PHENOMENOLOGICAL
STUDY
by
MARIETTE
R.N.,
BESANGER WEST
1972
1981
A T H E S I S SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL F U L F I L L M E N T OF
. THE REQUIREMENTS
MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE
(Department
We
of C o u n s e l l i n g
accept t h i s
to
thesis
the r e q u i r e d
STUDIES
Psychology)
as conforming
standard
MARIETTE
1983
BESANGER WEST,
1S8 3
In
presenting
requirements
this
for
an
of
British
it
freely available
agree
for
by
understood
that
his
that
or
be
her
or
shall
the
University
and
study.
copying
granted
by
of
p u b l i c a t i o n of
not
be
further
this
this
It
thesis
my
is
thesis
a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my
Columbia
make
the head o f
representatives.
of
The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h
1956 Main M a l l
Vancouver,
Canada
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the
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permission.
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f u l f i l m e n t of
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extensive
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Columbia,
department
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thesis
written
i i
ABSTRACT
This
study
combination
In
examines t h e concept
"jealousy" using a
o f e m p i r i c a l and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
t h e e m p i r i c a l phase o b j e c t i v e d a t a
descriptive
subjective
statistics.
data
descriptors,
from
understandings
In t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
were a n a l y z e d
the other
gained
were s u r v e y e d
from
a review
of l i t e r a t u r e
by d a t a a n d
of three t h e o r i e s of
on j e a l o u s y
a student
u s i n g an a d a p t e d
by A r o n s o n and P i n e s
28 male r e s p o n d e n t s
described
with
responses.
from
disciplines.
inventory
and
phase
p h a s e and by t h e c o n c e p t u a l
T h r e e h u n d r e d a d u l t s from
complex
using
on t h e b a s i s o f m a j o r
i n e a c h p h a s e were s u p p o r t e d
emotion and a c r i t i q u e
several
were a n a l y z e d
e l e m e n t s a n d themes i n t h e v e r b a t i m
Interpretations
findings
approaches.
(1982).
family
housing
v e r s i o n of a jealousy
Forty-five
and i n t e r p r e t e d
their
t h e e m o t i o n and r e s p o n d e d
objective
item
emotional
reactions; general
most e x t r e m e
female
own words;
experiences
(on a o n e - t o - s e v e n
s u b t e s t s of j e a l o u s y p r e v a l e n c e ;
scale) to
p h y s i c a l and
r e a c t i o n s and c o p i n g
mechanisms.
Quantitative
preliminary
effects
and q u a l i t a t i v e
findings.
resulted
of the instrument;
objective
analyses
sex d i f f e r e n c e s
s u b t e s t s ; and q u a l i t a t i v e
i n many
therapeutic
i n each of the
s i m i l a r i t i e s and
differences
among i n d i v i d u a l s
participants'
and between t h e s e x e s i n
definitions, experiential
a c c o u n t s and
interpretations.
Several
for
future
counselling
r e s e a r c h were d i s c u s s e d .
practice
generally
broader c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
jealousy
experiences.
Implications
suggestions
for
promoted a p p l i c a t i o n
and more p o s i t i v e
of a
outcomes f o r
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
i i
List
of T a b l e s
List
of F i g u r e s
vi
v i i
Acknowledgements
viii
Dedication
ix
Chapter
I
II
III
..
and S o c i o l o g y
EMPIRICAL PHASE
D e s i g n and Method
Subjects
Instruments
P i l o t Study
D a t a C o l l e c t i o n and P r o c e d u r e s
Sample Demography
R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n
I.
Jealousy: Trait-Based?
II.
Response S e t a n d / o r R e - e x p e r i e n c e o f
the Emotion?
III.
J e a l o u s y and S i b l i n g P o s i t i o n
IV.
Jealousy Prevalence
V.
General Reactions to Jealousy
VI.
Physical Reactions to Jealousy
VII.
E m o t i o n a l R e a c t i o n s t o J e a l o u s y ....
VIII.
Coping with J e a l o u s y
H y p o t h e s e s and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u t u r e
Research
C h a p t e r Summary
1
1
4
5
6
7
25,
25
30
45
61
113
116
116
116
116
117
118
119
121
121
123
128
129
129
132
134
137
140
145
IV
PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHASE
146
P a r t i c i p a n t D e f i n i t i o n s of J e a l o u s y : A
Discussion
P a r t i c i p a n t s ' J e a l o u s y E x p e r i e n c e s : Major
Themes
Implications f o r Future Research
C h a p t e r Summary
V
153
158
164
PRACTICE
165
General Considerations
Counselling Individuals
Counselling Couples
C o u n s e l l i n g Groups
C h a p t e r Summary
167
170
175
180
183
THE SI S. SUMMARY
REFERENCES
1 46
184
. ..'
Inventory
186
Appendix
A:
Jealousy
194
Appendix
B:
Request
Appendix
C:
Cover L e t t e r
Appendix
D:
Responses
t o Items
Appendix
E:
Responses
t o Item
120
224
Appendix
F:
Responses
t o Item
123
230
for Participation
i n Study
f o r Inventory
28, 29, 30
......
201
203
206
vi
L I S T OF TABLES
Table
1:
Frequencies
Table
2:
Table
Table
Table
Table
3:
4:
5:
6;
o f t h e Demographic V a r i a b l e s
... 120
Means and
130
Means and
Reactions
131
on B a s i s o f
133
Reactions
on B a s i s o f
"
135
Items on
13.8
vii
L I S T OF FIGURES
Figure
1:
R e s p o n s e t o Q u e s t i o n s 20 and 122 by
Question
19
124
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank my
a d v i s o r , Dr.
and
patience
i n h e l p i n g me
and
thesis.
I thank my
and
Dr.
Robert
t i m e and
Roelofs
her
with
data
Centre,
and
Acadia
and
my
Neville
of
my
and
support
f o r her
and
Marv Westwood
consultation.
f r i e n d s h i p , her
G e r i Cymbluck
for their
s u b j e c t s , the
and
most
colleagues
importantly,
my
daughter
invitations
t o p l a y as
delivering
envelopes.
Kala
Sciences
for
husband,
f o r her
her
Park
'being
h i s support
West
in
response;
I thank my
w e l l as
help
participation
enthusiastic
f o r her
r e s i d e n t s of A c a d i a
t i m e and
my
Gary
computer
of U.B.C. H e a l t h
Psychiatry,
guidance
research project
a s s i s t a n c e with
staff
f r i e n d s and
editing;
endless
stamping
the
Camp f o r t h e i r
West
and
word p r o c e s s i n g ;
study;
Finally
help with
and
and
f a m i l y , my
there'.
for their
teaching
Department
pilot
this
c o n s u l t a t i o n ; B r u c e M c G i l l i v r a y and
processing;
the
to complete
Adrienne Roelofs
for their
programming
Banmen f o r h i s
c o m m i t t e e members, Dr.
Armstrong
I a l s o thank Dr.
John
help
and
love
with
his
ix
DEDICATION
To N e v i l l e
and
Kala
i t s useful
purpose."
Descartes
CHAPTER I
General
Jealousy
experience.
it
i s an a n c i e n t
e a r l y stages
f i n d i n g s and a r e l a r g e l y
framework
to allow
of t h i s
about
Empirical
decade.
Widely
m e t h o d o l o g i e s and
a n a l y s i s have been u s e d y e t c l a r i f i c a t i o n
Completion
construct
of t h i s
f o r a l l human e m o t i o n s ,
task
which
i s not p r e c i s e or
awaits
conceptual
is flexible
enough
f o r i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e p l e t h o r a o f human phenomena
to account
f o r o u r i n n a t e human
Jealousy
dramatized
our
a product
j e a l o u s y as a t h e o r e t i c a l
comprehensive.
knowledge
of development.
operational definitions,
approaches t o data
of
and a u n i v e r s a l human
However, t h e body o f s c i e n t i f i c
i s i n the very
varying
topic
complexity.
h a s been e x a m i n e d , a n a l y z e d ,
and v i s u a l l y
c u l t u r e and o t h e r s .
portrayed
This
discussed,
by e x p e r t s
research
and a m a t e u r s i n
r e - e x p l o r e s the
topic.
The
researcher
consensual
awareness of the u n i v e r s a l l y
jealousy.
T h i s does n o t mean we e x p e r i e n c e
identically.
shared
experienced
R a t h e r , we,have some h o l i s t i c ,
sense of the j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e
jealousy
universally
as a n a t u r a l
phenomenon.
This
linear
study
is subjective
refinement,
meanings.
ordered
approaches.
scientically
presented
statistics.
L a t e r , the
interprets
and
as.a
member of
takes p l a c e .
Using
seeking
and
O b j e c t i v e data
interpreted
are
using
descriptive
r e s e a r c h e r p r e s e n t s and
gained
d u r i n g the
t h e community
this
combined
logical
experiential
scientific
t h e e x p e r i e n c e s c o n t r i b u t e d by
includes insights
itself,
objective,
i n f o r m a t i o n and
I t i n c o r p o r a t e s both
phenomenological
also
and
her
creatively
subjects.
research
i n which
approach
the
she
She
process
study
assumes:
t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e h a v i n g
systems,
w i t h more d e p t h t h a n t h e layman, i n o r d e r t o h e l p t h e
n o n - r e s e a r c h e r have more i n s i g h t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
h i m s e l f and t h u s t o d e v e l o p a t h i s own p a c e ( N a s r u ,
1980,
p.16).
The
researcher, a counsellor,
system.
L i k e the c o u n s e l l i n g
outcomes seek
insight
She
and
further
understanding
e x p l o r e s both
Concepts
purposes,
p r o c e s s , her
and
which
similarities
change o v e r
time
essential.
of our
solicit
and
as
concept
A more c o n v e r g e n t
statistical
understandings
For purposes
of
this
open
approach
while
action
and
promoting
and
change.
differences.
they
serve
open and
add
i s not
just
changing
to
the
wise
but
research refinement
i s t h e r e f o r e secondary
conceptual approach
a n a l y s i s await
as an
validation,
so t h e need t o remain
complexity
jealousy
query
v i e w s man
further
to
and
of
the
re-exploration.
advanced
refinement
of t h e o r i e s
and models
f o r human
Rollo
'purpose'
to
May's
of
(1969)
our
May
in
gives
this
further
(1969)
r e s e a r c h which
b e l i e v e s emotions
one t h a t
purpose.
answers
The f i r s t
to
are
aspect
has
one's
side
aspect'starts
in the present
and p o i n t s
the w o r l d ,
feelings
first
the
of
and
"purpose
in a r e a l
why",
for".
but
Emotion
a r o u s e d by v i r t u e of
future.
He
the
is
present.
May b e l i e v e s
that
it
In
is
goals,
past
second
future.
from us
f o r m e d by
dealing
with
the
requires asking
is
to
the
e n t i r e l y sound t o
second aspect
ideals
The
toward the
partially
that
past experience.
meaningful
second aspect
in the
subjectivity.
emotions.
something
sense
other persons
aspect,
"reason
and s h a r e s
blends
t o do w i t h t h e
the r e g r e s s i v e
communicates
of
and
support
r e a s o n and t h e o t h e r
as
It
it
for
i n t e n t i o n a l and have
and is" c o r r e l a t e d w i t h d e t e r m i n i s m of
He s e e s
'reason'
fundamental
o b j e c t i v i t y with phenomenological
two a s p e c t s ,
serves
d i s t i n c t i o n between
emotions
scientific
emotions.
ask
the
attraction,
and p o s s i b i l i t i e s
in
the
says:
The r e a s o n i s t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e p a s t w h i c h
e x p l a i n s why y o u a r e d o i n g t h i s or t h a t , and p u r p o s e ,
i n c o n t r a s t , i s what you want t o get out of d o i n g i t
. . . . The s e c o n d ( a s p e c t ) i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h f r e e d o m .
We p a r t i c i p a t e i n f o r m i n g t h e f u t u r e by v i r t u e of o u r
c a p a c i t y t o c o n c e i v e of and r e s p o n d t o new
p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and t o b r i n g them out of i m a g i n a t i o n and
t r y them i n a c t u a l i t y (May, 1969, p . 9 1 ) .
In
summary,
exploration
of
this
the
r e s e a r c h renews and a d d s
reasons
why and p u r p o s e s
for
to
the
jealousy.
It
adds
t o t h e G e s t a l t of what
is
open
and c r e a t i v e i n u s i n g
descriptive
Her
goal
ways and
i s jealousy.
her d a t a ,
r e m a i n d e r of t h i s
research
broader
of j e a l o u s y ;
chapter
explore
context
conceptually
provides
for jealousy
a brief
Many e a r l y and
jealousy
assumptions
treat
(Langfeldt,
Buunk,
(Francis,
Turbott,
jealousy
1962);
1982;
1922;
1957;
upon w h i c h
and p r o v i d e
Todd
1977); m o r b i d
three
major
Finally,
define
1962;
(Barrell
& Dewhurst,
1947;
1955);
Ziman,
1979).
have
logical
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of j e a l o u s y .
as:
been
1949)
erotic
1982;
Bohm,
heterosexual
1977;
(Mooney,
Seeman,
Riviere,
& Richards,
& Marks,
1981); o r p a t h o l o g i c a l
trait
cause-effect
Sokoloff,
efforts
to follow.
authors
Langfeldt,
(Cobb
this
further
somewhat c a t e g o r i c a l l y
sexual
These
new
(Freud,
seeking
Jealousy
some c o n t e m p o r a r y
(Klein,
t h e o r i e s of human e m o t i o n . .
O t h e r s presuppose or imply
relationships
1961;
present
o u t l i n e of t h e c h a p t e r s
i n ways t h a t
or d i s p o s i t i o n
and/or
will
of a p p r o a c h by p r e s e n t i n g
divergent
in
jealousy.
as w e l l as
Defining
1932).
on
i s b a s e d , examine t h e l i m i t a t i o n s
substantiation
it
in objective
c o u n s e l l o r s and c l i e n t s
a b r o a d e r more h e l p f u l p e r s p e c t i v e
definition
researcher
i n more s p e c u l a t i v e , s u b j e c t i v e ways.
i s to f a c i l i t a t e
The
The
Mowat,
1965;
Pao,
1966;
1977;
e n l i g h t e n i n g t o our
However,
they
contribute
strive
to
t o a t e n d e n c y t o be p r i m a r i l y
understand
a need f o r
our
realities.
phenomenological
diagnostic
This
as
tendency
conceptualization
we
indicates
and
exploration.
Nasru
(1980)
constructs"
build
our
(p.7).
them i n t o
incorporates
"exist"
is
not
it
is
the
then,
for
a triangular
and
preliminary
descriptors
a new one
and
to
them
in a
similar
T h e form
she
of
conceptually
purposes
of
this
research
human e x p e r i e n c e i n w h i c h
c o r e needs a r e
is
both
t h r e a t e n e d or
t o be t h r e a t e n e d .
i n an e f f o r t
she
to
not
solicits
as
a conceptual
r e m a i n open t o new
define
their
background.
possibilities
jealousy
for
her
subjects.
definitions
for
presentation
discussion.
Assumpt i o n s
1.
in
definition
in d i s c u s s i o n s
an a n c i e n t
interpersonal
r e s e a r c h e r does
Instead,
t h e n , we need
t h e human e x p e r i e n c e .
The above d e f i n i t i o n a c t s
However,
mental
and i l l u s t r a t e
researcher's
to
are
one.
d e f i n e d as
perceived
This
Rather,
Jealousy,
personal
"concepts
Phenomenologically
"form"
a triangle,
reliable
that
visually-oriented
effort,, giving
jealousy.
out
images t h a t
definitions.
uses,
points
Jealousy
is
constructs
a conceptually
u s e d as
broader
foundations
for
construct
the
than
currently
the
and
available
2.
Jealousy
measures of j e a l o u s y .
exists in a social,
situational
stake
F u n d a m e n t a l human needs a r e a t
experience
3.
context.
i n t e r a c t i o n a l and
the p o t e n t i a l t o
jealousy.
Humans have a c o n s e n s u a l a w a r e n e s s o f t h e j e a l o u s y
experience.
4. A combined a p p r o a c h
incorporates:
research
by
literature;
Inferences
of p r e v i o u s
i s both
and
adapted
for objective
subjects'
f e a s i b l e and v a l i d .
experiences
own s e l f - r e p o r t , b u t r e m a i n
basis
of the r e s e a r c h e r ' s
the topic
conventional
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s u b j e c t s '
their
with
which
a self-report questionnaire
accounts,
about
of j e a l o u s y
descriptive statistics
and s u b j e c t i v e
experiential
5.
critique
the researcher;
data;
t o the study
are subservient
valid
expertise
to
i n c l u s i o n s on t h e
a s a c o u n s e l l o r and
area.
L i m i t a t ions
1. The q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
as a r e s e a r c h
a p p r o a c h have t h e u s u a l
including
scale
in
socially
problems,
recall,
These
d e s i r a b l e and other
selective returns,
difficulties
Platek
and t h e survey
well-established
i n sampling
i s s u e s a r e reviewed
Krewski,
tool,
response
sets,
individual differences
non-respondents, e t c .
extensively
& Rao ( 1 9 8 0 ) , B o r g
problems
by s u c h a u t h o r s a s
& Gall
others.
2.
A non-random a d u l t
and/or
as
their
a male or
partners
Selection
of
the
4.
one
An
students
adult
a g e s of
20
is
and
pool
was
a wish
countries,
backgrounds.
b a s e d on
to
60.
These
findings.
financial
include
cultures,
Survey
defined
races
response
and
is a
factor.
Residency
criteria
the
c o n v e n i e n c e and
religious/social
university
g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of
subject
from v a r i o u s
limiting
of
sampled.
restrict
considerations,
subjects
was
f e m a l e between
characteristics
3.
population
i n the
such as:
adult;
community
sampled
f u l l - t i m e student
essential parental
income; and
i s determined
proximity
of
status
status;
permanent
of
at
number of
residence
by
least
children;
to
the
university.
Theories
This
providing
the
section
further
reviews three
a broader
conceptual
of
context
divergence
substantiation
for
of
Emotion
major
jealousy.
these
f o r the
theories
of
emotion,
I t makes a p p a r e n t
theories,
approach used
thus
in
providing
this
research.
Plutchik's
Plutchik,
the
theory
(Plutchik,
1962;
1980b) i s p s y c h o e v o l u t i o n a r y
ways i n w h i c h e m o t i o n s
function
Plutchik,
and
1980a;
seeks to
adaptively
identify
i n humans
and
animals.
His
structural
interrelationships
acceptance,
fear,
anticipation.
analysis
by h i s
of
" w h e e l of
emotions"
emotion.
Mixtures
yields
love.
the wheel
Emotions
that
The w h e e l
globe.
position
equator.
emotion
is
of
yields
awe,
indicates
including
disgust,
were a r r i v e d a t
and a r e
which
anger
by
is
divided
such,
while
of
into
emotions
eight
like
result
a combination
of
of
is
distinguished
weakest
sadness
is
their
of
by
the p o l e s
while
uses c o l o r s
encapsulate
fear
acceptance
similarity.
a rather
opposed.
elongated
cross-sectional
and g r e a t e s t
or e q u i t o r i a l v e r s i o n
then g r i e f
He a l s o
Ten p o s t u l a t e s
at
in
around the c i r c u m f e r e n c e
the c r o s s - s e c t i o n
is
equal
primary
emotions
j o y mixed w i t h
the e x t e n t
and
represented conceptually
primary
As
joy,
factor
a r e most d i f f e r e n t a r e d i a m e t r i c a l l y
The i n t e n s e
pensiveness.
emotions
sadness,
adjacent
Proximity
Intensity
and
the
each r e p r e s e n t i n g a d i f f e r e n t
compounded e m o t i o n s .
and s u r p r i s e
primary
These emotions
wedges,
of
eight
surprise,
geometric
other
of
model d e s c r i b e s
its
of
polar
the
of
the
primary
version
to d i s t i n g u i s h
the essence
at
is
intensity.
Plutchik's
theory:
1.
2.
The c o n c e p t of e m o t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l
e v o l u t i o n a r y l e v e l s and a p p l i e s t o a n i m a l s as
as humans.
well
3. E m o t i o n s s e r v e an a d a p t i v e r o l e i n h e l p i n g o r g a n i s m s
d e a l w i t h key s u r v i v a l i s s u e s p o s e d by t h e
environment.
4. D e s p i t e d i f f e r e n t forms of e x p r e s s i o n of e m o t i o n s
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n common
e l e m e n t s , or p r o t o t y p e p a t t e r n s , t h a t can be
identified.
5.
T h e r e i s a s m a l l number of
prototype emotions.
basic,
primary,
in
or
6. A l l o t h e r e m o t i o n s a r e m i x e d or d e r i v a t i v e s t a t e s :
t h a t i s , t h e y o c c u r as c o m b i n a t i o n s , m i x t u r e s , or as
compounds of t h e p r i m a r y e m o t i o n s .
7.
