junction temperature (which is usually an ice bath at 0C is employed. For
example, if a themocouple is calibrated for a reference junction temperature of 0C and
used with junction temperature of say 20C, then the correction required for the
observation would be the emf produced by the thermocouple between 0 and 20C .
Law of Intermediate Metals
The basic thermocouple loop consist of two dissimiliar metals A and B [ Fig. 11.10
(a)]. If a third wire in introduced, then three junction are formed as shown in fig. 11. 10.
(b). The emf generated remains unaltered if the two new junctions B-C and C-A are the
same temperature.
It may be noted extensions wires are needed when the measuring instrument is to
be placed at a considerable distance from the reference junction. Maximum accuracy is
obtained when the leads are of the same material as the thermocouple element [Fig. 11 11
(a)]. However this approach is not economical while using exspensive thermocouple
materials. Further, a small inaccuracy is still possible if the binding post of the instrument
is made of say copper and the two binding posts are at different temperatures. Therefore, it
is preferable to employ the system shown in Fig. 11.11 (b) to keep the copper;iron and
copper-costantan junctions in the thermos flask at 0C and provide binding posts copper.
This ensures maximum accuracy in the thermocouples operation.
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Fig. 11.11 Schematics of Thermocouple circuits with and without extension leads in a
typical iron-constant an thermocouple circuit
Thermocouples Materials
The choice of the materials for thermocouples in governed by the following factors:
1. Ability to withstand the temperature at which they are used,
2. Immunity from contamination /oxidation, etc. Qhich ensures maintenance of
the precise thermoelectric properties with continuous use, and
3. Linearity characteristics.
It may be noted that the relationship between thermo-electric emf and the
difference between hot and cold junctions temperatures is approximately of the parabolic
form:
E=aT + bT2
(11.11)
Base-metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloys of iron,
copper and nickel and are used for temperature up to 1450 K. These are most commonly
used in practice as they are more sensitive , cheaper and have nearly linear characteristics.
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Their chief limitation is the lower operating range because of their low melting point and
vulnerability to oxidation. On the other hand, rare metal thermocouples use a combinations
of pure metals and alloys of platinum for temperatures up to 1600C and tungsten, rhodium
and molybdenum for temperatures up to 3000C.
Typical thermocouples with their temperature ranges and other salient operating
characteristics, are given in table 11.3.
Table 11.3 Characteristics of Some Thermocouples
Approximate
Useful
Approximate
sensitivity
Temperature
accuracy
Thermocouples
S.No.
Type
material
in (V/ C
range( C)
(%)
1.
Copper-Constantan
20-60
-180 to +440
0.75
2.
Iron-Constantan
45-55
-180 to +850
0.75
3.
Chromel-Alumel
40-55
-200 to +1300
0.75
4.
Cheromel-Constantan
55-80
-180 to +850
0.5
5.
Platinum-Platinum/10% Rhodium
5-12
0 to +1400
0.25
6.
Platinum-Platinum/13% Rhodium
5-12
0 to +1600
0.25
7.
5-12
+100 to +1800
0.25
5-12
0 to +3000
0.15
Platinum/30%
Rhodium-Platinum/6%
Rhodium
Tungston/5%
8.
Rhenium-Tungston/20%
W5
Rhenium
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1. Thermocouple bead can be made of small size and consequently with low
thermal capacity. In other words dynamic response of sensor is fairly good.
2. They cost considerably less as compared to other thermal sensors and further,
they require no maintenance.
3. They are quite rugged type, i.e. they can withstands rough handling.
4. They cover wide range of temperature, i.e. from -200 to 3000 0C.
5. Output signal is electrical and they can be used for indicating recording or
6.
7.
8.
9.
VBE =
kT
q
ln
Ic
I es
(11.12)
where
VBE
Ic
= collector current
Ies
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Generally, the term within the parenthesis in Eq. (11.12) is constant and the
emitter base voltage i.e., the output of the transducer becomes directly
propotational to T whih is the measured input. The main avantage of the solid state
temperature sensors is heir inherent lnear operating characteristics with excellent
accuracy of the order of 1oC. In addition they have high levels of output signal
which is capable of direct indication without n signal conditioning. The sensitivity
of the silicon transistor wihin its useable range of -55 to 150 oC is of the order of
-2mV/oC. Further, since the output is electrical, they have the capability of p based
control applications.
The disadvantages of these sensors are their limited temperature measuring
range and their thermal mass which limits their response characteristics.
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For temperatures above 650oC, the heat radiations emitted from the body are of
sufficient intensity to be used for the measuring the temperature. Instruments that employ
radiation principles fall into three general classes : (a) total radiation pyrometer, (b)
selective (or partial) radiation pyrometers, and (c) infrared (IR) pyrometer. The first is
sensitive to all the radiation that enters the instrument and the second only to radiation of a
particular wavelength. Further, the IR pyrometers employ the infrared portion of the
spectrum by using a thermal detector to measure the temperature on the surface of the
body.
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resistance thermometer bridge circuit. Leads from the detector are led out of the
casing to a meter for measuring the thermoelectric emf or the variation the electric
resistance of the platinum foil.
The theory underlying the operation of total radiation pyrometers is that the
rate of radiation from a body A (the source) to a body B (the pyrometer), i.e. EA/B is
given by the Stafan-Boltzmann law as follows :
EA/B = C [TA4 TA4]
were
(11.13)
EA/B
= is the emissivity of the detector disc which varies from 0.05 to 1.0
for the theoritical black body.
= is the Stefan Boltzman constant and its value is 56.7 x 10 -12 kW/
(m2-K4).
TA and TB are the steady state absolute temoerature of the source and
pyrometer detector disc.
Such pyrometers are usually calibrated againts known temperatures in the
range of 700 - 2000oC where thermocouples and resistance thermometers cannot be
employed. However, the errors arise from two sources in actual use. Any filtering
material such as smoke, dust, gases, windows, etc. which were not present in the
calibration will reduce the energt recieved hence cause an unknown error. Secondly,
an error may be caused due to a surface having emissivity other than used in the
calibration. Since surface emissivities are not known very accurately an d a change
occurs with time due to oxidation, therefore the error due unknown emissivity is
usually not known. To reduce such un certainties, pyrometers calibrated from time
to time in actual use.
In view of the troubles due to filtering and emissivity, the total radiation
pyrometer is not a very accurate temperature indicator. However, it can be used to
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good advantage in fixed locations where the emissivity and optical paths are well
known and constant. A typical use is a large furnace in metal industries. The signal
is electrical and therefore can be used for control applications.
11.7.2 Selective Radiation Pyrometer
The principle of this instrument is based on Planck's law which states that
the energy level in the radiations from a hot body are distributed in the different
wavelengths. As the temperature increases, the emissive power shifts to shorter
wavelengths. The planck's distribution equation is :
c1
W=
where
c 2/ T
(11.14)
c1
c2
= 1.4385 (cm-0C)
= wavelength (cm)
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disappearing filament instrument shown in the Fig. 11.13, an image of the target is
superimposed on the heated filament.
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accurate and less subject to large errors than the total radiation pyrometer. The
accuracy of such pyrometers is usually 5oC, its accuracy is better than 10oC.
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