P r i m a r y e m o t i o n s a r e h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s or
i d e a l i z e d s t a t e s whose p r o p e r t i e s and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can o n l y be i n f e r r e d from v a r i o u s
kinds'of evidence.
8.
P r i m a r y e m o t i o n s can be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n terms
p a i r s of p o l a r o p p o s i t e s .
9. A l l e m o t i o n s v a r y
one a n o t h e r .
i n t h e i r d e g r e e of
10. E a c h e m o t i o n c a n e x i s t
i n t e n s i t y or l e v e l s of
p.8) .
Plutchik's
dichotomous
continuum.
"we know t h a t
the o p p o s i t e
various
1970)
places
He e m p h a s i z e s
the o p p o s i t e
love"
(Bartell,
Robinson
Honigmann,
seeming
of
is
disciplines
synergism
Huber,
joy
(1980b,
of
in
on a
by
saying
that
hate
Many a u t h o r s
from
of
to
of
1980a,
the concept
1934; C o u l t e r ,
1978; Maslow,
believe rather
view
sadness,
p.75).
1977; B e n e d i c t ,
emotions
this
who a r e p r o p o n e n t s
& Huber,
similarity
in varying degrees
arousal (Plutchik,
eighth postulate
of
is
of
1976;
the e s s e n t i a l
unity
of
paradoxes.
Plutchik's
wheel a l s o
does
not a l l o w
for
a potential
10
approximation
of
researcher
is
exploring
model.
incorporates
It
spherical
to allow
emotion(s)
and r e c u r r i n g
triadic
p o s e d by Bower
relate
three
such
sets
interpretive
It
three
have
sets
conceptual
of
including
is
three subsets,
of
tetrahedrons
in c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
and F u l l e r
the
one
empirical effort
(1981)
to
claims
processes,
mood-congruous
latter
two of
indicating
triadic
these
the
vertexes
itself
to both e m p i r i c a l
is
a synergistic
explains
The use
and
of
and
conceptual
and
mathematical
e x p l a i n e d and s u p p o r t e d by
Nasru
circular)
t h e use
triangular
sphere
lends
(1975).
verses
true
useful
model
for
example,
a very
(as
strives
substantive
is
spherical
other
approximating
Bower
mathematically
research.
(or
again
tetrahedral
tetrahedron.
phenomenological
Fuller
exact
such
for
of
the
d e r i v e d by t h e
It
for
more
for
as,
and s a l i e n c e
representation.
(1980)
and
associative
that
conceptual
things:
to emotion.
noteworthy
The c o m b i n a t i o n
component
other
other(s);
processes
facility
the
among
This
i n t o movable
in h i s p r e l i m i n a r y
processes
material.
segmented
relationships
(1981)
cognitive
planes
a mathematically
for,
w i t h any
p o l a r i z e d emotions.
a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e
representation
components
any
otherwise
view
of
of
man and t h e
Nasru
T a o i s m and a
Y a n g - Y i n g movement
spheres
geodesies)
understanding
incorporates
thinking
into
universe.
packed with
tetrahedrons
i n model c o n s t r u c t i o n
the behaviour
of
her
whole
that
systems.
11
Plutchik's
s u c h as I z a r d ' s
that
presupposes
Izard's
(1971) t h e o r y ,
of the r e l a t i o n
separate
repeatedly
occur
emphasizes
cognition.
in contrast,
their
incorporates
usual
He c l e a r l y
harmonious
in consciousness,
of c o g n i t i o n "
at least.the
phenomena he g i v e s
(Izard,
the
possibility
response.
divergence
o f t h e two t h e o r i e s
claim
emotions
as one
and
(as v e r s u s
that
emotion
completely
1971, p.1850.
By
of independent
e m o t i o n more s t a t u s
others,
in postulating
i n t e r a c t i v e n a t u r e but a l s o c l a i m s
independent
that
from
between e m o t i o n and c o g n i t i o n ,
a s "a p r o c e s s
suggesting
(1948),
but i n t e r a c t i n g s u b s y s t e m s .
consecutive)
can
also differs
emotion
notion
of
(1980a) t h e o r y
than
emotional
Plutchik
The c e n t r a l
who
conceptual
i s thus emphasized
by
Izard's
t h a n mix
like
colors.
Izard's
and
critique
r a i s e s many q u e s t i o n s
conceptualization.
as
of P l u t c h i k ' s
e s p e c i a l l y regarding
H i s own
theory
the p r i n c i p a l m o t i v a t i o n a l
fundamentally
postulates
and
that
s y s t e m but even
e m o t i o n s have n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l ,
(interest,
give
(p.183).
He
neuromuscular
aspects.
(1971) p o s t u l a t e s
enjoyment,
"not o n l y
more
as t h e p e r s o n a l i t y p r o c e s s e s w h i c h
phenomenological
Izard
i s s u e s of
views emotions
i s extensive
nine
fundamental
emotions
anger,
1 2
shame,
fear
and c o n t e m p t )
mechanisms.
He c l a r i f i e s
which are
that
"that
vestigial
and d i s a p p e a r
(p.234).
E a c h e m o t i o n has
motivational
amplify
negative
lead to p s y c h o l o g i c a l
facilitate
entropy"
(Izard,
Izard
five
(1971)
subsystems:
motor.
effective
becomes
Another
of
discrete
s u c h as
three,
his
fundamental
necessary
of
his
a more
for
attenuate
or
and
emotions
tend
to
a complex
of
tend
to
of
personality
drive,
for
is
emotion,
emotion,
uniquely
are
human
behaviour.
Therefore,
leads
interaction
is
that
breaks
separate
the
to
eventuate.
compounded
more than
and
t h e most
t h r e e subsystems
assumptions
something
cognition
and
emotions
summation
of
emotions.
A comprehensive
requires
that
these
exist.
are
and
positive
i n e f f e c t i v e behaviours
principal
jealousy
evolve"
the c o n v e r s e
When s u b s y s t e m
faulty
emotions
or
including
i n t e r a c t i o n of
down or
"some
not
p.182).
suggests
behaviours.
that
behaviour
and form t h e b a s i s
Harmonious
i d e a of
while.others
homeostatic,
The l a s t
important
more
1971,
is
may become
the
rather
entropy
constructive
nine
One might a c t i v a t e ,
noting
innate
unique phenomenological
He q u a l i f i e s
emotions
by
postulated
some e m o t i o n s
and t h a t
properties.
another.
his
subserved
understanding
of
in-depth exploration
purposes
of
this
conceptualization, his
Izard's
of
review.
his
(1971)
text
However,
'open-system'
than
the
thinking,
theory
is
clarity
and
13
relative
to others discussed
applicability
of h i s t h e o r y
the
of h i s c l a i m s :
following
in this
section,
the
greater
t o humans i s made a p p a r e n t i n
1. E m o t i o n e l e m e n t s of p e r s o n a l i t y [ a r e r e f e r r e d t o ] as
a s y s t e m s i n c e , on t h e b a s i s of b o t h i n n a t e and
l e a r n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , emotions are i n t e r r e l a t e d
i n dynamic and r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e ways.
Largely
b e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e of t h e u n d e r l y i n g i n n a t e
mechanisms, some of t h e e m o t i o n s a r e o r g a n i z e d i n a
k i n d o f h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ....
A novel
sound might e l i c i t t h e i n t e r e s t o f an i n f a n t o r
child.
I f i n i t s f i r s t p r e s e n t a t i o n the s t r a n g e
sound were q u i t e l o u d i t might e l i c i t f e a r .
I f the
sound were e x t r e m e l y l o u d and sudden i t m i g h t evoke
s t a r t l e ....
2. The c o n c e p t o f p o l a r o p p o s i t e s s h o u l d n o t be
c o n s i d e r e d as d e f i n i n g i n f l e x i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between e m o t i o n s , and t h e a p p a r e n t o p p o s i t i o n does,
n o t a l w a y s d e n o t e an e i t h e r / o r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Often
o p p o s i t e s t e n d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h or e l i c i t e d by
e a c h o t h e r , as e v i d e n c e d by t h e o f t e n o b s e r v e d
" t e a r s of j o y " .
3. C e r t a i n e m o t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h e p a i r s of p o l a r
o p p o s i t e s t e n d t o have f a i r l y r e g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n t e r e s t may
o s c i l l a t e w i t h f e a r as t h e o r g a n i s m e x p l o r e s some
unknown o b j e c t or s i t u a t i o n ....
4. Two o r more f u n d a m e n t a l e m o t i o n s o c c u r r i n g
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r a l t e r n a t e l y w i t h some r e g u l a r i t y
p r o d u c e a c o m b i n a t i o n of e m o t i o n s w h i c h may t a k e on
the q u a l i t y of a t r a i t or p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n .
The
c o m b i n a t i o n o f o n l y some of t h e components of two o r
more f u n d a m e n t a l e m o t i o n s p r o d u c e s mixed e m o t i o n ,
w h i c h may r e s u l t i n ambiguous, a m b i v a l e n t , o r
conflictive feelings....
5. A l l e m o t i o n s have c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n common.
A l l e m o t i o n s , as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h d r i v e s , a r e noncyclical.
One does n o t become i n t e r e s t e d or
d i s g u s t e d or ashamed two or t h r e e t i m e s a day i n
rhythm w i t h i n g e s t i o n , d i g e s t i o n , and m e t a b o l i c
processes.
6. E m o t i o n s have v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d g e n e r a l i t y and
f l e x i b i l i t y as m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s .
While only
f o o d and d r i n k w i l l s a t i s f y t h e hunger and t h i r s t
14
d r i v e s , a p e r s o n c a n l e a r n t o be j o y f u l o r
contemptuous or a f r a i d i n response t o a seemingly
i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of t h i n g s .
7. A l l e m o t i o n s i n f l u e n c e o r r e g u l a t e t h e d r i v e s and
o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y s u b s y s t e m s . ' One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t
and f r e q u e n t f u n c t i o n s o f e m o t i o n i s t o r e g u l a t e , t o
a c t as a m p l i f i e r or a t t e n u a t o r i n the m o t i v a t i o n a l
system complex.
F o r example, d r i v e s w h i c h a r e n o t
reduced t o a l e v e l w i t h i n the t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s of
t h e o r g a n i s m t e n d t o i n s t i g a t e and r e c r u i t e m o t i o n s ,
which i n t u r n a m p l i f y the d r i v e .
The e m o t i o n of
i n t e r e s t - e x c i t e m e n t may b r i n g t h e sex d r i v e t o h i g h
p i t c h ; the emotions of d i s g u s t , f e a r , or d i s t r e s s
may m o d u l a t e , mask, r e d u c e , o r c o m p l e t e l y i n h i b i t
t h e sex d r i v e ( I z a r d , 1971, p p . 1 8 5 - 1 8 7 ) .
Solomon
influential
(1976) a c k n o w l e d g e s
mentor.
Unlike
S a t r e a s h i s most
Satre
myth o f t h e p a s s i o n s w h i c h c l a i m s
the
same i n terms o f e m o t i o n s .
e m o t i o n a l metaphors
(eg. being
" h a u n t e d by g u i l t " ) ,
claiming
however, he d e n i e s t h e
that
deep down we a r e a l l
He r e f u t e s
"struck
the t r a d i t i o n a l
by j e a l o u s y " o r
they separate
us from o u r
e m o t i o n s and s u g g e s t o u r e m o t i o n s a r e s o m e t h i n g we
eliminate
believes
or deal
with
i n the l e a s t
d a n g e r o u s way.
should
He
o u r e m o t i o n s a r e s o m e t h i n g we "do" and s a y s :
An e m o t i o n i s a ( s e t o f ) j u d g e m e n t ( s ) w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e
our w o r l d , o u r s u r r e a l i t y , and i t s ' i n t e n t i o n a l
objects'.
An e m o t i o n i s a b a s i c judgement a b o u t
o u r s e l v e s and o u r p l a c e i n o u r w o r l d , t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f
t h e v a l u e s and i d e a l s , s t r u c t u r e s and m y t h o l o g i e s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h we l i v e and t h r o u g h w h i c h we
e x p e r i e n c e o u r l i v e s (Solomon, 1976, p p . 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 ) .
Solomon
of
(1976) e x p l a i n s
i t must a l w a y s
significance
involve
i n order
O t h e r w i s e we would
that
that
an i n c i d e n t
a personal
e v a l u a t i o n of
i t be s u f f i c i e n t
n o t be a b l e
or perception
f o r emotion.
to account f o r the f a c t
that
15
different
the
p e o p l e have v e r y d i f f e r e n t
same
incidents.
The
feeling
according
specific
t h e o r y of emotion
t o Solomon
(1976).
t o the s i t u a t i o n
have a l l t h e f e e l i n g s
emotion
of paradigm.
It results
or extremes
the emotion.
every
he p r o f e s s e s ,
with t h i s
instance
feeling,
of d i f f e r e n t
o r we c a n have t h e
feelings.
i n our t y p i c a l
of emotion,
He
examples
use o f
o f e m o t i o n , and'
f e e l i n g s a r e much t h e same i n
emotion.
The c o n c e p t o f
t o him, h a s t o o many d i f f e r e n t
of s p e c i f i c
ornamentation
Hence we c a n
t h e s e f e e l i n g s and s e n s a t i o n s
He b e l i e v e s
according
definitional
that
may be
t h e o r y as b e i n g a poor
when g i v i n g
our mistaken- b e l i e f s
are
Feelings,
and n o t t h e e m o t i o n
the problem
emergencies
in
i s a n e g a t i v e one
a n d none o f t h e u s u a l a c c o m p a n y i n g
describes
choice
emotional reactions to
emotion.
u s e s t o be
He s a y s " f e e l i n g
not i t s essence"
i s the
(Solomon,
1976,
p.159).
Solomon
s u g g e s t s we make o u r e m o t i o n s ,
t o make them by o u r c u l t u r e
each o t h e r r e s p o n s i b l e
judgements
of f a c t
we make s o m e t h i n g
They
It
are active,
may seem l i k e
necessarily
explicit,
at a very early
f o r them.
i n the usual
true
by v i r t u e
spontaneous
our emotions
They
a g e , and h o l d
a r e not simply
but n o n - r e f l e c t i v e
that
itself.
judgements.
"happen" t o us and we do n o t
articulated,
a r e t a u g h t how
or d e l i b e r a t e d .
16
"emotions
c a n become r e f l e c t i v e ,
p u r p o s e s and t h e i r
An
series
emotion
objects"
about
must be s e l f - i n v o l v e d
love"
juried
that
personally
cast
to us.
set,
...
and t h a t
they a r e the g u i l t y
court
about
prosecutor role
and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s ,
1976, p . 1 9 0 ) .
attempts
In a n g e r
we
to elevate
t h e jaw
object
and s e l f - e s t e e m "
a r e "about"
"a r e l a t i o n s h i p
competition
We make
hence
"The u l t i m a t e
When e m o t i o n s
p e r s o n he s a y s t h e y c o n s t i t u t e
one
party.
we a r e p l a y i n g .
o u r own s e n s e o f d i g n i t y
or a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s
we s h o u l d t a k e i t
t h e w o r l d a n d we a c t o u t t h e
t h e t e n s e and f o r w a r d s t a n d .
(Solomon,
particularly
Our p o s t u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e
out as s u p e r i o r
i s always
We
we have c a s t .
ourselves
a whole
When we " f a l l i n
someone h a s o f f e n d e d u s , t h a t
accusational,
includes
and our s e l f - e s t e e m .
t o make someone
a s e t o f judgements
role(s)
t o Solomon,
our s e l f
their
1976, p . 1 9 2 ) .
t o be e m o t i o n a l .
we make a d e c i s i o n
important
(Solomon,
then, according
o f judgements
aware o f t h e m s e l v e s ,
or comparison,
h i s self-esteem"
another
o f one s o r t
within
(Solomon,
which
1976,
p. 1 90) .
Solomon
emotions.
because
(1976) a l s o
speaks
of " b i - p o l a r "
J e a l o u s y , a n g e r , h a t e and l o v e a r e b i - p o l a r
they a r e not s o l e l y
about
oneself,
t h e o t h e r p e r s o n and n o t a c o n j u n c t i o n
about
(p.189)
not s o l e l y
o f t h e two.
the r e l a t i o n s h i p .
In Solomon's
(1976) view
emotions
are l o g i c a l ,
about
They a r e
17
describable
and e x p l a i n a b l e ,
uncontrollable.
instruments of s e l f - e s t e e m "
about
our present
importantly,
not a n i m a l i s t i c and
trustworthy
(p.252).
situation,
and r a t i o n a l
They a r e j u d g e m e n t s
our p a s t ,
other
people-and
most
they:
i n c l u d e i n t e n t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e , t o a c t , t o change
the w o r l d and change o u r s e l v e s , t o r e v e n g e o u r s e l v e s
i n a n g e r , ... t o c a r e s s a n d c a r e f o r a n o t h e r i n l o v e ,
t o d e s t r o y - b u t a t a s a f e d i s t a n c e - an o p p r e s s o r i n
r e s e n t m e n t (Solomon, 1976, p . 2 7 6 ) .
Theories
major c o n t e m p o r a r y
provide
the
t h e o r i s t s have been p r e s e n t e d
a broader context
divergence
f o r jealousy
particular
together
emotion.
theories discussed
discuss
extrapolate
Plutchik
about
(1962,
separately,
1980a,
of
1980a,
opposite,
discussion
draw
from t h e
model
(1971)
but i t i s p o s s i b l e t o
1980b) i m p l i e s
a l l ) of h i s e i g h t
h i s conceptual
jealousy
1980b) n o r I z a r d
of t h e i r
that
m i x e d e m o t i o n , a d e r i v a t i v e o r combined
possibly
section will
above.
from t h e main p r i n c i p l e s
(1962,
means we need t o
o f e x a m i n i n g any
of t h i s
some s p e c i f i c s
Plutchik
jealousy
This
at the l e v e l
The r e m a i n d e r
and c r i t i q u e
Neither
and t o make a p p a r e n t
in conceptualizations.
r e m a i n open and e x p l o r a t o r y
i n order to
primary
jealousy
isa
f o r m o f (some o r
emotions.
suggests that
theories.
jealousy
The s t r u c t u r e
has a p o l a r
a n o t h e r m i x e d , compounded e m o t i o n , b u t h i s
of t h i s
to h i s eight
polarity
primary
characteristic
emotions.
i s applied
H i s second p o s t u l a t e
only
implies
18
that
jealousy,
expressive
even
forms,
deal
of
be
serves
with
key
an
to
that
society
of
has
species.
construct
that
an
by
certain
and
evolutionary
the
evolved
organism
various
Jealousy
forms
i s , according
whose p r o p e r t i e s can
Izard
evidence,
or
e m o t i o n s , he
only
jealousy
of
emotions are
convinced
as
same s e n s e t h a t
awaiting
Plutchik
we
societies.
their
e m o t i o n does not
1980a, p . 5 ) .
the
more
for
exist
His
in
theory
degrees
of
substantive
psychoevolutionary
least,
as
that
emotions
He
sources
Plutchik.
fundamental
(p.410).
i n a l l c u l t u r e s , or
attempt
does
"the
u n i v e r s a l phenomena"
fundamental nine) e x i s t
than
arousal.
f o r humans a t
innate,
inner
a b s e n c e of a word
emotions to a l l s p e c i e s ,
that
in
e x i s t s in varying
h e s i t a t e s to extend
concludes,
in western
the
(Plutchik,
(1971), w i s e l y
d y n a m i c s of
as
that
"the
their
more l i k e l y
components
says
mean t h a t
levels
not' l a b e l
western c u l t u r e s are
in question"
implies
intensity
the
i t has
some c u l t u r e s do
e m o t i o n does not
further
not
familiar
i n a l l humans
role in helping
include, p s y c h o l o g i c a l
descriptions
He
in
inferred.
others
and
adaptive
a hypothetical
mood s t a t e s and
the
emotions,
in d i f f e r e n t
Observing
an
evident
patterns
s u r v i v a l i s s u e s and
expression
t o him,
prototype
L i k e a l l other
history,
clearly
is potentially identifiable
common e l e m e n t s or
animals.
i f not
(other
at
He
than
least
i t seems, t o
his
not
to o b j e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e
would a g r e e ,
is
in
them
some
19
common p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t
all
of the j e a l o u s y
c u l t u r e s a n d , on a more o b j e c t i v e
less
differentiated
subjective
level,
depending
in
t o some more o r
r e c o g n i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n
experience
experience
of t h i s
on t h e p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l
environment.
Jealousy,
discrete
by i n f e r e n c e
and s e p a r a t e
combination
of I z a r d ' s
emotion,
(1971) t h e o r y ,
isa
s o m e t h i n g more t h a n a
of fundamental emotions.
It influences
some o r
other
other
emotions.
I t i s part
o f an o r g a n i z e d
subsystem of p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t
by
has
four
other
giving
i n f l u e n c e s and i s i n f l u e n c e d
s u b s y s t e m s and by t h e s y s t e m a s a w h o l e .
neurophysiological,
aspects.
"emotion"
Most
neuromuscular
importantly,
It
and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
i t h a s some m o t i v a t i o n a l
basis
existence.
Solomon
(1976) d e a l s
than e i t h e r P l u t c h i k
closely
envy,
more s p e c i f i c a l l y
or I z a r d .
He o b s e r v e s
r e l a t e d t o a n g e r and h a t r e d .
with
jealousy
that
jealousy i s
He compares
i t with
saying:
J e a l o u s y shares envy's 'green-eyed monster' s t a t u s
.... T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s however; j e a l o u s y , u n l i k e
envy, s e e s i t s e l f a s t h e e q u a l o f t h e o t h e r .
Where
envy g l o w e r s q u i e t l y a n d i n e f f e c t i v e l y - even
u n n o t i c e a b l y - from a d i s t a n c e , j e a l o u s y i s w i l l i n g and
even a n x i o u s f o r a c o n f r o n t a t i o n .... U n l i k e envy,
j e a l o u s y wants t h e o t h e r t o f a c e i t s f a b l e d g r e e n e y e .
Moreover, j e a l o u s y i s u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d t o a s i n g l e
p o s s e s s i o n o r i n c i d e n t ; envy o f t e n i n c l u d e s major
a s p e c t s o r even t h e e n t i r e l i f e s t y l e o f i t s d i s t a n t
o b j e c t (Solomon, 1976, p . 3 3 3 ) .
20
Jealousy,
involving
competition
particular
object
Solomon
and
i n c i d e n t or
status.
s e r i e s of
is a bi-polar
I t s s c o p e or
incidents"
i s "another person's c o m p e t i t i v e
intersubjectively
( p . 3 3 4 ) ; and
what
(1976) c l a i m s ,
the
rightfully
belongs
involved
gain"
t o me"
i s one
(p.334).
focus
is
"a
(p.333); i t s
i t i s " c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l and
mythology
emotion
(p.334);
defensive"
of
"you've
taken
Jealousy:
l o o k s t o t h e o t h e r as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o n e ' s own
deprivation.
But l i k e e n v y , r i g h t [my e m p h a s i s ] i s
more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e q u e s t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i n
j e a l o u s y , one seems h i m s e l f as h a v i n g a r i g h t t o t h e
c o v e t e d o b j e c t - a t l e a s t as much r i g h t as the o t h e r
(Solomon, 1976,
p.334).
Jealousy's
is
one
of
(p.334).
desire
i s "to get
i t back"
(1976) c l a i m s
uncommonly become j e a l o u s
possessions,
about
over
which they
He
discusses
Its
strategy
things
the
earth"
of
further that
possessions,
have l i t t l e
Solomon a p p l i e s h i s t h e o r y
jealousy.
the
(p.334).
of
not
i n c l u d i n g human
or
no
concern.
emotions n e g a t i v e l y
r i g h t s without
discussing
or p r i v i l e g e .
practical
a p p l i c a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y when a c o u n s e l l o r
faced
by
the
relatively
babe
i n arms, who
with
another
It
for
as
common c a s e of
i s threatened
by
her
but
not
is
a woman, s u c k l i n g
mate's
involvement
woman.
seems q u i t e
other
i s convenient,
to
freedom,
committment,
or
This
people
emotions,
acceptable
that
to consider,
jealousy
will
as
does Solomon
i n some c a s e s
a s p o n t a n e o u s , n o n - r e f l e c t i v e judgement.
occur
However, i n
21
discussing
his
jealousy
earlier
claims
judgements about
instance,
forget
as a p a r t i c u l a r
that
the past
and f u t u r e
(his context,
includes p r i m a r i l y the p r e s e n t ) .
trustworthy
(Solomon,
and r a t i o n a l
1976, p . 2 5 2 ) .
evidenced
sees
that
of
1976,
experienced
perspectives
(e.g.,
as o c c u r r i n g a f t e r
about
Cbnstantine,
jealousy
when t h e t h r e a t
jealousy's
Certainly
the jealousy
speak
suggested
jealousy
person
d e s i r e . . Mb'st
1972; W h i t e ,
as a f e a r of l o s s
i s imminent, a p p a r e n t o r
judgement
t o our p e r c e i v e d
t h e l o s s as
1976; F o s t e r ,
other
He a l s o seems t o
self-esteem"
N e g l e c t i n g these
ft
by h i s s t a t e m e n t
authors
Our
in this
e m o t i o n s a r e "our most
instruments
jealousy
other
is
forgets
i n h i s negative i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
Solomon
will
Solomon
e m o t i o n s a r e i n t e n t i o n s t o a c t and
h i s fundamental c l a i m
results
emotion
will
a " y e t t o happen".
be a m o r a l one and i t
s t a t u s or p l a c e
by Solomon's g e n e r a l
i n the world
as
d i s c u s s i o n of emotions.
does s a y s o m e t h i n g a b o u t
t h e way we s e e t h e
and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h a t
h i s general
theory
including
that
the
j e a l o u s y may
loss,
what t h e o t h e r
those
F o r many
the f e a r of l o s s n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r s
just
as l i k e l y
person p r o v i d e s
essential,
such as l o v e
to jealousy.
be d i r e c t e d
and r e c e i v e s
before
toward
( f o r example,
and i n t i m a c y ,
reasons,
qualities
w h i c h we a l l need t o g i v e
as w e l l
22
as
receive,
only
keep or p r o t e c t ) .
a f t e r we
party's
gain
lose
fear
envy d i r e c t e d a t
"jealous
loss,
woman" i n the
f o r h e r s e l f and
unique environment
l o s s has
Solomon's
back" or
(p.234).
not
yet
likely
that
(both
loss
back"
involves a
third
a f t e r the
loss,
that,
the
them
new
possessor
we
rather
occurred
I t may
i n f a n t , of
and
her
her
moral
that
infant)
then
special
of
f e a r may
her
the
judgements
she
as
and
i s being
that
of
the
the
(in this
cheated.
broken-
would
committment
( b e c a u s e of
aside,
same p r i v i l e g e s or
f r e e d o m s as
(1976) a l s o c l a i m s
jealousy's
it
earth"
society)
A
Rights
to get
r e l a t i o n s h i p can
p h y s i o l o g i c a l bondage
i s being
Her
transcend
"wanting
things
make s e n s e t o her
r e s u l t e d i n her
have the
above example m i g h t
physical andmeta-physical).
" p l a c i n g a stamp on
include
suckling
her
(1976) p e r s p e c t i v e
s t o l e n but
not
i f our
"get
jealousy.
The
be
want t o
i t seems more l o g i c a l
would e x p e r i e n c e
than
them and
We
her
she
the
does
"delinquent"
mate.
Solomon
intimate,
instance
not
of
the
certainly
not
redefines
or
or
impersonal"
situation.
jealous
jealousy
p e r s o n who
in the.instance
resolution-seeks
These
behaviour, proposed
that
'(p.234).
four
by
of
This
within
different
is frequently
may
be
w i t h d r a w s or
the
Constantine
distance
person
the
who
so
is
"not
i n . the
denies
but
antagonizes,
jealousy t r i a n g l e
t y p e s of
jealousy
(1976, p . 3 8 8 ) , make c l e a r
intimate
and
always
involves
23
fear
the
of l o s s .
The l a s t
are active e f f o r t s
to protect
first,
jealous
withdrawal,
Solomon's c l a i m
In
place
three
within
divergence,
search
i s the only
jealousy's
this
one t h a t
theories
t o a need
fits
discussed
of emotion g i v i n g
I t h a s made a p p a r e n t
pointing
The
distance.
s e c t i o n has p r e s e n t e d ,
major
each.
their
and
jealousy a
conceptual
t o remain d e s c r i p t i v e and i n
of p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s .
Chapter
summary.
two i s d i v i d e d
The/first
envy.
selected
The n e x t
literature
psychiatry,
major
s e c t i o n s and a
s e c t i o n examins comparisons
three
sections
present
from a n t h r o p o l o g y
three
presents
After presentation
statistics
i n t o four
of
jealousy
and c r i t i q u e
and s o c i o l o g y ,
and p s y c h o l o g y .
Chapter
study.
about
summary,
critiqued
and
three
are presented
the e m p i r i c a l phase of t h e
of the methodology, d e s c r i p t i v e
f o r the o b j e c t i v e data
collected
by t h e s u r v e y .
Preliminary
discussed
and some h y p o t h e s e s
that
findings will
for future
research
were
be
will
be
presented.
Chapter
in
four
the jealousy
will
discuss
survey.
It will
appendices which p r e s e n t ,
insights,
use examples
completely
collected
from t h e
and v e r b a t i m , t h e
d e f i n i t i o n s and e x p e r i e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f
seventy-three
few
the s u b j e c t i v e data
personal
people.
The r e s e a r c h e r
i n s i g h t s gained
during
will
a l s o present
the research
process.
Again,
suggestions
Chapter
for
five
counselling.
suggested.
for future
will
A
few
discuss
research
will
be
made.
implications
of
this
study
interventions
will
be
specific
25
CHAPTER I I
LITERATURE REVIEW
This
chapter
were o u t l i n e d
because
page.
t o the usual
i t prepares
sections
The t e x t
which
i s extensive
for empirical
f o r the l a t e r
examination
phenomenology
of m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y
and p r a c t i c e .
Jealousy
Jealousy
their
heritages.
The l a c k
assuming, as t h i s
study
awareness of our s u b j e c t i v e
conceptual
verbal
clarity
distinctions
origins
experiences.
to c l a r i f y
between
jealousy
"although
summarizes
and envy.
semantically
'jealous'
who
uses
ambiguities.
several
Discussing
r e l a t e d , they
their
refer
a s o c i a l (and
(p.167).
English Dictionary
f o r the a d j e c t i v e
i s often
S e m a n t i c and
a s p e c t s o f what may be c a l l e d
Oxford
i n s p i t e of
t o the c o u n s e l l o r
emotional) s t a t e , a r t or emotion"
The
of c l a r i t y
he s a y s
to d i s t i n c t
confused
does, a c o n s e n s u a l
are important
communication
Foster's
and Envy
and envy a r e f r e q u e n t l y
distinct
semantic
root
major
background
the reader
o f f e r i n g an i n - d e p t h
theory
i n t o four
on t h e p r e v i o u s
in addition
research,
by
i s divided
(1933) g i v e s
and t h e noun
a single
'jealousy'
26
meanings
'emulation'
jealous
f o r the a d j e c t i v e
Webster
back t o t h e Greek
include
(1976) d e f i n e s
hostile
vigilance"
The
Greek and
'jealousy',
(p.562).
'jealousy'
t h e noun as " a
1
d i s p o s i t i o n or s t a t e : a j e a l o u s
feeling:
^7jXos.
rivalry:
nature,
suspicion, mistrust
a t t i t u d e or
2
zealous
(p.1212).
verb
" t o be j e a l o u s "
i s defined
i n t h e same
source
as:
i n t o l e r a n t of r i v a l r y or u n f a i t h f u l n e s s ; d i s p o s e d t o
s u s p e c t r i v a l r y or u n f a i t h f u l n e s s (as i n l o v e ) :
a p p r e h e n s i v e o f t h e l o s s of a n o t h e r ' s d e v o t i o n : h o s t i l e
t o w a r d a r i v a l o r one b e l i e v e d t o e n j o y an a d v a n t a g e
(as a p o s e s s i o n o r a t t a i n m e n t ) : e n v i o u s , r e s e n t f u l ;
z e a l o u s i n g u a r d i n g (as a p o s e s s i o n ) : v i g i l a n t :
s o l i c i t o u s ; d i s t r u s t f u l l y w a t c h f u l ; a p p r e h e n s i v e of
harm o r f r a u d : s u s p i c i o u s ( p . 1 2 1 2 ) .
1
Greek' and L a t i n
other
form
p.167).
defines
the
from
The c o n t e m p o r a r y
the L a t i n
maliciously
on
hand, a r e d i s t i n c t .
"envy" stems
verb
forms
upon, t o c a s t
account
advantage"
noun
i s related to a
askance a t , t o look
eye upon"
( F o s t e r , 1972,
International Dictionary
(1976)
envy t o w a r d o r
aware o r r e s e n t f u l l y aware o f
of (another) with
a desire
t o p o s s e s s t h e same
(p.760).
Foster
meanings,
which
o f : be p a i n f u l l y
advantage
" t o look
a an e v i l
W e b s t e r ' s T h i r d New
t h e same v e r b
"invidia"
English
on t h e
(1972),
"to feel
looking
to Oxford's
a grudge a g a i n s t
(1933)
a person;
obsolete
to regard
27
person
or a c t i o n
with desire
observed envy's
aggressive
Foster
believes
envy
and
targeted
at
is
is
the t r i g g e r .
involves
jealousy
something
that
is
envy and
is
of
He
significantly,
fears
normal
or
acquire
possession,
which
d i r e c t e d at
the
its
loss.
He
counterpart
of
envy,
when t h e e n v i e d p e r c e i v e s ,
it
as
or
significant
p.168).
(1980),. i n c o n t r a s t ,
jealousy.
is
t h e envy and v i e w s
1972,
(p.562),
to a t t a i n
their
jealousy
"the
triggered
becomes c o n s c i o u s
(Foster,
not
and t h e s u b j e c t
that
Most
a desire
the p e r s o n ,
concludes
Neu
potential.
Conversely,
valued possession
threat"
or d i s a p p r o v a l "
sees
desire
as
central
to
both
says:
What i s s p e c i a l about t h e f e a r of l o s s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s
j e a l o u s y i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h what i s s p e c i a l about
p e o p l e : w h i l e one c o u l d l o s e p o s s e s s i o n of a t h i n g , one
c o u l d not l o s e i t s a f f e c t i o n
i t has no a f f e c t i o n t o
g i v e or t o be t a k e n away.
T h i n g s do not r e s p o n d t o o u r
feelings.
People do.
And when t h e y d o , we may f e a r
t h e i r l o s s , not j u s t as t h i n g s (as o b j e c t s of d e s i r e
and l o v e ) , but as f e e l i n g a g e n t s (as s o u r c e s of d e s i r e
and l o v e ) .
At t h e c e n t r e of j e a l o u s y i s i n s e c u r i t y ,
f e a r of l o s s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f e a r of a l i e n a t i o n of
a f f e c t i o n s . . . . t h e d e s i r e [my e m p h a s i s ] t o be d e s i r e d
or t h e d e s i r e f o r a f f e c t i o n , t h e need t o be l o v e d (Neu,
1980, p . 4 3 3 ) .
Neu
(1980)
the person
admiring
sources
decides,
it
is
wants t o
envy,
the o t h e r .
distinguishes
lower
the other
when one s e e k s
He c l a i m s
between m a l i c i o u s
to
raise
unlike
o f t e n without
own l e v e l
oneself
t h e y have d i f f e r e n t
and d e v e l o p m e n t a l p a t h s .
is
to h i s
either
appropriate
and
t o be
envy,
or a d m i r i n g
objects.
when
like
instinctual
Malicious
jealousy
envy,
"Its
he
envy
because
occurrence
28
may a l w a y s
involve pathology"
(Neu 1980, p . 4 3 4 ) .
perceives
broad contexts
to Foster
who l o s e s s i g h t o f man's c o m p l e x i t y ,
situational
complexity
interrelationship
simplistic
for jealousy
and envy
and the c o m p l e x i t y
Neu
in contrast
the
of the
between c o g n i t i o n and e m o t i o n .
t o imagine a poignant
jealousy
I t i s too
experience
lacking
desire.
Klein
(1957) i s s i m i l a r
distinctions.
b a s e d on e n v y "
poles
polarity
(p.8).
believes
drawing
i s always
struggle
and
professing
less
person
them on
opposite
a s n o b l e when
when
i t
insatiable.
in its train"
Like Riviere
Competition
i s "always
is potentially
t o do w i t h
satiable
(1932) she
frustration
a t i t s most b a s i c
and d e a t h
is
this
she c l a i m s
passions
it
is
She does n o t a p p l y
the worst
life
"jealousy
instincts,
of e a r l y
level,
as
underlies
t h e s i s f o r envy and j e a l o u s y .
Scheock
in
jealousy
to her, jealousy
between
angry a s p e c t of
She s a y s
places
t o envy, w h i c h
b o t h e m o t i o n s have
object-relations.
Klein's
by f e a r .
characteristic
According
envy
but l a t e r
She s e e s
stimulated
a base p a s s i o n ,
the
(p.6),
of j e a l o u s y .
s h a r p e n e d by f e a r , b u t i g n o b l e
greediness
but
aspect
of a continuum.
emulation
(1972) i n some o f h e r
She t o o s e e s an a g g r e s s i v e ,
envy and a p a s s i v e
is
to Foster
(1969) p a r a l l e l s
jealousy
problematic
Foster(l972)
t o be l e s s
than
envy.
and K l e i n
aggressive,
more
(1957)
passive
He b e l i e v e s t h e e n v i o u s
envy i s
29
occassioned
by
ill-will
by c o n t e m p l a t i o n
directed
cannot
emotion;
occur"
and K l e i n ,
as
to
superior
without
a target,
the nature
of
his
primary
when a r i v a l
the
emotions.
the
antagonist
and i s
never a
appears
hostile
on t h e
E a c h has
scene.
the p o t e n t i a l
and t o have n e g a t i v e
depending
of
her
review
and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s
of
study.
this
and
of
The s e c t i o n
the
to
took
four major
several
jealousy
of
and p s y c h o l o g y .
contemporary
especially
occur.
a closer
subjects
the
who
samples
presenting
theorists.
decades
about
very
factors,
takes
1931; and B e n e d i c t ,
contributions
psychiatry
of
in which they
follow
and/or
positive
b e f o r e examining
of
It
and/or
chapter
on j e a l o u s y
1936; Mead,
t o be a d a p t i v e
on a m u l t i t u d e
the c o n t r i b u t i o n s
is
occurring
changing
and s o c i o l o g y ,
1982)
doubt
and
remainder
theorists.
in
behavior
on t h e b a s i s
from a n t h r o p o l o g y
(Davis,
often
Foster
literature
this
with
is
and e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s
in
contrast
it
related
consequences
The
a victim,
person
but
maladaptive
social
"is
and envy a r e d i s c r e t e ,
human n e e d s .
the
accompanied
jealous
aggressor
jealousy
In
is
Envy
without
p.7).
The r e s e a r c h e r a s s u m e s ,
critique,.that
and
advantages.
(Schoeck,1969,
he b e l i e v e s
spontaneous
only
of
and m o r t i f i c a t i o n
look
objective
participated
the
and
literature
critiquing
The f i r s t
1934)
at
are
three
early
before t h e i r
significant
were n o t i c e d by t h e
disciplines
The f o u r t h t h e o r i s t
(Fisher,
to
30
anthropological
and
other
Perspectives
The
and
in d e f i n i n g the
that
institutions
normatively
norms as
To
only
jealousy's
because
t o the
reaction
of
the
He
Davis'
cites
Descartes
fear r e l a t e d to a
Davis
regulated
says
Kingsley
"not
strength
observes
by
only
the
of
social
is i t
to the
societies.
he
social
of
community
In
love
has
support
of
this
interest
depend on
the
claim
i t s purpose
relationships.
an
r e s t s upon
social
highly variable
discusses
in
As
in love
i t but
peaceful
such
"not
also
distribution
(p.187).
(1936) a c k n o w l e d g e s an
by
jealousy
nervous
e m o t i o n s as
or may
jealousy's
i t s i n e v i t a b l e but
universality
sympathetic
w h i c h may
he
review
(p.176).
understanding
cohesion
aroused
many o t h e r
Sociology
by
of
and
future generations
of major v a l u e s "
Davis
kind
i t gives
preservation
that
social
And
(p.192).
in d i f f e r e n t
because
"a
jealousy
underscores
proposes
jealousy.
Property".
i s defined
c o n t r o l l e d but
he
relation
he
of
promote an
appearance
about
and
well"
function
Sexual
a possession"
property
on
including in this
e m o t i o n as
to preserve
sexual
of
a n a l y s i s i s demonstrated
(1936) " J e a l o u s y
desire
from A n t h r o p o l o g y
importance
sociological
perspectives
not
be
but
system
well.
inherent p h y s i o l o g i c a l
describes
that
Other
i t as
function
is generalizable
than
this
externally evident,
he
jealous
to
flash,
proposes
that
31
this
emotion
response
says
i s expressed
to different
differently
situations
"each c u l t u r e d i s t r i b u t e s
society
an
inherited
For
stimulus
western
bolstering
likewise
the value
or whatever
situations
content
Davis
thus
on monogamy.
r a t h e r than
institution
is a distributive
cannot
value
as
(p.188).
j e a l o u s y -as
In o t h e r
prevails.
his belief
and he
of the
be r e g a r d e d
response"
views
He
i n i t s own
societies i t
c a u s e s monogamy,
or c a u s a l p e r s p e c t i v e with
affection
cultures.
t o an i n h e r i t e d
society,
supports
polyandry
polar
in different
and d e f i n e s t h e c o n f l i c t
way... t h e r e f o r e t h e c o n c r e t e
and e x p e r i e n c e d i n
polygamy,
He r e f u t e s t h e
that
sexual
says:
t o l e t i t go u n d i s t r i b u t e d would i n t r o d u c e a n a r c h y i n t o
t h e . g r o u p and d e s t r o y t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m . . . The s t i m u l u s
t o j e a l o u s y , m o r e o v e r , i s n o t so much a p h y s i c a l
s i t u a t i o n a s a m e a n i n g f u l one. The same p h y s i c a l a c t
w i l l i n one p l a c e d e n o t e o w n e r s h i p , i n a n o t h e r p l a c e
r o b b e r y . . . . J e a l o u s y d o e s n o t r e s p o n d i n h e r e n t l y t o any
p a r t i c u l a r p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n ; i t responds to a l l those
s i t u a t i o n s , no m a t t e r how d i v e r s e , w h i c h s i g n i f y a
v i o l a t i o n of t h e a c c u s t o m e d s e x u a l r i g h t s ( D a v i s , 1936,
pp.189-190).
To
any
understand
given
particular
type
pride,
between e c o n o m i c
processes
of a t t i t u d e
to property
whether
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of j e a l o u s y f o r
s o c i e t y we must have an an a w a r e n e s s o f : t h e i r
distinction
the
Davis'
that
the value
and s e x u a l
of c o m p e t i t i o n ,
property;
rivalry
and t r e s p a s s ;
assumed by t h e i n d i v i d u a l
i s owned, p o s s e s s e d
of t h e p r o p e r t y
l o v e o r some c o m b i n a t i o n ) ;
their
in relation
or i n custody
(e.g.,
i s b a s e d on need, v a n i t y ,
their
particular
cultual
32
definition
roles
and
of
different social
the
statuses
instance,
western
of
conditions
discussing
society
relationships,
the
p a r t i c i p a n t s ; and
which
some of
i n terms of
Davis
s i t u a t i o n s i n terms of
influence
finally,
a l l of
the
these parameters
for
jealousy's
the
function
in
the
above.
intimate
says:
As a f e a r r e a c t i o n i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of r i v a l r y i t
i s s i m p l y the o b v e r s e s i d e of the d e s i r e t o win
the
object.
The d e s i r e t o win b e i n g
institutionally
c u l t i v a t e d , t h e f e a r of l o s i n g i s u n a v o i d a b l y
s t i m u l a t e d a l s o , though i t s e x p r e s s i o n i s p u b l i c l y
f r o w n e d upon.
But a f t e r o w n e r s h i p has been a t t a i n e d ,
j e a l o u s y i s a f e a r and r a g e r e a c t i o n f i t t e d t o p r o t e c t ,
m a i n t a i n and p r o l o n g the i n i t i m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n of l o v e
(Davis,.1936, p.183).
In
conclusion,
maintenance
function
institutions
neutral
Davis'
and
of
he
the
for
view
jealousy
that
in question.
"the
hasty
to
jealousy's
t o deny
or
It
review
broad
of
breach.
i n so
He
f a r as
perspective
the
to p r a i s e
relation
He
says
or
of
i t s tendency
i t admits
" i t is
i t muddles
is
sees
while noting
because
the
to
destructive
its
own
of
this
(p.183).
will
that
become a p p a r e n t
Davis'
f o r the
and
protective
intimacy
threatened
only
His
structure"(p.187).
harmony of
i t [intimacy]
purpose"
for
social
i n t e n t i o n as
the
perceived
of
the
g r o u p s and
readiness
condemn p r e v e n t s a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
jealousy
stresses i t s
i n d i v i d u a l s , dyads,
society
notes
of
conceptualization
times.
against
in later
sections
of
jealousy
A l t h o u g h a r g u m e n t s can
his various
be
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , he
was
posed
very
both
acknowledges
33
a need t o a l s o s t u d y
view.
This
the emotion
i s i n contrast to h i s cohorts
disciplines
who l a r g e l y
neglected
p e r s p e c t i v e s he had made
M a r g a r e t Mead's
Civilized"
jealousy
from a p e r s o n a l i t y p o i n t o f
the s o c i o l o g i c a l
available.
(1931) " J e a l o u s y :
p o r t r a y s how
situations
in others.
who f o l l o w e d h e r , Mead c o n c e i v e s
P r i m i t i v e and
that are p r o v o c a t i v e of
i n one c u l t u r e a r e i n n o c u o u s
many o t h e r s
i n the other
Without
d i f f e r e n c e s she n o t e s
threatening
will
sociocultural
be d e t e r m i n e d
setting.
She
of j e a l o u s y as
entirely
t h a t what
L i k e so
discrediting
i s p e r c e i v e d as
by t h e p a r t i c u l a r
says:
However v a r i e d t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g , i t w i l l be seen t o
be t h e t h r e a t e n e d ego w h i c h r e a c t s j e a l o u s l y .
S i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h i s s e l f - e s t e e m w i l l , however,
t a k e w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . . . . T h e r e i s h a r d l y any
l i m i t of p e r f o r m a n c e o r a p p a r e n t d e p r i v a t i o n t o w h i c h
t h e i n d i v i d u a l may n o t be p u s h e d by h i s s o c i e t y ' s
standards.
Whatever t h e s o c i a l s e t , however, i t w i l l
i n s p i r e him t o z e a l f o r h i s s o c i a l l y d e f i n e d p o s i t i o n .
And i f he f e e l s h i s s e l f - e s t e e m i s t h r e a t e n e d , i f h i s
r e p u t a t i o n as a g r a c i o u s w i f e l e n d e r or a s u c c e s s f u l
r u l e r o f a harem i s i n d a n g e r , j e a l o u s y w i l l be t h e
r e s u l t (Mead, 1931, p . 1 1 9 ) .
(
As
will
results
remain
become a p p a r e n t
t h a t attempt
in this
chapter,
to c o r r e l a t e self-esteem
i n c o n s i s t e n t and m o d e l s f o r t h e e m o t i o n
have c o n s i g n e d
discussion
-
later
spurious
jealousy.
i t to a less central
of s e l f - e s t e e m
nature
As t h i s
will
role.
with
research
jealousy
(White, 1976)
Also,
the l a t e r
i t c a n be a s s i t u a t i o n a l l y
a p p l i e s t o Mead's
dependent as
interpretation,
34
possibly
t h e harem r u l e r ' s r e p u t a t i o n
apparent
t h a n an a c t u a l
if
h i s jealous
society
e f f e c t on h i s s e l f - e s t e e m
behaviour
jealousy,
i s e x p e c t e d and c o n d i t i o n e d
(1931) draws a f i n e l i n e
a distinction
the l i t e r a t u r e .
that
i n the attainment
personal
status"
angry defense
societies
zealous
of
the
status"
to exemplify
impotent
this
displayed
there
their
lovers
to allay
Adhering
i s jealous.
confused
possession
subject
sexual
that
by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t i n
jealousy
by t h e o b j e c t
generally
to a negative
that
of the loved
view o f j e a l o u s y ,
side
object.
of l o v e
She n o t e s
for exclusive
Jealousy,
that the
of a p r i v i l e g e which they
because
share
outsiders"
i n h e r v i e w , need n o t be s e x u a l
i s t h e most e g o c e n t r i c
Mead
w h i c h wants
possession
variety
instead
of z e a l .
"many p e o p l e a r e z e a l o u s
(p.116).
that the
She o b s e r v e s
misinterpretations
need n o t be w a n t i n g
with others
polygamous
a c e r t a i n amount o f
(1931) r e l a t e s i t t o t h e e g o c e n t r i c
for
Mead u s e s
p o l i c e s h i s 200 w i v e s
s i t u a t i o n s that
i s a lack
(p.119).
i s "a f r i g h t e n e d
two a t t i t u d e s a r e f u r t h e r
love
jealousy
of s o c i a l or
difference, noting
man who r i g i d l y
overlooking
elsewhere
z e a l a s "an a t t e n t i v e
or p r e s e r v a t i o n
(p.119) whereas
of such
man w i l l
romantic
be
by h i s
between z e a l and
i s largely neglected
She d e s c r i b e s
interest
the
especially
and f a m i l y .
Mead
in
h a s more o f an
and s e l f i s h .
but the
35
Comparing
the
Banaro t r i b e
peasants p r i o r to
the
male's e x c l u s i v e ,
proprietary
evident
that
the
to
lend
because the
emphasized
Frenchman's
social
In c o n t r a s t ,
as
living
new
Mead
bride
of
within
father
sex
was
to e a r l i e r
The
several
each person's
addition
set
to
does not
give
Generally,
only
he
that
established
their
rise
to
their
by
sexual
to
she
planning
Banaro
peoples
exogamous s y s t e m
a ceremonial
in
f r i e n d of
initiation
friend's
to
wife.
a r r a n g e m e n t s mean t h a t
will
have t h r e e
Mead c l a i m s
the
that
in
mates i n
this
social
jealousy
occurs
However,
she
specific
Hence
sexual
arrangements.
boundaries..
t o any
being
jealousy.
i n t e r m s of
response
the
ceremonial
spouse.
illicit
place.
by
the
sexual
and
she
for deflowering
bridegroom's
extra-regular
ritualistic
duration
a complex
Mead c o n s i d e r s
in response
is
and
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in- t h e
the
or
regular
s e e m i n g l y assumes t h a t
their
and
reported
lifetime
their
feelings
lord
the
However,
outraged d i g n i t y at
i s deflowered
bridegroom's
other
French
(1931) shows t h a t
(1931) d e s c r i b e s
the
attended
the
impotence.
contentedly
w h i c h the
an
lack
to
societies.
jealous
h i s woman t o h i s
peasant's
his
Guinea
a t t i t u d e toward h i s wife
complex
b e h a v i o u r s were e l e m e n t a l l y
required
New
r e v o l u t i o n , Mead
i n b o t h s i m p l e and
suggests
of
discussion
i t would be
deviations
does
arrangements are
persons,
respect
indicate
planned
and
occasions,
i n t e r e s t i n g to
from t h e s e norms.
know
Also,
36
Mead's e v i d e n c e
society
i s based
recruitment
on whiteman's p o o r
f o r labor
possible
that
expected
sex p a r t n e r s
purposes.
recruitment
Mead a l s o g i v e s
success
i n Banaro
rates at
Alternatively, i t
was p o o r
is
b e c a u s e any l o s s of
may have p r o v o k e d
examples o f f e m a l e
intense
jealousies.
jealousies
occurring
in
in
acquiring
In
this
extra
instance
distinguishing
her
view
feeling
that
suspicion
Mead
the
between
jealousy
the widely
and c h i l d b e a r i n g .
to ascertain
and envy.
varying
of jealousy
labor
i f Mead was
Generally,
s i t u a t i o n s preclude
because
and h u m i l i a t i o n "
Rather,
is
t o anger,
(p.116).
(1931) makes a s t r o n g ,
stereo-type
i t
i t "sometimes
traditional
sex".
i tis.difficult
definition
inclines
wives t o share
c l e a r statement
to reject
of t h e female as "the j e a l o u s
she s a y s :
T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , w i t h a few r a r e e x c e p t i o n s , women
have been t h e i n s e c u r e s e x . T h e i r s t a t u s , t h e i r
f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n , t h e i r v e r y economic e x i s t e n c e , t h e i r
r i g h t o v e r t h e i r own c h i l d r e n , h a s been d e p e n d e n t upon
t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s men.
I n t o t h e f i e l d o f p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s have been t h r u s t
a l l t h e s e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s n o t g e r m a i n e t o i t . The
w i f e t h r e a t e n e d with the l o s s of her husband's
a f f e c t i o n , f i d e l i t y , i n t e r e s t or l o y a l t y , whichever
p o i n t h e r s o c i e t y has d e f i n e d a s t h e p i v o t o f w i f e l y
tenure, sees the very r o o t s of her s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e
b e i n g c u t f r o m b e n e a t h h e r . She h a s been i n t h e
p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h a man would be i f he h a d r e a d i n t o
h i s w i f e ' s a v e r t e d shoulder t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n of a l l h i s
s t o c k s , a l o s s of h i s b u s i n e s s r e p u t a t i o n , e v i c t i o n
f r o m w h a t e v e r p o s i t i o n he h o l d s , b o t h s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l , a s w e l l a s t h e l o s s o f h i s home and p o s s i b l y
a l l c o n t r o l over h i s c h i l d r e n .
I f women's s u p e r i o r
37
spite
of her r e l a t i v e l y
many s i t u a t i o n a l
considers
t h e emtion
little
t o be s a i d
mainly
because
repellent"
factors
are
and s o c i a l
in i t sfavor"
(p.120).
Othello
belonging
other
of j e a l o u s y ,
obessive
group judged
with
culturally-prized
to
jealously cling
Nevertheless,
to
rather
endowments
she d e p r e c a t e s
than m i t i g a t e s "
effects
the
of j e a l o u s y .
word
aspect
(p.125).
jealousy
inferior
and p e r s o n a l
the l a t t e r
For
i n the case of
born of
by t h e g r o u p
In h e r v i e w , t h e p e r s o n
other
i s u n l u c k y and w i l l
be l i k e l y
t h a t comes h i s way.
h i s jealousy
because
i t "adds
(p.125) h i s m i s e r y .
(1931) s e e s
few o r no p o s i t i v e
She i s i n d u c t i v e i n r e f u t i n g u s e o f
b u t she goes on t o c a t e g o r i z e
d e s t r u c t i v e way w i t h o u t
individual
with
i s so
t o an " i n s e c u r i t y
exclusively
of
social
p h y s i c a l and/or
to anything
In c o n c l u s i o n , Mead
both
(p.124).
fewer o r d i f f e r e n t
phenomenon
h i s misfortune
to a racial
(1931)
forms o f e x t r e m e e g o i s m , i s
o f bad l u c k "
she e x e m p l i f i e s
attributing
Mead
(p.120) and t h i s
She c o n s i d e r s
r a r e and "the r e s u l t
instance,
determinants,
t o be an " u n f o r t u n a t e
i t , "like
as. c a u s a l
b r o a d view o f j e a l o u s y ' s
differences.
possessive
t h e emotion
presenting
i n an
observations
Her l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e
i n the
38
latter
categorization
suggestion
eliminate
She
that c i v i l i z e d
or d r a s t i c a l l y
tempers- t h i s
might
i s p o r t r a y e d by h e r t e n t a t i v e
societies
reduce
suggestion
be s e r e n i t y
jealousy
examining
strive to
the emotion's o c c u r r e n c e . .
a t t h e c o s t o f t h e p a s s i o n and i n t e n s i t y
which produce g r e a t m y s t i c s
discuss-ion
should
i s thus
and g r e a t a r t i s t s .
very
useful
in giving
but i t i s l e s s
useful
and l e s s
j e a l o u s y ' s "purpose"
than
Her
"reasons" t o
intricate in
Kingsley Davis'
(1936)
sociological perspectives.
Exactly
referred
i s evident
Culture".
1970,
the k i n d and q u a l i t y
i n Ruth B e n e d i c t ' s
Benedict
was "never
(1934) " P a t t e r n s o f
a n e u t r a l person"
individual,
Likewise,
her concern
behaviour
but with
seer,
t o w h i c h Mead
good o r bad s o c i e t y ,
find
of p a s s i o n
a place
feeling
was n o t w i t h
"the extent
or behaviour.
t o w h i c h one c u l t u r e
which another
abnormal o r w o r t h l e s s "
o r wrong,
f o r e x t r e m e s of b e h a v i o r
the a r t i s t
(Harris,
could
culture
branded as
( c f . p r e f a c e by Mead
i n Benedict,
1934,).
Of
j e a l o u s y she s a y s
of many d i f f e r e n t
that
" i t i s evident
cultures,
c a n be most e f f e c t i v e l y
[that
the p r a c t i c e s
i t ] i s one o f t h e e m o t i o n s
f o s t e r e d by c u l t u r a l
a r r a n g e m e n t s , o r i t c a n be o u t l a w e d "
p. 109).
from
( B e n e d i c t , 1934,
But she d i d n o t p o r t r a y t h e e x p e r i e n c e
of j e a l o u s y ,
39
in
itself,
issue
as
with emotions
distinguish
determined
social
as
abnormal,
those
and b e h a v i o u r s
that
from t h o s e
as
are
She
or p r o b l e m a t i c
in general
instinctive
that
conditioning.
automatic
destructive
are
or
was not
to
organically
l e a r n e d or
says
and h e r
engrained
by
"the c o n d i t i o n e d response
the o r g a n i c a l l y
determined
is
[response]"
(p.17).
Instead,
levels
whole
that
of
Benedict
synergy.
In
s y s t e m s and f o r
jealousy,
l a b e l l e d as
expression
social
units
constructive
their
examined s o c i e t i e s
this
she
dyadic
and o t h e r
are
of
these
attributing
exclusive
Dobu
and v i o l e n t
these
in disharmony
values
of
(1934)
in Melanesia,
healthy
Conversely,
the
synergy
of
compares
Pueblos
and t h e
expression
between
their
to
of
the
social
individual
of
New
Kwakiutl
a
in
fierce
structures
objectives
She e x e m p l i f i e s
t h e Dobu
their
beliefs
and
jealousy
and norms.
in
of
She d e s c r i b e s
observations
and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s
values
synergy.
cultures
t h e Dobu,
when t h e i r
which
Benedict
Indians
and s o c i e t a l
traditionally
emotions.
the n a t i v e s
aggressive
subsystems,
encourage
of
their
their
and p r a c t i c e s
Mexico,
frequent,
for
levels
Culture"
of
of
for
r e p r e s e n t e d by h i g h
expression
which r e s u l t s
and g r o u p
emotions
levels
three very d i s t i n c t
exclusivity
implied,
become p r o b l e m a t i c
customs
"Patterns
contrasts
doing
impeded by low
that
have b u i l t - i n
In
fear,
negative
is
(1970)
the; most
about
the
40
ownership
of
yams
(their
major
foodstuff)
c o n s i d e r e d t o have an h e r e d i t a r y
couple
share
children,
have
jealously
guard
describes
many
arising
from o t h e r m a r i t a l
Always,
the o r i g i n
emotion
harmony
basis,
of
resides
marital
for
gardens
their
which
respective
problematic
individual
between t h e i r
(1934)
expressed
arrangements
the couple a l t e r n a t e
Benedict
their
similarly
in a s o c i a l
between t h e
example,
common f o o d
separate
s e e d yams of
the
lines.
Benedict
the
their
are
Although
they
hereditary
line.
which
of
the
behavioural
structure
and h i s
observes
Dobu.
expression
that
or h e r
of
precludes
society.
their habitation,
respective matrilineal
jealousies
on a
For
yearly
villages.
that:
contrast,
by B e n e d i c t
Their
the
(1934)
society
is
as
Zuni
(a P u e b l o p e o p l e )
having
affirmative
a much h i g h e r
of
life,
has
c o m p e t i t i o n and v i o l e n c e and a h i g h l e v e l
Jealousies
instance,
still
occur
she d i s c u s s e s
They do not
r e s p o n s e on
cut o f f the
even i n t h e
but a r e managed
marital
are
level
a low
of
described
of
level
of
cooperation.
differently.
jealousy
synergy.
For
saying:
meet a d u l t e r y w i t h v i o l e n c e .
A usual
t h e p l a i n s t o t h e w i f e ' s a d u l t e r y was t o
f l e s h y p a r t of h e r n o s e .
T h i s was done
Southwest by n o n - P u e b l o t r i b e s l i k e t h e
41
(1934) d e s r i b e s
of t h e i r husbands'
adultery.
She i n t e r p r e t s that t h e i r
traditionally
expressions,
negative
i s the essence of
lifestyle.
The
deprecation
or
cultural universal.
emotion w i l l
result
In the
can be added to
to be a c r o s s -
be expressed as a means to a c o o p e r a t i v e
i n d e s t r u c t i o n and v i o l e n c e
end or
structure.
Helen F i s h e r
(1982), a contemporary
anthropologist,
42
looks
She
at
the
evolution
suggests
million
living
She
ago
together,
believes
jealousy
sharing
who's
behaviours.
t h a t , by
females
were
four
bonding,
learning
to
cooperate.
evolution
of
these
patterns,
(p.132).
emotions
to
one
such
another
as
[and
Cooperative
required the
emotions
that
came
along
them.
Central
to F i s h e r ' s
pair-bonding
says
and
"clearly
laugh
life"
and
cry
free
survival"
emotions
other
people
Sexual
bonding
is
and
Fisher
and
for
emotion
understood"
jealousy,
she
of
feelings.
our
humans
to
was
key
to
a l l
demanded
developed
trust
be e x p r e s s e d
the
"not
slowly
friendship,
She
selection
that
Cooperation
of
ancestors
was
natural
proposes
early
came
evolution
togetherness
(1982)
love,
the
social
concepts
Thus
is
encouraged
learned....[yet]
(p.119).
"each
for
facilitation
together
will
thesis
requirement
inclinations
and
(1982)
Integrating
human b e h a v i o r
natural
its
social
(p.119).
a n d human
for
and
indicate
and
individuals
who"
thus
and
with the
tie
to
males
food
behaviour
"to
responsibilities
to
along
complex
evolved
evidence
protohomid
that
to]....Define
with
human e m o t i o n s
and p r o v i d e s
years
relatively
of
and
so
other
that
(p.119).
suggests,
reciprocal altruism.
evolved
She
along
with
pair-
says:
B e c a u s e a m a l e was now o b l i g e d t o d e f e n d t h e c h i l d r e n
of h i s m a t e , he w o u l d d e v e l o p a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y t o
make s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e h i s c h i l d r e n t o o .
T h o u g h he
m i g h t n o t know i t c o n s c i o u s l y , h e d i d n o t w i s h t o
expend h i s t i m e , h i s energy, and perhaps h i s l i f e f o r
the genes of a n o t h e r m a l e .
T h u s was b o r n s e x u a l
43
jealousy
She
explains
(Fisher,
that
s c r a t c h mine"
form of
although
(p.113)
natural
outrage
felt
apology
and c o n t r i t i o n
guilt,
summary,
emotions
a nouvelle
functional,
t h e r e were a l w a y s
received.
for
critiqued
earlier
To summarize
critiqued
adding
in
this
this
Although
were a v a i l a b l e
had l i t t l e
or
it.
the
man
who
learned
jealousy,
Meanwhile,
the
Pardon,
showdown.
on j e a l o u s y
with
to
and
environmentalism.
i n f l u e n c e of
dimension
early
T h o s e who were
thesis
evolution
an
self-deception.
from a
(1982)
she e x a m i n e s
the
early
man's
perspectives
section.
section,
one s o c i o l o g i c a l
on j e a l o u s y .
as
you
T h e r e f o r e , even
revenge.
resulted
integrates
way
and
back,
those
d e c e i t and e a r l y
embarassment
Fisher's
structures,
Benedict
was
would e x p e r i e n c e and e x p r e s s
cheater
social
s c r a t c h your
t o n e u t r a l i z e or c o u n t e r a c t
indignation,
In
"I'll
agreement
s e l e c t i o n allowed
e x p l o i t e d by o t h e r s
In
the
r e t u r n the h e l p they
feelings
other
pp.113-114).
reciprocal altruism,
wouldn't
moral
1982
it
has
presented
and
and t h r e e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
the p e r s p e c t i v e s
early
interdisciplinary
in
this
effect
of
Davis,
century
until
Mead,
they
several
views
and
seemingly
decades
later.
Davis'
maintenance
(1936)
of
view
stresses
each s o c i e t y ' s
jealousy's
institutions
role
is
a l s o c o n t r o l l e d by t h e
institutions
he s e e s
it
as
the extent
only
to
the
and norms.
emotion
destructive
in
The
and norms
that
it
and
defeats
44
its
own
purpose.
Mead's
pejorative
social
(1931)
and r e a s o n - o r i e n t e d .
structures
oriented
anthropology
implies
Zuni
result
(1934)
levels
of
that
are
this
with
(as
chapter,
and l e s s
purpose-
Finally,
this
integrates
on j e a l o u s y
chronologically
individual
as
psychiatry
beginning
(or
high levels
a means
In
several
As
synergy
decades
synergy
will
is
likely
later
re-associated
and e n v i r o n m e n t a l
The n e x t
thesis
perspectives
section
perspectives
w i t h F r e u d and e n d i n g
(1981).
be
later.
and c r i t i q u e s
l i t e r a t u r e by T u r b o t t
as
to
become a p p a r e n t
examined F i s h e r ' s ( 1 9 8 2 )
emotions.
She
when l e v e l s , of
jealousy
will
of
be l i k e l y
contrast,
society)
of
will
for
she
between
effect.
explores
Accordingly,
harmony
evolutionary
and o t h e r
be compared
societies.
values
section
to
several
the c o n c e p t
theory
recent
examined
of
i n Dobu
jealousy
which
is
jealousy
t o have a d e s t r u c t i v e
in
analysis
and s o c i e t a l
low
societies
'synergy'.
when t h e r e
society)
that
in a c o o p e r a t i v e end.
synergy
primarily
she
i n t r o d u c e d a new c o n c e p t
a comparative
objectives
in
Like Davis,
i n a more p a r o c h i a l
by s u g g e s t i n g
varying
presents
but
was
way.
Benedict
their
p e r s p e c t i v e on j e a l o u s y
with
from
t h e most
45
Perspectives
The
most c l a s s i c
Psychiatry
ascribes
grief,
are
Psychiatry
on j e a l o u s y
i s Freud's
four
e n m i t y and s e l f - d o u b t .
t h o u g h t ] of t h e n a r c i s s i s t i c
"against
the s u c c e s s f u l r i v a l "
criticism
"tries
his
(p.232).
loss"
Freud
to hold
believed
the loved
wound"
complex,
homosexuality.
jealousy
Normal
derived
or t o a d i s g u i s e d
- normal or c o m p e t i t i v e ,
he s a i d
from t h e a c t u a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s and under
conscious
ego" ( F r e u d ,
delusional
repressed
Freud.
impulses
subject,
rightly
situation,
the enmity
accountable f o r
Oedipal
or
expression
of
brother-
and d e l u s i o n a l .
proportionate
1922, p . 2 3 2 ) .
i n the
l a y e r s or stages of
projected
the complete
that i s
to the r e a l
c o n t r o l of the
Projected
j e a l o u s y and
towards u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , a c c o r d i n g
result
Delusional
i n that
and i t " r e p r e s e n t s
takes
(p.232);
unfaithfulness.
i s different
o b j e c t and
" i s by no means r a t i o n a l ,
The f o r m e r may a l s o
actual
hand,
jealousy
and g r i e f
t o be u n i v e r s a l , r o o t e d
He d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h r e e
jealousy,
pain,
( p . 2 3 2 ) ; and t h e s e l f -
u n c o u s c i o u s and r e l a t e d t o an u n r e s o l v e d
and-sister
H i s account
the pain
jealousy
both
emotions
He d e c i d e d
of l o s i n g
from
(1922).
overlapping
" c a u s e d by t h e t h o u g h t
[the
is
reference
and P s y c h o l o g y
to jealousy
from
from
to
from t h e s u b j e c t ' s
jealousy,
the object
own
on t h e o t h e r
i s t h e same sex a s t h e
an a c i d u l a t e d h o m o s e x u a l i t y , and
i t s p o s i t i o n among t h e c l a s s i c
forms o f
46
paranoia"
(Freud,
Jones
1922,
(1929) e x t e n d e d F r e u d ' s
reinforced
jealousy's
s t a t u s as
pathological.
He
predisposition
results
emanating
inversion.
The
added h e r
Generalizing
i n s i g h t s on
jealousy
from t h e
as
resolve
p h a s e of
of
and
as
the
a
[and]
f e a r of
others
and
women
p a t h o l o g i c a l to
"means of
defence
a symptom of
coquetry
and
Deciding
could
be
not
the
against
her
explained
infidelity, Riviere
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : while
were r o b b i n g
was
her
(the
robbing
Both behaviours
through a fantasy
study.
unconscious
(p.423).
i n f l i r t a t i o n she
everything.
conflict
are
patient)
those
an
effort
o r i g i n a t i n g i n the
to
oral
development.
Riviere
agreed with
Freud
the
emotion's a s s o c i a t i o n with
and
in r e l a t i n g
wound.
father
infidelity.
f o l l o w i n g symbolic
jealousy
everything;
around her
f e a r of
a p r o j e c t i o n of p e r s o n a l
o f f e r e d the
experiencing
of
to
f u r t h e r to
of
the
dependency
b a s i s of a s i n g l e c a s e
super-ego"
j e a l o u s y and
sufficiently
instead
the
her . c o n c l u s i o n s
unconscious c o n f l i c t s . . .
patient's
leading
f l i g h t and
and
i n h i s example) t h a t
from n a r c i s s i s t i c
inversion leads
viewed
accusations
dispositional
and
own
she
(1922) t h e s i s
( f o r men
guilt
in projected
Riviere
normal,
suggests
from O e d i p a l
resulting
p.234).
(1922) and
f e e l i n g s of
even
"normal"
jealousy
However, she
explains
the
Jones
self-criticism
to the
wound as
(1929) a b o u t
narcissistic
"the
condemnation
47
by
the super-ego
unconscious
himself"
predatory
(Riviere,
Sokoloff's
physician
the
and the e x p i a t i o n
evolution
and r o l e
sentiment.
negative
form,
emotion
notes
great
(Sokoloff,
manifestations
destructive
jealousy
H i s study
and
he c l a i m s ,
is
It i s s t i l l
with
by e v e r y o n e
into
of
instinctual,
in a
less
but i n h i b i t e d
cannot
i t may
result
a complex
(an
i n the z o o l o g i c a l
for purely
two
more
in
obsessive
He
says
economy
the group.
social
by
be
on p r e d i s p o s i t i o n .
function
corrective
us
the sentiment
i f repressed
i s much
soma.
i s comprised
the i n d i v i d u a l as a g a i n s t
1947,
Sokoloff
character,
of psyche
depends
of
misinterpreted i t s
reaction,
and
to the
nature
and a
subject
h i s colleagues,
a n d humans.
he c l a i m s
"retains
the complex
reaction
jealousy)
to conserve
nature's
He
I t s transformation
delusional
i n the
a primitive
The
inhibited
complexes.
f o r the
i s addressed
or negatively
experienced
In c o n t r a s t ,
completely
this
jealousy
that
and a t a v i s t i c .
primitive
or
on
i n animals
units
impulses
t o which
neglected
concludes
psychological
most.
text
s t r e s s i n g the unity
Sokoloff
t h e ego
p.423).
Freud,
complex
1932,
(1947)
including
broader,
and a g g r e s s i v e
and the p a t i e n t .
emotion
by
It is
emotion"
p.22).
(1947)
discusses
of jealousy,
i t s demand
potential
many
and v a r y i n g
stressing
for satisfaction
for subject,
i t s
types
autonomous
and revenge
object
and
and i t s
and s o c i e t y .
He
48
claims
i t t o be
concealed
it
and
the
and
as
the
the
jealousy
period
effort
of
that
and
time.
He
traditional
jealousy.
his
jealousy
and
and
discussion,
to
p e o p l e of
ancient
and
the
The
Sandwich
the
G r e e k s and
former
English
Romans
related
claimed
it
had
love.
believes
i t is
of
a l o n e n e s s and
His
suggestions
given
the
s u g g e s t s open d i s c u s s i o n
and
cautions
nature
that
should
e f f o r t s and
for childhood
if i t is s t i l l
good-natured
for
"an
in a
treatment
state
of
the
are
art
to n e u t r a l i z e
i t s importance
not
extra
r a t i o n a l he
to e x c e s s i v e
be
at
the
and
and
He
f o r any
attention
stresses
intelligent,
is optimistic
early
problematic
recommends
demands.
or
underestimated.
love
jealousy.
teasing
Sokoloff
isolation
to
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n surrounding
i n d i v i d u a l i z e d treatment
his discipline,
the
latter
by
exemplifies
n a t i o n a l i t i e s and
The
comprehensive
submit
that
i n d i v i d u a t i o n and
destructive
detection
agrees
in adults
(p.35).
treatment
most
jealousy
fears
family
He
the
excessive
concealment
Collaborative
yet
Sokoloff
(p.15).
love
However, he
potential
refusal
child
world"
insightful
of
(1947) t r a c e s
t o combat
hostile
the
jealous"
w i t h envy t h a n
Sokoloff
the
cultures.
least.
to excessive
and
l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y coped with
jealous
the
commonest
human e m o t i o n s .
more or
most
little
more t o do
the
S o m a l i s and
A m e r i c a n s as
were " v e r y
in
but
of
i n d i v i d u a l s and
French,
Islands
oldest,
disguised
is universal
different
are
the
Relative
in his
free
friendly
to
others
prognosis,
49
claiming
the
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
intelligent
efforts
experienced
by
Ziman
the
prevention
and
and
at
jealous
a symptom of
he
wants s o m e t h i n g
person
jealousy
w o r r y and
with
first
and
one
text
given
wounds
others.
to
i t s era.
He
"a c h i l d
for
parents
sees
jealousy
is jealous
(p.5).
the.same and
look
suggest
i s a guide
proclaims
and
and
modern p s y c h i a t r i s t t o
someone e l s e h a s "
envy as
patience
psychological
i n c h i l d r e n and
His
holistic
as
and
the
treatment.
is relatively
jealousy
in dealing
(1949) was
comprehensively
understanding,
He
deals
when
with
v i e w s them
as
normal d e v e l o p m e n t a l
reactions,
s t r e s s i n g w i s e management
and
of
the
source
rather
supress
the
emotion.
understanding
eliminate
or
"jealous
child
adult"
(p.5).
sibling
adult
for
does not
competitiveness,
power emanate o n l y
Basically,
emphasizes
n e c e s s a r i l y grow up
Ziman a l s o d e a l s
p o s i t i o n s and
He
than attempts
family
with
configurations,
aggression
and
an
in
involves a high
the
jealous
different
suggesting
unsatiable
from mismanaged c h i l d h o o d
h i s treatment
that
t o be
jealousy
to
quality
that
search
jealousy.
parental
nurturance.
Schmideberg
still
more o r a l ,
However, her
emphasize
f e a r of
agrees with
and
work
(1953), another
anal
and
i s the
l o s s as
Ziman t h a t
psychoanalyst,
focuses
on
i n the
fundamental
field
to the
to c l a r i f y
and
emotion.
She
childhood
jealousy
i s developmental
views p a t h o l o g i c a l adulthood
jealousy
as
a "schizoid
50
inability
to love"
(p.3).
In h e r v i e w ,
jealousy
includes
elements of sadism, a c o m p u l s i o n
to c o n t r o l the loved
object,
fear, g u i l t ,
hostility,
anxiety,
ambivalence
doubts about
loneliness
o f -the l o v e
and
jealousy
(1953) a g r e e s w i t h
Freud
i s a defence against
She r e l a t e s j e a l o u s y
introduces
to psychoanalysis
jealousy,
and i n c o r p o r a t e s
social,
expectation
in patriarchal societies
For instance,
and j e a l o u s o f h i s w i f e
t o be a s u r v i v o r o f c h i l d i s h
"bullied,
(p.13).
it
According
emphasize
of j u s t i f i e d or
c u l t u r a l and
she n o t e s a
traditional
f o r t h e man
over
hurt"
he c o n t i n u e d
dispositional.
resulting
feeling
she
speculates
from
having
and f r u s t r a t e d "
i s clung
sadistic
t o because
impulses
which
and c a s t r a t i o n c o m p l e x e s .
(1962) was t h e f i r s t
the r o l e
Finally,
f a c t o r and
humiliated
unconscious
t o be
and t o r e g a r d
hurts
to her, t h i s
from O e d i p a l
Langfeldt
as
nagged, t e a s e d ,
reduces g u i l t
emanate
but
"feeling
complex
emotions,
as t h i e v e r y o f h i s m a s c u l i n i t y .
e m p h a s i z e s an e l e m e n t a l
been
t h e s i s i s more
the p o s s i b i l i t y
factors.
it
that p a t h o l o g i c a l
t o many more
situational
unfaithfulness
hurt,
unconscious
However, h e r g e n e r a l
than h i s .
possessive
dependency,
obsession.
homosexuality.
rational
strong
r e l a t i o n s h i p , impotence or
potency, possessiveness,
Schmideberg
adult
exaggeration,
in Psychiatry
of u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h o d y n a m i c
the t r a d i t i o n a l
Studying
tendency
t o deprocesses
to label
the case h i s t o r i e s
jealousy
o f 66
51
psychiatric
jealousy,
patients
troubled
he d e s c r i b e d
(p.317), c l a i m i n g
that
by f r e q u e n t
an " e r o t i c
has
p o t e n t i a l l y present
a significant
alcoholism.
alcohol,
organic
can
predominance
some b i o l o g i c a l
results
i n diagnosed
syndrome
chronic
i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e abuse o f
phases of s e v e r a l
(especially schizophrenia
he s u g g e s t s t h a t
i n poor
this
people
f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e menopause,
have a r e l e a s i n g e f f e c t
Finally,
He b e l i e v e s
syndromes and p s y c h o t i c
mental d i s o r d e r s
syndrome"
i n a l l t y p e s of mental d i s o r d e r s but
He-observes that
brain
jealousy
intense
i t c a n be common among n o r m a l
or a b n o r m a l and even- c o n g e n i t a l .
is
and
and
on t h e j e a l o u s y
a low l e v e l
of
melancholia)'
syndrome.
intelligence
ideas,
rendering
them
more o r l e s s p e r m a n e n t .
Mooney
discipline
the
(1965), a B r i t i s h
a still
difficulty
pathological
western
tribe
ideal
that
suppressed.
jealousy
potential
jealousy
faithful
He e v e n t u a l l y
is irrational
f o r frequent
noting
to define the
f r o m t h e norm.
Comparing
(a polygamous and p o l y a n d r o u s
I n d i a ) , he c l a i m s
on a d u l t e r y
on j e a l o u s y ,
i n attempting
s o c i e t i e s t o t h e Tobas
is lifelong
neglects
arises
perspective
as a d e v i a t i o n
i n southern
censure
broader
P s y c h i a t r i s t , gave h i s
that
when t h e r e
must be s u p p r e s s e d
monogamy
decides
infidelity
that
i s no
b u t when t h e
must be
pathological
and u n f o u n d e d , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e
e r r o r s by t h e d i a g n o s t i c i a n
a c a r e f u l study
who
o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s and s o c i a l
52
context.
Even
t h o u g h Mooney
with d e f i n i n g
he
goes on
the
(in a
(1965) a c k n o w l e d g e d
pathological
as
jealousy
certainty"
(p.1024) from o b s e s s i v e
has
After
the
jealousy
surveying
outlines
factors,
epilepsy;
paranoid
organic
be
drug
degenerative
(e.g.,
analysis
p r e g n a n c y and
and
(1965) p r o g n o s i s
65
other
familial
intoxication
or
disorders;
and
poat-partum
(e.g.,
other
state;
initial
On
c a s e h i s t o r i e s (8 of
concludes
favorable
(p.1034).
His
variant
explained,
but
he
problems with h i s
of
for delusional
jealousy.
a u t h o r s ) he
validity
with
i n v o l u t i o n a l changes).
for obsessive
of
and
(1965)
p s y c h i a t r i c syndromes
the
patient
problems.
associated
cerebral
with
evidence
Mooney
worse t h a n
the
the
emotional
hereditary
personality;
mental d e f i c i e n c y ;
Mooney's
an
including
to
norm,
i s held
when t h e
literature,
thought
from the
belief
jealousy
of
difficulty
distinguish
to a p p r e c i a t e
Psychiatric
or
to
"mistaken
i s symptomatic
jealousy
menopause and
three
reality
categories
premorbid
addiction;
factors
the
eight
pathological
had
i n which a
enough t o u c h w i t h
realize
a deviation
s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y way)
delusional
the
l e v e l s of
h i s own
that
e f f e c t on
the
instituting
the
basis
and
of
57
delusional
reader
from
well
is left
chemotherapy
drugs
jealousy"
s i g n i f i c a n c e are
and
is
his
"phenothiazine
documents e x t e n s i v e l y
s t u d y and
jealousy
not
the
other
t o wonder a t .
j
i n the f i r s t
place.
53
No o t h e r
and
non-chemical
treatment
a l t e r n a t i v e s are suggested
a p e s s i m i s t i c long-term prognosis
The
next
study of " d e l u s i o n a l
i s predicted.
jealousy"
was Mowat's
murderers murdered
single
delusion
suicide
f o r morbid
and murder"
w h i c h t h e a v e r a g e man
of
his
s i x years
average,
and
he soon m i s i n t e r p r e t s
later.
i n h i s mistaken
eventuate
later.
The man's d e l u s i o n s
four-and-a-half
delusional
The
Seidenberg's
acts
as
years
a t the outset
developing,
state
on
escalates
i n c r e a s i n g l y more
Angry
s c e n e s and
leaving only
frequently
o r murder o c c u r
to return
become
on t h e a v e r a g e
a f t e r the onset
relative
of the
excuse
to avoid
and f i d e l i t y
"the p r i n c i p l e
on j e a l o u s y i s
of s o c i o - c u l t u r a l
to f i d e l i t y
he v i e w s s e x u a l
sentiment
literature
(1967) e x p l o r a t i o n
of u n f a i t h f u l n e s s .
former
then
psychoanalytic
considerations
overrated
i n the wife
from
system.
next
Basically,
H i s deluded
growing
other
showed a p a t t e r n
h i s wife
judgements.
attacks
Suicide
about
trivia,
violent
about
so many d e a t h s
The murders
h i s delusions
psychotic
[ a n d ] ... no
was f r e e o f j e a l o u s y
the
hallucinations.
with
(p.115).
in
convinced
jealousy
i s associated
marriage,
murderers.
and
infidelity
dealing
with
jealousy.
a s w e s t e r n man's
other
infidelities
He d i s t i n g u i s h e s between
as l o g i c ,
i s followed
claiming
that
fidelity
i n the
more o r l e s s b l i n d l y f o r
or
54
its
own s a k e "
the
s e r v i c e of e x i g e n c y "
infidelity,
meaning
he d e c i d e s ,
'sexual'
extramarital
sexual
of
U n f a i t h f u l n e s s and
"have s u f f e r e d t h e p e j o r a t i o n o f
reflect
He b e l i e v e s
jealousy
between p a r t n e r s "
Seidenberg's
In h i s v i e w ,
d e p e n d e n t needs a s much a s
(p.30) and f r e q u e n t l y
foreplay
that
(p.29).
i t i s "a p r i n c i p l e i n
e x c l u s i v e l y " (p.28).
affairs
needs.
living"
the
(p.29) and i n t h e l a t t e r
(1967) view
i s "an e x p e c t e d
"a p a r t
affect
of the t i t i l l a t i o n ,
(p.31).
o f j e a l o u s y "in m a r r i a g e i s
i t a r i s e s from t h e p a t r i a c h a l monogamous s y s t e m .
claims
that
i n the m a t r i a r c h a l
jealousy
hardly
"another
by-product
extend
this
instances
(1922) b e l i e f s .
jealousy
the
absolute,
(Seidenberg,
Hoaken
that
o f male d o m i n a n c e "
In t h e s e
and
organic
e x i s t e d and c o n c l u d e s
provoked
be
normal
the emotion i s
he a g r e e s w i t h
His final
analysis
are " i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d
f o r the u n a l t e r a b l e
He does n o t
and e x t e n d s
i s that
t o man's b a s i c
and
natural
or d e l u s i o n a l
fidelity
wish f o r
infallible"
1967, p.51').
(1976) d e s c r i b e s
jealousy
as a symptom o f
or f u n c t i o n a l p s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r
as
system
(p.38).
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to obsessive
jealousies.
Freud's
polyandrous
He
or unprovoked.
Provoked
and c l a s s i f i e s i t
jealousy,
or e x c e s s i v e
and n e u r o t i c , whereas
jealousy
i s irrational
and a l w a y s e x c e s s i v e .
provoked
jealousy
he
he c l a i m s
unprovoked
Normal,
says:
may be c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a r e a c t i o n t o a
person's f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e to preserve a s i g n i f i c a n t
may
55
e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . [ I t ] runs a n a t u r a l c o u r s e
[and] i s e x p e r i e n c e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a blow t o t h e s e l f e s t e e m , r a i s i n g d o u b t s t h a t may have had t h e i r o r i g i n
i n e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s (Hoaken, 1976,
p.47).
Excessive
or n e u r o t i c j e a l o u s y d i f f e r s
only
according
t o him
b e c a u s e of
or
prolonged
revealing
morbid
an
and
"most c a s e s
p r o v o c a t i o n " (p.48),
of u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m s .
and
may
be
one
among t h e
latter
firmly
jealousy
the
patients
or a f i x e d
stresses
the
process
of
f o r the p a t i e n t
he
fixed
d e l u s i o n s he
f a v o r s the
personality
s h o u l d be
assessed
trait
e x c e s s i v e use
person
of a l c o h o l .
should allow a l i m i t e d
h e l p the person
and
determining
If
morbid
suggests
and
use
and
the
for
of
with a jealous
f o r and
The
helped
therapist
to
in a l l
a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c h a r g e of
recognize that
i s exaggerated,
trait,
distinguish
of o v e r t o r c o v e r t d e p r e s s i v e i l l n e s s
with
affection
To
importance
The
anger,
jealousy i s
a personality
delusion.
therapy.
cases
repeated
are, nevertheless,
Unprovoked
electroconvulsive
control
degree
i s a new
possibility
he
but
of t h r e e k i n d s
obsessive suspicion
how
occur
in
promote
h i s / h e r need f o r
emotional
independence.
Seeman
(1979) p r e s e n t s and
analyzes
five
cases
of
pathological
j e a l o u s y i n women, n o t i n g t h e
special
significance
of t i m e
p a t i e n t s at
time
of o n s e t
were " f e e l i n g
subordinate....[and]
diminish
of o n s e t .
[their]
life
A l l of h e r
unusually insecure
circumstances
self-esteems"
(Seeman,
had
the
and
conspired to
1979,
p.352).
The
56
author
notes
recent
precipitating
l o s s of a parent
f a c t o r and g e n e r a l l y ,
t i m e when t h e need t o be l o v e d
She
provocation
she
found
directed
that
by t h e p a r t n e r
little
by t h e s u b j e c t
often
of
and
interactions.
the r i v a l
of the j e a l o u s
evidence
at a
subject.
Although
i n h e r sample o f envy
at the object
she e v e n t u a l l y
claims
i n t h e game o f s i b l i n g - r i v a l r y "
She o b s e r v e d
often
and a l l f i v e
occurs
o u t w e i g h s t h e need t o l o v e .
took
that
quite
apparent i n
the sexual
t h e form o f
had " d e c r i b e d
jealousy"
onset
b o t h envy and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s
her female p a t i e n t s
with
that
p r e s e n c e and y e t d e n i a l o f
t h e y a r e "engaged
(p.354) w i t h
their
initial
as a p o s s i b l e
fantasies
identification
homoerotic
of the
dreams
[problematic]
(p.355).
Seeman
(1979) o b s e r v e s
jealousy
frequently
explains
i n an e v o l u t i o n a r y
that
experience
p a t i e n t s with
increased
problematic
libido.
She
sense a s :
a r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h r e a t o f s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e mates and
[ i t ] c a n be seen a s n a t u r e ' s a t t e m p t t o p r e v e n t t h e
s e p a r a t i o n and e n s u r e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e s p e c i e s .
One
p a r t n e r t h r e a t e n s l o s s o f i n t e r e s t ; j e a l o u s y and
heightened l i b i d o r e s u l t , l e a d i n g to stronger bonding
of t h e m a r i t a l p a i r (Seeman, 1979, p . 3 5 8 ) .
She
of
a l s o observed
ruminations,
partners
in
rage,
a cycle
In h e r view both p a r t n e r s
f o r i t s secondary
order
(female) s u b j e c t s
male
a c y c l e o f s u r r e p t i t i o u s n e s s , f u r t i v e n e s s and
untruthfulness.
alive
i n her jealous
to prevent
gains
or r e s o l v e
and need h e l p
keep t h e j e a l o u s y
to gain
"one p a r t n e r ' s
insight
withdrawal
57
from
reality,
unresolvable
Seeman
psychiatry
the
other
hurts"
partner's
(Seeman,
(1979) i s t h e
the
jealousy
temporal
and
involves
both p a r t n e r s .
and
stresses
first
life
representative
the
She
reality
s i t u a t i o n and
past
and
concentrate
1979,
p.360).
from b o t h
does not
latter
She
intuitions
their
b e l i e v e s are
secondary
the
separated
sexual
discussed.
psychiatry
and
of
past
retaliatory
gains
date.
Cobb and
Marks
be
the
She
with
present.
hunches"
actions"
not
To
partner
(Seeman,
role
of
jealousy.
and
of any
(1979) c l a i m t h a t
i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from
their
She
which
is
games
children
i s the
The
Fantasy
parenting
are
most
suggested
"morbid
"candor
(p.360).
supportive.
r e l a t i o n s h i p s with
humanitarian
to
occasionally
secondary
t h r o u g h open d i s c u s s i o n
'turn-on'
their
and
self-
stresses that
O v e r a l l , Seeman's t r e a t m e n t
comprehensive
restore
contracts
on
from a c t i o n , s i b l i n g - r i v a l r y
e x p o s e d and
treatment
encourages each
a c t i o n s and
include confessions
neutralizes
e n c o u r a g e s t r u t h f u l n e s s and f r a n k n e s s
regarding
she
includes
other's
she
with
relationship.
the
e l a b o r a t i o n of d e l u s i o n s
" v a l i d a t e the
to
of
prevent
interactional
reduce
i n t o the
forget
are
the
Her
distortions,
candor
and
from
in combination
intervenes
both to
to
social
events p e r s p e c t i v e .
re-introduce
the
p.359).
triangle
esteem, a r r e s t p e r c e p t u a l
gains
1979,
t o examine c l o s e l y
e l e m e n t s of
bondage, and r e c i p r o c a l
by
jealousy
can
obsessive-compulsive
58
neurosis"
jealous
(p.301).
p e r s o n s on
"combines o p e r a n t
can
be
are
taught
to
partner
(object)
questions
The
and
over h i s / h e r
the
object
in deciding
Given
the
not
rather
n e u t r a l i z i n g secondary
basis
of
target
criterion
for
more p o i n t s
points
for
one,
but
in this
scores
an
at
8-point
improved,
t h e y do
and
got
worse.
duration
f r o m two
to
questioned.
The
i s made j u d g e
the
q u a l i t y of
their
and
f o r two
power
and
the
Seeman
promoting
outcomes on
Their
was
of
reduction
for
d i d the
Cobb and
2 to
or
3.9
rating.
improved
fourth
for
patient
Marks v a r i e d
Finally,
not
p a t i e n t s and
months.
the
ruminations.
t a b l e , the
F o l l o w - u p by
fifteen
be
2 points
i n d i c a t e who
their
may
by
f o r much i m p r o v e d ,
l e s s than
not
i n d i c a t e d by
actually
jealous
gains.
follow-up
scale
were much i m p r o v e d
as
instance
for r i t u a l s
The
uncommon p a r e n t a l i z a t i o n
(1979) e v a l u a t e
improvement
on
i m p r o v e d , but
Rituals
Marks
and
latter.
ignore
couple dynamics d e s c r i b e d
therapist
Cobb and
the
and
Patients
(1979), the
than
to
a p p r o a c h must be
partner
sibling-rivalry
(p.303).
to d i s r e g a r d
questions.
couple
questions.
treatment
between n o r m a l
normal
the
Their
four
response prevention
i s taught
this
treated
basis.
jealousy
reward
e t h i c s of
they
reinforcement"
(p.303) and
between the
other's
and
out-patient
c o n d i t i o n i n g with
of
example has
jury
study
"distinguish clearly
thoughts"
lines
an
termed d i f f e r e n t i a l
jealous
last
In a p i l o t
one
of
in
their
59
patients
was
duration
of
"attempts
on an a n t i - d e p r e s s a n t
treatment
and f o l l o w - u p .
to withdraw
the drug
in anxiety
and d e t e r i o r a t i o n
in
rituals"
jealous
patient's
indicate
increase
that
rituals
evidence
The
case
or
for
by T u r b o t t
the
of
only
married couple
delusional
The w i f e
prevent
jealousy
reciprocity
"morbid
of
(p.166).
makes
clear
the
being
alert
to
say
change
that
still
the
mood
significant
substantive
psychotherapy.
reports
the
instance
subsided
the p o s s i b i l i t y
of
assessing
of
treatment.
When h i s
paranoid
"clear
that
interaction
examples
both p a r t n e r s
actively
provoked
to
jealousy
and c a u t i o n s
own and o t h e r
of
partner
Turbott concludes
(p.166)
with
with
from t h e u n i q u e
i m p o r t a n c e of
terms
and made a t t e m p t s
treatment.
his
in
on t h e
presented
is
the
developed a f l o r i d
remitted.
Using
neglect
and not
refused treatment
further
apparent
earlier
which r a p i d l y
may r e s u l t
two p e o p l e "
t o any
w i t h no
makes
subject
psychopathology"
jealousy
behaviour.
It
Turbott
r e t u r n e d her p s y c h o s i s
to
increase
from t h e p s y c h i a t r i c " l i t e r a t u r e
jealous
her husband's
not
were
behavioral
interim "rapidly
(p.167),
it
left
i n w h i c h t h e husband
in the
psychosis"
We a r e
(1981).
relationship.
that
and d e t e r i o r a t i o n of
the d i s c i p l i n e ' s
on t h e
the
immediate
but
problems
significance
or
underlying
example
l e d t o an
Suffice
in a n x i e t y
for
They r e p o r t
i n mood,
(p.303).
no r i t u a l s .
final
study
focusing
his
medication
of
he
and
jealous
60
This
r e v i e w and
development
by
the
theory
of
jealousy
d i s c i p l i n e of
largely
interpretation
in
intensive
therapy
psychiatry.
and
effort
the
the
look c l o s e l y at
f o c u s of
f o c u s of
theory
"pathological".
a professional
primarily
as
though the
No
that
the
the
involve
of
jealousy
relationship
is gradually
exclusively
or
"personality"
report
more d y n a m i c ,
with
seems t o
t r a d i t i o n to view
trait
partners
experiences.
t h i s tendency
lay-person
both
The
e f f o r t i s made t o
remains almost
construct
on
p r o c e s s and
treatment
a personality
documented
Freudian
exclusively
1979.
Generally,
and
as
i s apparent
(Seeman's) t o
in
historical
unconscious processes.
client's interpretations
Although
It
almost
the
treatment
t r a d i t i o n of
underlying
the
focusing
of
outlined
t h e o r y and
follows
psychoanalysis,
first
c r i t i q u e has
the
result
in
jealousy
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c even
has
itself
not
been
validated.
Nevertheless,
subjective
to
the
b e c a u s e any
i n s i g h t s and
body of
discipline
interpretations
knowledge,
continues
to
be
the
useful
i t seems, would be
very
trend
treatment
for
to de-empathsize
processes;
and
the
introduce
are
well
advised
inclusions
unconscious
more o b j e c t i v e
and
by
this
to continue
its
interactionally-based
heed L a n g f e l d t ' s
r o l e of
valid
applicable.
t o w a r d more d y n a m i c ,
jealousy;
therapist's
l i t e r a t u r e contributed
Psychiatry,
recent
individual
(1962) i n c l i n a t i o n
psychodynamic
valid
empirical
61
research,
and
especially
introduce
accounts
by
The
from t h e
and
discipline
ends w i t h
Pines
the
of
rest
of A d l e r
tradition.
theoretical
and
cultural,
The
Jung who
recent
I t begins
research
on
with
by
focus
research
published
prior
b a s e d and
subjects
on
a speciality
adhering
partly
and
be
treatment
traced
a departure
to the
are
of
t o the
from
era
Freudian
e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n theand. a wide v a r i e t y of
Gradually
this
i n c r e a s i n g the
individual
jealousy
itself
a n a l y s i s of
affects
focus
i n t e r p e r s o n a l d y n a m i c s and
on
within
separates
to the
diagnosis
can
this
i n t e r v e n t i o n s by
i t s application within
most p a r t
initiated
perspectives.
a chronological
and
several s p e c i a l i t i e s
the
perspectives
Psychology
As
the
separation
f a m i l y and
decreasing
and
In p s y c h o l o g y
emergence of
theory
theory
of p s y c h o l o g y ,
This
and
from
f o r the
unconscious processes
pathology.
critiques
most
of p s y c h i a t r y . "
medicine, p s y c h i a t r y ,
from t h e
chemotherapy;
of p s y c h o l o g y .
section presents
jealousy
discipline
of
(1983).
previous
development
and
the
Perspectives
The
use
clients.
section presents
(1928) and
Aronson
their
r e p o r t i n g of more s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n t i a l
their
next
jealousy
Adler
the
regarding
jealousy
on
socio-
by
pathology.
contributed
mid-seventies
r e f e r r e d t o as
by
psychology
is primarily
" j e a l o u s " or
trait"non-
and
62
jealous"
persons.
were a t l e a s t
thirties.
This
i s in spite
i m p l i e d by A d l e r
and Jung
The 1976 a p p e a r a n c e o f
interactional
integration
model
of a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t
for jealousy
i n the twenties
and
Constantine's
allows
for a preliminary
o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l and s t a t e - o r i e n t e d
perspect ives.
To
practice
within
the d i s c i p l i n e
r e v i e w s and c r i t i q u e s
with
Constantine's
synergism
research
t h e most
the e x c e p t i o n
recent
that
on j e a l o u s y
later
Adler
It i s a
instruments,
(1977) r e s e a r c h on
by A r o n s o n and P i n e s
recent
(1983) a r e
from t h e s e q u e n c e and d i s c u s s e d
of t h e s e c t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e
section
with
research.
jealousy
(1976) m o d e l , B a r t e l l ' s
t h e o r y and
this
beginning
i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e most
extracted
end
of p s y c h o l o g y
the l i t e r a t u r e
(1928) and e n d i n g w i t h
chronology
of j e a l o u s y
together
near the
i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h i s and
chapters.
Adler
(1928) t r a c e s
months o f l i f e
individual
jealousy's
when, a c c o r d i n g
i s developing
origin
to h i s theory,
his life
goal
being
i s a character
neglected
trait
that
inherent
In h i s view,
results
or d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t ,
few
each
t o overcome
w e a k n e s s e s and f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y .
jealousy
to the f i r s t
from
f e e l i n g s of
and i t s g o a l i s
power.
A
1982 t r a n s l a t e d work
indicates
that Adler's
"Cooperation
Between t h e S e x e s "
i n s i g h t s i n t o the dynamics of j e a l o u s
63
behaviour
in
emphasized
a Freudian
humanistic,
of
in
the
a social
and
his
jealousy
status
since
p e r s o n can
food"
(p.154).
t r i g g e r e d by
Jung
their
a self-effort
lost
the
t o an
sublimated
alcoholic
but
Jung
claims
early
i t "can
strive
that
the
now
jealousy"
real
also
stirrings
notes
sphere"
i n the
i t is reinforced
desire
rather
eroticisms.
jealousy
for their
t o get
"emotional
sexual
of p a r a n o i d ,
"unconscious compensation"
love
of
p.144).
( p . 1 1 5 ) , but
to
social
f o r power
feeling
among h i s
its original
He
consciously
form of
1982,
jealousy
(1960) r e l a t e s the
alcoholics
is
i t "has
only
that
Woman's r e a l
need t o
entirely
his
" i s possible
implies
t o l e r a t e the
(Adler,
power,
actual, socio-cultural
of p s y c h o s e x u a l i t y "
belong
v i e w s were more
( A d l e r , -1982, p. 146)]
i n women.
greater
not
t o man's " e v a l u a t i o n
[which
to the
simply
(1961) i n c l u d e s
i t "does not
than
her
inferiority"
(p.154) b e c a u s e
for
drive
f e m a l e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t he
thus a b d i c a t e s
manifestations
Adler's
of male d o m i n a n c e "
i s more p r e v a l e n t
Jung
sex
d e v e l o p m e n t , but
In h-is view of
references
to the
"no
sexual
"masculine p r o t e s t "
order
apparent
that
the
purposes.
frequent
obstacles
or
subordinating
of
of
d e t e r m i n i s t i c sense.
i t f o r h i s own
concept
issues
back on
perceives
reappear
(p.209) f o r
partners.
This
the
of
that
[from
course
his love
the
chronic
compensation
duty.
is
The
entirely
unconscious] only
(p.209).
(1954) a l s o u s e s the
case
s t u d y of
a seven
year
in
64
old
boy
to exemplify
manifestation.
d i a g n o s e d as
tests
walking
being
boy,
opposite.
squint
i n one
When the
impossible
was
affection.
(1979) f o r h e r
chapter.
adult
i n the
on
their
participate,
therapists
t o examine the
Feelings
of
purposeful
before
impotence
and
circumstances
child,
in learning
i n the
the
to
and
compete
form
things.
of
These
birth
of a
that
were
a c y c l e of
rage
and
moods of
the
emphasize
which they
others
in
things
the
clients
earlier
in
and
by
situation
the
social
and
the
Seeman
this
r a g e may
individual
groups
and
in
for
pathology.
appear
t h a n p a t h o l o g i c a l when
the
by
r o l e s of
individual
resulting
i n d i c a t e that
and
unfair expectations
t h u s p o i n t i n g t o a need
diagnosing
adaptive
remorse
cycle described
sample d i s c u s s e d
Both authors
involved
(later
expected
rage
for doing
approximates
judgements p l a c e d
was
throwing
a l t e r n a t i n g with
This
intelligence
sibling.
Jung d e s c r i b e s ,
vindictiveness
boy
five after
soon p r a i s e d
for his
eventuated
would e x p r e s s
a t age
later
l a c k of c o o r d i n a t i o n
eye
b u l l y i n g and
power
originally
impediment
speech
and
problems exacerabated
was
surgery),
who
child,
but
simple
problems.
a compensatory
retarded
tantrums,
brother
only
mentally
u n f a i r g r o u n d s he
temper
an
r a g e as
by
behavioural
on
The
showed t h e
resolved
jealous
is
more
the
experiencing
powerlessness.
In
summary, J u n g ' s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s focus
on
situational
65
factors
His
brief
role
his
and a r e c o n c e r n e d
discussions,
of unconscious
"optimistic
p.19).
goal or purpose.
t o Freud's,
de-emphasize the
relative
sexual impulses
and c r e a t i v e
Jung's r e c o g n i t i o n
view
and a r e c o n g r u e n t
o f humans"
of s o c i e t y ' s
( C o r e y , 1977,
r o l e and
e x p e c t a t i o n s acknowledge t h a t
jealous behaviour
sometimes be t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
best
Reik
(1946) c o n t e n d s
something
of
and
love"
(p.173).
on t h e b a s i s
He b e l i e v e s
of c l i n i c a l
consists
i n Reik's
i n the organism
o b s e r v a t i o n s he n o t e s
elemental
(1949) v i e w ,
and a g g r e s s i o n .
mainly
some sex
feelings,
aims
i s t o d e f e a t her r i v a l
Her
fears
attention,
However, t h e f e m a l e ' s
involve
loss
and g e t back t h e l o v e d
of emotional
and s e c u r i t y
as w e l l
e x p e r i e n c e and a c t o u t a n g e r
this
i s because
often
involvement.
one o f r e t a l i a t i o n
threatened
The woman's
object.
time,
and r a g e .
i s more
likely
According to
interprets
with another
that
implies her
sexual self-concept,
experience
o f abandonment, so
The male
t h e male a c c u r a t e l y
woman's s e x u a l i n v o l v e m e n t
emotional
involvement,
as t h r e a t
becomes p o s s e s s i v e a n d schemes.
Reik,
i s compounded o f envy,
o f envy a n d t h e m a l e ' s o f r a g e .
aim
his
rotten,
that
behaviours.
depression
to
effort.
i t i s a symptom n o t a d i s e a s e
i n terms o f predominant
Jealousy,
she
may
j e a l o u s y i s "a s i g n
i s wrong, n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
differences
and
that
with
i s more
from a
r e n d e r s him i n c a p a b l e o f
66
rational
t h i n k i n g or
women r e a c t by
t o win
scheming.
holding
them b a c k .
their
partner's
react
by
on
Men,
sexual
withdrawing,
Reik
to t h e i r
(1949) p r o p o s e s
partners
in contrast, w i l l
involvement
rejecting
with
their
or by
focus
the
fighting,
on
third
partners
that
images of
party
and
or
r e t a l i a t ing.
Central
jealousy
already
with
as
to Reik's
being
a symptom of
research
o f inferiority
results
& Lindsey,
are
t o be
1979;
jealousy
and
Wylie
that
of
be
jealousy
low
(Buunk,
1978;
regard.
Corzine
(1974) c i t e s
overview
of
but'
1982;
Jaremko
White,
1976,
methodological
individual
may
or may
not
rather
than
are
p.31).
spurious
The
effectively
or
individual
ineffectively
and/or o t h e r s .
Secondly,
he
associated
labelled
high
with
with
to a r r i v e
Coopersmith
problems
self-concept.
scientific
is associated
both
self-esteem.
and
difficult
The
review
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of
self-esteem
"the
and
of
This
self-esteem,
later
i n v o l v e the
(1961) i n an
expressions
1974,
self-esteem.
& Mosher,
inconsistent in this
Accordingly,
study
or a
reviewed
Teisman
problems encountered
and
low
i n d i c a t e s some c o n s e n s u s t h a t
feelings
1981)
be
low
and
low
He
he
aware t h a t
genuine"
(Corzine,
i t from
self-esteem
norms f o r
that
the
his
some
thus
himself
that personal
notes
to
observes
s e l f - r e g a r d may
a t commonly a c c e p t e d
evaluation"'(p.32).
inherent
Firstly,
concealing
observes
(1967)
values
"make i t
67
investigators
narcissism
assume a r r o g a n c e ,
are a s s o c i a t e d
inferiority,
timidity,
and
However,
in t h i s
lack
consider
than
that
should
of
personal
are a s s o c i a t e d
view,
Therefore,
of
it
involve,
it
is
with
have not
also very
low
minimally,
a time
approaches,
this
such as
approach.
author, i s
in
motivations
assuming
field"
that
behaviours,
Thus,
1974,
human b e h a v i o u r s ,
will
we a r e aware
(Corzine,
of.
p.35),
Wylie
(1974)
The
of
first
interventions
clear
jealousy's
author
is
Ard
in
Emphasizing
that
on u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s
detail
by
his/her
extradyadic,
limits
of
opposite-sex
who s t r e s s e s
with
to
outside
the
seemingly
these
that
views.
self-esteem.
suggest
the
acceptable behaviour
specific
importance
behaviours
he recommends t h a t
persons.
saying
i n a more p r e c i s e
affiliation
jealous
terms
agreement
communication to a v o i d d e s t r u c t i v e r e a c t i o n s
jealousy.
In
by s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s
the d i s c i p l i n e
(1967)
rather
jealousy
re-emphasizes
a c o m b i n e d a p p r o a c h may r e s u l t
understanding
thus
including
be i n f l u e n c e d o n l y
to
jealousy
they n e g l e c t
phenomenal
validated
and
criticisms
and u n c o n s c i o u s
self-
important
w i t h C o r z i n e who u n d e r s c o r e s W y l i e ' s
"drives
while
and c h a n g i n g
series
and
self-
been
e m p i r i c a l measurement
with other c o n s t r u c t s
phenomenological
pride
acceptance,
s e l f - e s t e e m may be dynamic
static.
comparison
of
these assumptions
author's
egotism,
h a t r e d and s u b m i s s i v e n e s s
esteem.
vanity,
of
to
are dependent
each p a r t n e r
with
T h i s exchange
should
be
68
r e v i e w e d as t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
committment
successful
and e x p l i c i t
relationship
Beecher
communication
in t h i s
and B e e c h e r
progresses.
jealous
competition.
between
jealousy
general
references to A d l e r ' s
philosophies,
about
ambition
practice"
exist,
(James
glossary
use
t h e word j e a l o u s y
of
Jealousy
indicates
symptomatic,
in h i s t o r y
person
has spoken
who t r i e s
himself"
Testament
Is
pathological
(p.5).
"I
the C h r i s t i a n
he/she
stating
perceived
of
am a j e a l o u s
God making
an i n t e n t i o n
rights
A r e v i e w of
may w e l l
their
jealousy,
their
and p r i v i l e g e s
jealousy
and every
Elliot's
connotes
envy.
p e j o r a t i v e way
it
is
always
except perhaps
discussion
to hide
neglects
G o d " (Exodus
it
the
from
the Old
20:5, R.S.V.).
s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s or
to zealously
is
be an a r c h a i c
view
in order
negative
The book
be d i s o r d e r
or d e s t r u c t i v e .
to excuse h i m s e l f
However,
claim
In
oh
" f o r where
i n an e x c l u s i v e l y
well
frequent
specifics
passages.
w h i c h more l i t e r a l l y
(1971).
and
and w r i t t e n
there w i l l
this
wrote
distinguish
t h e y make
citation,
that
is discussed
by B e e c h e r and B e e c h e r
jealousy
r e l y predominantly
3:16, R . S . V . ) .
(1967)
of
t o any of h i s
of B i b l i c a l
p r e f a c e d w i t h a New T e s t a m e n t
vile
spoken
of A d l e r ' s ,
t h e y do n o t
and a l t h o u g h
Instead,, they
interpretations
and s e l f i s h
the i s s u e s
t h e y do not r e f e r
jealousy.
personal
and e n v y ,
of a
view.
students
Unfortunately,
clear
author's
(1971),
addressing
Trust,
protect
is
his
which a r e the f o u n d a t i o n s
of
69
Christian
The
philosophy
Beechers,
tendency
and
i n s p i t e of
to confuse
frequently
practice?
jealousy
their
with
Unfortunately,
associate
behaviours with
and
jealous
This
neglects
jealousy
useful
The
interpersonal
perspective
dynamics,
that
the
and
analogies
seeking
of
always
of a
emotions
a u t h o r s do
an
power.
individual,
defensive
or
pathological.
beyond
for
Jealousy,
not
superior
in
general
consider
any
Their
rather
typically
the
which
seek and
necessarily
may
'superior'
be
protective,
and
therapeutic
i n d i v i d u a l how
his
have a
suggestions
jealous
and
initiative
and
as
a p r o b l e m of
keep
dependent.
that
the
may
than d e s t r u c t i v e
his creativity
jealousy
some a s p e c t
i t "leaves
characterizes
not
t e x t makes few
(1972) d i s c u s s e s
love claiming
neglect
f a c t o r s , and
in these circumstances,
comparisons destroy
May
They
in circumstances
'more' but
adaptive
and
power.
vulnerable,
i n t e r p r e t i n g f o r the
infantile
or
situational
r e n d e r him/her v e r y
f u n d a m e n t a l need
him
power
their
complexity
in p a r t i c u l a r .
and
p u r p o s e or p o t e n t i a l l y p o s i t i v e i n t e n t i o n or
motivation
indeed
the
views
envy, a d d r e s s i t s
mentioned a s s o c i a t i o n with
competitiveness.
power.
restricted
the
of
i t i s healthy
realms of
normal
r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h one
than
love"
(p.117).
that
a r i s e s in d i r e c t
He
also
says that
proportion
to
the
power
but
and
more
caring....[and]
s e e k s more power
" i t i s an
impotence
impotence
of
the
70
individual"
(p.117).
He
associates
e s t e e m , p o w e r l e s s n e s s and
privileges
occurs
has
i n the
that
freedom.
when the
nothing,
out
and
person
no
cold.
by
negatives.
jealousy
May
falls
(p.19) and
"power
and
whipped
only
violence.
into action"
ineffective.
is
names f i v e
a potentiality
when t h e
purely
power
other
He
as
being
i s more
do
left
implies
than
perspective
of
on
power
positives
and
r e l a t i o n s h i p between
holism.
A clear
power w i l l
facilitate
developing
we
and
other
these
" i n the
right
Aggression
i s always
i t strength"
how
One
of
power
self-assertion,
exist
situation
and
pole
is
levels
have been b l o c k e d
"power
call
the
human.
self-affirmation,
E a c h of
levels
i n t e r m s of
ontological levels
(p.42).
says
personal
polarities
demanding, w h i l e
power t o be,
humans a s
of
i n f a n t and
including
and
a c t u a l l y can
i s essential for a l l l i v i n g
discusses
He
the
violence
therefore
a continuum
short
cooperative.
aggression
J u n g , he
rights,
jealousy.
(1972) s a y s
competitive
for
himself
a holistic
transcending
power emerges i n t h e
is
and
of May's t h e s i s a b o u t
t h e s i s about
jealousy
low-self
determined.
power
understanding
things"
Like Adler
However, h i s p r o p o s e d
and
struggles
experiences
(1972) a c c o m p l i s h e s
i n c l u d i n g and
new
experiencing
r e l a t i o n s h i p with
intrapsychically
with
From h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,
power and
jealousy's
May
resulting
jealousy
violence
or
in a l l
can
be
occur
are
interpersonal; i f i t
(p.35).
He
71
e m p h a s i z e s a modern day
against
(May,
the
that
d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s of
1972,
t h a n as
tendency,
p.20),
t o v i e w power
a significant,
the
i s "a
reaction
m i s u s e of. power"
i n a p e j o r a t i v e way
fundamental aspect
of
the
rather
life
process.
May
prevent
(1972) d e f i n e s
change"
(p.99),
power as
"the
pointing
out
ability
that
i t can
in
a c t u a l or p o t e n t i a l t e r m s .
He
e x p l o i t a t i v e , manipulative,
competitive,
integrative.
Nutrient
the
power, he
exemplifies
in
Only
caring
says
i t along
through
person"
thesis,
its
attraction
He
idea
in
of
order
to
stimulate
and
by
three
plane.
In
and
a polar
holistic
using
i n t e g r a t i v e power
nonviolence
solicits
i n t o a new
s y n e r g i s t i c because
this
conceptual
way
May
points
the
body"
he
exerts
Integrative
i s "with
process
i s one
(May,
when t h e
of
p.110).
of i t
creator
May's c o n c e p t
then
or
1972,
interpersonal
i t transcends
the
body,
repulsion
i n G h a n d i ' s use
i n an
creativity.
and
(p.109) and
type,
there
in instances
response
power
power a p a r e n t
i s "a d i a l e c t i c
synthesis...
two
t y p e s of
i t s best.
g r o w t h p r o c e e d s by
these
exemplifies
through
It
viewed
power p o t e n t i a l l y
most a l t r u i s t i c
a n t i t h e s i s and
and
to the
or
explanation.
other"
from t h a t
be
nutrient
need some
i s " f o r the
child
(p.109).
antibody,
names f i v e
statesmanship at
power, u l t i m a t e l y the
other
two
a range
for his/her
expressed
last
to cause
an
exchange
of
the
of
power i s
continuum
thus
intersecting a
new
supports t h i s
a u t h o r ' s model
for
72
e m o t i o n s as
proposed
With these
power can
There
be
applied
agreement
pejorative,
trend
trend
manipulative
It
be
need
power
then
" t o be"
his
t o the
any
theories
five
powers
and
of
of
In
jealousy
power.
i t with
congruence
and
of
Izard
(and
and
i t s purpose
achieves"
i s the
(as
something
that
and
the
or h i g h l y
and
the
by
and/or
expressed
in/of
exercise
of
types.
of
and/or
same p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
in
from
the
self-affirmation, selfAs
l e v e l s can
May
most o t h e r
(1972) s a y s
also
experiences
Solomon
types
integrative
an
can
constructive.
ontological levels,
be
of
emotions
of
"whipped
jealousy.
i f we
consider
reviewed e a r l i e r )
i s to c r e a t e
c e n t r a l question
is truly
with
p o s i t i v e l a b e l s ' , w'e
violence.
these
the
jealousy.
internally
(p.42) i n v a r i o u s
power, j e a l o u s y
be
power.
constituted
m o t i v a t e s and
may
that
to a s s o c i a t e
destructive
nutrient
aggression
into action"
the
power t o
occurring
be
t o e a c h of
power, p o s s i b l y
Like
jealousy.
i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h e a c h of May's f i v e
can
assertion,
of
of
literature
toward
side
f o r power e x i s t i n g w i t h
relation
concept
about
his e x p l o i t a t i v e , competitive
highly
i n c l u d i n g the
Jealousy
(1972) t h e s i s
l e a s t some a s p e c t
both p e j o r a t i v e
v i e w e d as
externally
power,
as
the
i n the
been
t y p e s of
jealousy
can
has
applies
Considering
see
at
destructive
May
one.
i n mind May's
t o expand
involves
However, t h e
this
ideas
i s general
elementally
in chapter
change.
asked
creative
by
i n the
"What i t
May
of
power)
positive
73
sense, or something
that
that
i s very
destructive,
l i e s between o r a t a t h i r d
point
or something
"beyond"
these
polarities.
Ellis
(1972) c a l l s
jealousy
(p.118) a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e s
jealousy.
Rational
between
jealousy
observations"
contrast,
reaction
with
(p.119).
t o someone b l o c k i n g
i t an i l l o g i c a l
absolutistic
...
religionists
devoutly
Ellis'
can
test
check
scientifically
expected
with
in applying
t h e major
theories
logic;
the
emotion having
implies
secondly,
that
little
signal
f o r things
denies
jealousy, in
forms o f e m o t i o n a l
like
idiosyncratic
i s "dogmatic,
those
i n which
of r a t i o n a l i t y
evidence.
theory
of emotion.
h i s theory
not only
connection
(1974), c i t e d
of
individual,
rather
with
Some d i f f i c u l t y
which
i s to
lacks a f f i l i a t i o n
Firstly,
excludes
"the"
logic i s
the p o s s i b i l i t y of
has no i n d e p e n d e n t
o r no p u r p o s e beyond
gone wrong
orthodox
the
feelings i s a
logical
this
that
along
(p.121).
jealous
the p o s s i b i l i t y
Corzine
logico-
any p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t ;
emotion
serves
Irrational
system
f o r the l e v e l
observable
on t h e
i t " i s an
believe"
for their
and i r r a t i o n a l
y o u " (p.120) a n d s e e s
and e x a c t l y
his
it
belief
a t t r i b u t e to his/her
simplistic
be
(p.118).
He s a y s
tearfulness"
rational
" i s based
empirical
disturbance"
"sex-love
serving
thirdly,
s t a t u s , but
as a warning
i n the c o g n i t i v e
bank;
finally,
intuition.
above
he
i n reference
to h i s
74
critique
of
of self-esteem
t e s t s the a s s o c i a t i o n
integrative/dis-integrative personality
jealousy.
an
methodologies,
He c l a i m s
and p r o v i d e s
support
i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e schema
"Butler-Haigh
instrument,
Q-Sort"
designed
instrument
that
he u s e s .
specific
(Corzine,
time"
t o measure
b a s e d on s u b j e c t s '
characterize
into the
This
attention
1974, p . 7 6 ) ,
in a pre-therapy/post-therapy
u s e s an a d a p t e d v e r s i o n
concept
that
by C a r l R o g e r s and a s s o c i a t e s " t o
by t h e r a p e u t i c
administered
to indicate
i s structured
measure c h a n g e s e f f e c t e d
periodof
p r o c e s s e s and.
"jealous"
over a
i s usually
fashion.
"the notion
of
Corzine
self-
s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n s " (p.76) t o
associates
high
self-esteem
individual
with
integrative personality
He
and t h e s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g
p r o c e s s e s and low
self-esteem
o r t h e non s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l w i t h
integrative
personality
"movement away
conflict"
F-test
and
tests
theories
proposition,
jealousy.
was t h e o r y - t e s t i n g
procedures.
derivative
possible
1974, p . 1 7 6 ) ,
rather
than a d i v i d i n g or
of the psyche.
Corzine
and
D i s - i n t e g r a t i v e means a
i n t e g r i t y and i n the d i r e c t i o n of
(Corzine,
destruction
be
from
processes.
dis-
This
by way o f o f Q-methodology
methodology
"by way of s i n g u l a r
of a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y "
uses
propositions
(p.76).
i n essence, views p e r c e p t i o n
personality
dimension
He a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t
small
in a larger
samples
that
may
His singular
of s e l f
as a
theory of
this proposition
reflects
75
only
is
on
the
also
internal
important
derived
t o remember
An
a l s o excludes
p e r s o n s were
self-report
significant
problem
relationships.
assume t h a t
The
rather
Corzine's
jealousy
current
than
conceive
of
conclusions
may
as
his
by
esteems and
to
the
t h a n as
and
suggest
and
jealousy
attitudes
t o be
i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y as
and
thus
Hence,
that
had
"process"
a t t r i b u t e s the
as
i t i s relevant
to
f o r some of
he
Corzine's
t e s t e d the
points
Accordingly,
original
and
territoriality
as
partners
( j e a l o u s agents)
Rogers
of
self(1972),
of
dynamics
Rogers'
a possible biological
i n t e r p e r s o n a l and
he
the
context
group-influenced
Even
in time,
their
design
i n the
as
similarly
i n t e r m s of
j e a l o u s y moreso
socio-cultural
dynamically
well
involved others
jealousy
suggests
of
not
procedures
" s u b j e c t s " at v a r i o u s
questioned
of
"non-
was
their
jealousy
a personality characteristic.
suggestion
of
assumes
self-actualization.
relationship,
or
others.
basis
t h a t a l l p a r t i e s were, o v e r a l l ,
t o whom C o r z i n e
instrument,
and
38
the
e i t h e r was
are
jealousy
involved
on
i n t e r m s of
experienced.
jealous
have f o u n d
affected
solely
alternate explanations
and
of
conclusions
sampling
research
(jealous objects)
well
Corzine's
view, i t
is dispositional.
statically,
intrapersonally
38
jealousy
f o r them
author's
r o l e ( s ) of
identified
that
this
assessment
the
homogenous sample of
jealous"
In
that
from a u n i d i m e n s i o n a l
dynamics t h a t
their
experience.
possibly
group
aspect
76
involvement.
t e r m s of
Also,
own
containing
36
p e r s o n " ) and
of
61
are
each
hopelessness").
three
vote
by
an
results
used a
cards
the
differences
concludes
that
me"
to
first
r e q u i r e d by
of what
this
on
example, an
a n a l y s i s of power
subject,
loss,
of
because he/she
i s temporarily
responsible
recording
On
like
the
sheet
would
of
reflecting
me".
the
a
Subgroupings
hypotheses.
showed
conclusion
i n the
that
that
significant
adults.
group] i n
i n terms
of
wants f o r
process
that
subject.
triangle
is experiencing
Corzine
and
[the non-jealous
jealous
two
completion
both c o n s c i o u s
the
been
three
Viewed d i f f e r e n t l y ,
i t i s about
part
cards
"I have a-
of
non-jealous
them
more c o p i n g
the
the
panel
hypothesis
strategems,
(p.151).
97
b a s i s of a
null
group dynamics,
consideration
the
piles.
"least
j e a l o u s and
"fewer
are
to cope"
triangular
the
between
unconscious,
order
to
from each c a t e g o r y
nine
of h i s sample were s t r u c t u r e d
of
i n a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n
"most l i k e
Testing
"I am
(e.g.,
on
independent
number of
t o e a c h of
this
from
inherent
in
B e f o r e h a n d , a l l i t e m s had
Each subject
the
allotted
earlier,
i n t o -9 p i l e s ,
(e.g.,
to e i t h e r category
psychologists.
structured
sorted,
d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e items
out
range
a construct
i n t e g r a t i v e items
to belong
sorting
as
subjects
judged
be
discussed
design.
Corzine's
of
limitations
self-esteem
Corzine's
feeling
the
requires
For
suggests
the
threat
i n a lower p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e
to
that
of
both
77
object
and a g e n t .
additional
change
coping
Hence, he/she w i l l
indeed
i s t o o c c u r and i f dynamic
require
t h e others., i f
equilibrium
i s t o be r e -
established.
Several
null
other
s u b g r o u p i n g s by sex and a t o t a l
h y p o t h e s e s about
were u s e d
by C o r z i n e
i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e processes
(1974) t o c h a r a c t e r i z e
characterizations,
culturally
oriented
differences
jealous
males
jealous
females
interpretation
not
integrative
his
processes
property,
indicating
is
likewise
western
jealous
given
these
use o f s o c i o -
than' t r a i t -
males
differences
females
i n the f i r s t
between
(NJF).
instance,
that
His
NJM do
t h a n JM i n terms o f i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s -
because
(Corzine,
"viewing
the l o v e - o b j e c t
h i s perception
1974, p . 1 5 3 ) .
as
of the j e a l o u s
H i s evidence
society's
traditional
between
he e x t e r n a l i z e s
circumstance"
rather
( J F ) and n o n - j e a l o u s
measure d i f f e r e n t l y
At i s s u e ,
"jealous
F o r example, he f i n d s no
(NJM) b u t s i g n i f i c a n t
includes,
the
is his conflicting
b a s e d and s t a t e - o r i e n t e d
interpretations.
significant
of s i x
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l l y and g r o u n d e d i n
sanctioning
role expectations
o f woman's v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s v i a
so t h a t :
J e a l o u s y i s r e a d i l y p e r c e i v e d by t h e f e m a l e a s an
i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m . . . [ a n d ] s h e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e male,
senses that her p e r s o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s a r e f i n a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s which p r e c i p i t a t e her
j e a l o u s f e e l i n g s " ( C o r z i n e , 1974, p . 1 5 6 ) .
78
Corzine
incorporates
interactionally-based
adequately
supported
"non-jealous
individual
affects
by
comparing
followed
experiences
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s then
grounding
i n the
processes.
exclude
subjects
the
and
as
and
agent
w e l l as
has
on
the
b a s i s of a
jealousy
1976
before
following
For
is
roles
an
at
The
the
intial
i n t r o d u c t i o n of
is discussed
h i s model a r e
evidenced
both
the
tendency
Corzine
was
to
label
which
life
process.
researching
Constantine's
toward
expanded p e r s p e c t i v e s
example, a new
of
the
which
on
the
end
of
jealousy
i n s e v e r a l of
the
studies.
suggested
text
the
model w h i c h
section.
by
comparisons
o n l y .temporary meaning t o t h e i r
interactional
group
s i n g l e emotion
that
by
requires
i n c o r p o r a t i o n of
a r e l i n q u i s h i n g of
remembered
provided
i t likewise
require
process
is indicated
i n t e r p e r s o n a l and
However, i t must be
this
societal
much as
with
a n a l y s i s of
s u b j e c t i v e - e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s by
individual
probably
a n a l y s i s of
I f the
more
triangles"
inter-group
Alternatively, individual
object
objective
by
as
Corzine's
would be
"jealous
reciprocal roles.
individual
and
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that
triangles"
and
socio-cultural
by
approach
Clanton
and
" s u b j e c t " of
involved others.
stock-taking
contribution
f o r working with
Smith
(1977) who
jealousy,
Their
kind
of
direct
type
of
work t o be
their
discounting
interventions
to determine
o f mood and
without
jealousy
the
incorporate
jealousy,
done on
the
79
relationship.
improvement
suggest
first
an
and
jealousy
opening
experiences,
i s s u e s of
then
distrust,
the
recognize
jealousy
" f e a r of
communication
as
which
meanings, b e l i e f s
experience
several
loss"
authors
talking
a trigger
and
jealousy
jealousy
provide
simultaneously
jealousy-evoking
while
the
other
second-guessing his/her
responses.
of
emotion,
and
of"needs,
of
analyzes
the
for a
Her
jealousythem
emotion,
(negative)
i n terms
disclosing
enhancement
before
subjects
Both p a r t n e r s
in a Likert
The
rating
of
interviewer
know
are
potentially
questions
one
o b s e r v e s t h r o u g h a one-way g l a s s ,
partner's
Four q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
written,
are
anonymous
administered
after
the
interview.
Francis
variations
(1977) shows e v i d e n c e
in jealousy
of
i n v e n t i v e methodology
interview
situations.
flash",
(p.213).
investigated.
involved
important
for constructive
She
expression
a structured
the
to c l a r i f i c a t i o n
values"
response.
i s being
of
and
manipulation
d i s c u s s i o n of
component
self-
fantasies
and
(1977) e x a m i n e s a s p e c t s
b a r r i e r s that
incorporates
partner
sharing
deception
related-couple-communication.
the
The
c h a n n e l s by
to candid
"leads
and
Then F r a n c i s
of
for
They a c k n o w l e d g e a p h y s i o l o g i c a l " j e a l o u s
emphasize
the
a catalyst
intimacy.
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
eventually progressing
issues.
as
for strengthening
about past
discussing
and
They view
experience,
f o r wide
individual,
especially
i n terms
of
80
eliciting
f a c t o r s and
regarding
the
the
manner of
attribution
s o u r c e and
of
expression
infidelity
s i g n i f i c a n c e of
jealous
S o c i a l u n d e s i r a b l i t y of
response
inhibits
communication
of
intervention
at
dealing
with
jealousy
(1967),
she
working
through h y p o t h e t i c a l
cautions
that
jealousy
communcation
as
underlying
extradyad'ic
toward mutually
problems are
she
t o be
directs
recommends
Like
Ard
assumptions
and
s i t u a t i o n s but
must, be
acceptable
the
basic
Therefore
s y s t e m and
open c o m m u n i c a t i o n
partner,
jealous
a n e u t r a l phenomenon.
suggests c l a r i f y i n g
negotiations
if
the
the
prevents
these d i s c r e p a n c i e s .
and
f e e l i n g s and
coping.
recognition
also
to s e l f
means of
and
but
followed
by.
r u l e s and
prevented
or
boundaries
withstood
by
(1978) examine
the
the
relationship.
Shettel-Neuber,
effects
third
of
party
subject's
B r y s o n and
sex
and
p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of
i n t e r l o p e r i n t e r m s of
jealousy.
They a s s e s s
simulated,
jealousy-evoking
female undergraduate
f o r the
alterations
in fashion,
the
"projected"
different
p h y s i c a l movements.
responses
experimental
Analysis
of
to
sex,
interaction
of
of
their
Regardless
of
sex,
12
subjects
variance
video-taped,
42
male and
skin
by
condition
revealed
dependent
were more l i k e l y
41
is
a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , or
36
of
conditions
clothing, hairstyle,
d i f f e r e n c e s due
for
to
Attractiveness
significant
both,
expression
s i t u a t i o n s , using
students.
manipulated
and
Young
to
the
measures.
feel
angry
81
or
e m b a r a s s e d when t h e i n t e r l o p e r
authors
and/or
explain
as being
the d i f f e r i n g
unattractive
al.,
this
nature
interloper
"due t o t h e s o c i a l
of the t h r e a t
included
in their
study
(Shettel-Neuber et
were more l i k e l y
that
they
Although
this
Corzine,
possible
finding
particular
social
supports
earlier
their
of t h e i r
by t h e i n t e r l o p e r ' s
partners while
more l i k e l y
to their
think
didn't care.
views about
resulting
(cf . Reik,
e t a l . do n o t d i s c u s s
age range
to report
feeling
a c t i o n s and more
females
the e f f e c t s
Again
and
male s u b j e c t s .
reported that
" t u r n e d on"
they
these
findings
would be
more
p a r t n e r and t r y t o make t h e i r
distinctions
Adler
views
get
person.
t o c r y when a l o n e , make t h e m s e l v e s
attractive
they
themselves,
i n terms of the s p e c i f i c
milieu
angry
Examples
t h r e a t e n the other
M a l e s were a l s o more l i k e l y
"flattered"
with
1974 ) , S h e t t e l - N e u b e r
confounds
to i n i t i a t e
as a response.
would g e t a n g r y
drunk o r h i g h and v e r b a l l y
(cf.
situation
t h a t an
seems t o p r e s e n t "
and/or a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r s
by
The
1978, p . 6 1 4 ) .
Males
1949;
was u n a t t r a c t i v e .
partner
support
other
o f s e x - r o l e t r a d i t i o n a l i s m and
i n t e r m s o f power
diffusion
1972; C o r z i n e ,
1974; and W h i t e ,
1981) .
M a l e s were a l s o more
start
going
likely
out w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e
to report that
they
would
sexually
was a t t r a c t i v e , b u t
82
f e m a l e s were more l i k e l y
interloper
the
was
authors
to
respond
unattractive.
To
i n t h e s e ways when
explain
these
the
differences,
say:
I f we assume t h a t an a t t r a c t i v e i n t e r l o p e r i s seen as
more t h r e a t e n i n g t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e n as t h e
t h r e a t i n c r e a s e s m a l e s become more l i k e l y t o seek
s o l a c e or t o b o l s t e r t h e i r ego by p u r s u i n g a l t e r n a t i v e
relationships.
F e m a l e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, become l e s s
l i k e l y t o engage i n b e h a v i o r s t h a t might a c c e n t t h e
t h r e a t t o the e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ( S h e t t e l - N e u b e r e t
a l . , 1978,
p.614).
The
researchers
correlates
the
(locus
various
role)
the
Their
projected
research
possibility
different
quite
can
be
t h a n by
sample.
actual
reactions
that
accounted
sex
than
life
that
f o r more by
i n the
instance
image) of
not
results
(e.g.,
sex-
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in
jealousy
"males' and
reactions"
findings
females'
situation
However,
b e c a u s e of
his
the
and
elicit
Also,
socio-cultural
age
of
events.
are
i t i s again
c i r c u m s t a n c e s might
simulated
some of
are
present
jealousy-evoking
the
body
p.615).
d i f f e r e n t " (p.615).
that
possible
"the
m a g n i t u d e of
reveals
to g e n e r a l i z e
and
c u l t u r a l factors
a l l , 1978,
responses to a
qualitatively
difficult
et
personality
findings
than p e r s o n a l i t y
n a t u r e and
(Shettel-Neuber
but
that
s i t u a t i o n a l or
more i m p o r t a n t
determining
self-esteem'
reactions
They c o n c l u d e
that
are
examine p o s s i b l e
of control,
jealousy
significant.
suggest
also
explainations
sub-cultural
this university
i t is
milieu
undergraduate
83
The
late
research
part
of t h e l a s t
on j e a l o u s y
development,
correlates
and f u r t h e r
predominantly
conceptual
a t model
development
The r e s e a r c h
empirical
since
and. i n s t r u m e n t
as " j e a l o u s "
( e . g . , Jaremko
inconsistent
o.f p o t e n t i a l
of t h e r a p e u t i c
t h e n has r e m a i n e d
and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l .
individuals
evidenced p r o l i f i c
attempts at the i s o l a t i o n
interventions.
apparent
aimed
decade
The t e n d e n c y t o s u b g r o u p
findings.
Model
1979) a n d r e s u l t s i n
development
development
being
from o t h e r
there
Mosher,
1979;
i n theory
envy.
f o c u s on j e a l o u s y
development
1979).
sex d i f f e r e n c e s
gradually
r o l e s and r o l e
(Buunk,
t h a n a s an i s o l a t e d
intrapsychic
first
by B a r r e l l
remainder of t h i s
Cohen,
This
Jealousy i s
process
a n d i n 1982 t h e
and R i c h a r d s a p p e a r s .
section
r e v i e w s and c r i t i q u e s the
i n these developments.
model.
(Daher &
interactional
dynamic
i s made i n t h e c h r o n o l o g y t o d i s c u s s
interactional
1982, T e i s m a n &
and r e m a i n p e r t i n e n t .
r e c o g n i z e d more a s a complex
s t u d i e s mentioned
side,
continue
phenomenology
jealousy
On t h e p o s i t i v e
1978) a n d i n t h e r a p y d e v e l o p m e n t
Teisman,
The
of s e l f - e s t e e m .
with d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
emotions, e s p e c i a l l y
reciprocity
( W h i t e , 1976)
e n c o u n t e r s many p r o b l e m s , t h e most
the d i f f i c u l t y
i s an i n c r e a s e d
t o be
Then
a regression
Constantine's
i s followed
by a b r i e f
84
introduction
to B a r t e l l ' s
human r e l a t i o n s h i p s
instruments.
and P i n e s
facilitate
is
t h e most
discussed.
integration
of
T e i s m a n and Mosher
including
some of
those
predominantly Caucasian
unmarried,
by sex
to
conditions
while
jealous
this
the other
(98%),
and
(4)
sex
closeness.
used s i g n i f i c a n t l y
subjects
non-jealous
to
eighty,
(57%),
assignments
role-playing
t o overcome t h e
The a u t h o r s
in d i s t a n c i n g
roles
found
sexual
jealousy
issues
However,
jealousy
it
i n terms
long-term patterns.
issues
of
of
distance
that,
and e x p e r i e n c i n g
for
non-jealous
loss
noteworthy
initial
They c o n c l u d e
that
jealousy
involving
is
role
more r e j e c t i o n and c o e r c i o n
who e n a c t e d d i s t a n c i n g
select
attention.
Using
t h e y made random
no sex d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t e d i n
tended to
used
differences
Roman C a t h o l i c
improvised e f f o r t s
jealousy
assess
examine
is
Aronson
chapters.
s u g g e s t e d by R e i k .
subjects
selected
and l a t e r
(1978)
overall,
However,
format
in
jealousy
i n w h i c h one p a r t n e r assumed a d i s t a n c i n g
and r e - e s t a b l i s h
did
r e c e n t r e s e a r c h by
This
heterosexual couples
(4)
r e s e a r c h on s y n e r g i s m
and an o v e r v i e w and c r i t i q u e of
Finally,
(1983)
(1977)
of
time
that
the
reasons.
regard.
while
than
Men
women
and
authors
c o n f r o n t a t i o n and
not
that:
W h i l e seeming t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e i d e a t h a t j e a l o u s
c o n f l i c t has an e s c a l a t i n g and r e s o l u t i o n - r e s i s t i n g
n a t u r e i n terms of t h e q u a n t i t y of v e r b a l a c t s , t h e r e
does seem t o be some e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of
v e r b a l b e h a v i o r (more r e j e c t i o n and c o e r c i o n ) r e f l e c t s
t h e i d e a of t h e r e s o l u t i o n - r e s i s t i n g n a t u r e of j e a l o u s
c o n f l i c t in comparison to other i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t
( T e i s m a n & M o s h e r , 1978, p . 1 2 1 5 ) .
85
Conceived
initial
rejection
the d e n i a l
also
i n terms of t h r e a t e n e d
stage
and c o e r c i o n m i g h t
o f an a n t i c i p a t o r y
be t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
jealousy
jealous
discouraged
also
grief
their
reaction.
and p r e c l u d i n g more e f f e c t i v e
I t may
attached to
i t s open acknowledgement by
indirect
subjects'
be e x p l a i n e d a s
pejorative labels
s u b j e c t s l e a d i n g t o more
communicate
loss,
their
e f f o r t s to
resolution-
seeking.
Although
(1949,
1952) p r o c l a i m e d
t h e male
with
no sex d i f f e r e n c e s
possibly,
couples
as they
regarding
because
were n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y
i s suggested
the couple,
the i n d i v i d u a l s
in their
a t the j e a l o u s
by T e i s m a n
(1979).
"The s y s t e m
but a l s o
the r i v a l ,
the
norms o f t h e s u b c u l t u r e "
(p.153).
concept
of the t h e r a p e u t i c t r i a n g l e
paradox
and symptom
transfer
the couple
they
issues,
directed
only
into
loss,
interdependent.
therapy
not
incorporating
i s s u e s of
involvement
on h e r f e a r s of t i m e
i n terms of r e s o u r c e
suggest,
A problem-solving
system
for. R e i k ' s
f o c u s i n g more on h i s p a r t n e r ' s s e x u a l
o t h e r s and t h e f e m a l e
found
support
includes
the t h e r a p i s t
and
He d e s c r i b e s t h e
a s w e l l as t h e use o f
and s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
s y s t e m an a t t i t u d e
of
of s e r i o u s
playfulness.
Teisman's therapy
author
questions
has many f a v o u r b l e p o i n t s , b u t t h i s
i t svery
directive
and b e h a v i o u r a l
approach
86
as
the
well
as
i t s demand f o r a
therapist
counsellors
for
the
might
by,
c o u p l e and
contact
for
the
to
control
find
usually
refuses
tell
him/her
to c o n t i n u e
the
He
jealousy"
(p.153).
the
the
this
to
treat
therapist's
rival's
refusal"
intervention
i n need of
temporary
boundaries.
"means" w h i c h might
the
extramarital
one
i n j e c t e d by
that
be
is
is
In
acceptable
that
loyal,
the
and
i s Teisman's
through
only
the
behaviour,
provide
to a l t e r
hope f o r the
therapist ascribes
t o the
of
passionate,
imaginative
to accent
use
the
emotional experience
zealous,
therapist
(1979)
language
"society orchestrates
Hence, words s u c h as
jealous
promote a c t i o n
acceptable
consequently
sexually-curious,
the
the
point
s y s t e m as
notes
and
transfer,
this
i n knowing how
through
symptom t r a n s f e r
labelling
of
rival
at
directive counsellor.
and
alteration.
and
jealous
i s Teisman's
reframing
rival
"ritualize
rationale underlying
P e r h a p s more w i d e l y
polarity
therapist
i s done t o
the
the
therapeutic
rival
exclude
highly
the
suggestions
He
in viewing
question
are
Teisman's
Many
to p a r t i c i p a t e in therapy.
This
The
(p.153).
by
him/her
the
phoning
strategies
the
o v e r p e r m e a b l e and
of
difficult
of
i n f r o n t of
facilitate
and
(p.153).
t o the
realize, goals"
instance,
should
couple.
sound
also
requesting
that
therapist
the
to
use
t h e r a p i s t t o assume c o n t r o l of
triangle
claims
in order
"continual
the
and
sensitive
positive
perspectives,
system.
In
symptom
non-jealous
person,
87
e m o t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s s i m i l a r
person.
The p u r p o s e
his/her
self-focusing
struggles.
all
i s to re-direct
recognizes that
p a r t s of the system.
opportunity
i s that
of the j e a l o u s
the l a t t e r
The p r i n c i p l e
once t h e c o u p l e
t o those
their
from
partner's
change w i l l
similar
away
be
emotions
facilitated
permeate
The d e p e n d e n t member t h u s h a s an
t o become t h e h e l p e r .
(1979) s u g g e s t
group therapy f o r
c o u p l e s and p r e s e n t
t h e c o n c e p t u a l base and f o r m a t
workshop,
a five-phase process:
involving
for a
1. r e c o g n i t i o n o f j e a l o u s y
2. l a b e l l i n g a s p e c t s o f j e a l o u s y ( l a b e l l i n g and c o g n i t i v e
e f f e c t s on j e a l o u s y b e h a v i o r s )
3. c o m m u n i c a t i o n about j e a l o u s y w i t h . o t h e r s
4. a c c e p t a n c e o f j e a l o u s y a s a l e g i t i m a t e p o s s i b l e a s p e c t
of r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and
5. f o c u s i n g on o p t i o n s t h a t may i n d u c e r e s o l u t i o n (Daher &
Cohen, 1979, p . 4 8 0 ) .
They d i r e c t
learning
modalities
structured
options
theory
participants
these phases,
persons.
t a s k s , and a p p l y i n g b e h a v i o r a l
jealous"
Group'
format.
t o t h e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t , Jaremko and L i n d s e y
that
of d i f f i c u l t
The p u r p o s e
jealous person's
stress"
three
r e l a t i o n s h i p - d i l e m m a s " (p.481-482).
(1979) h y p o t h e s i z e d
stress
using
a c o g n i t i v e model, s h a r i n g
i s w e l l managed w i t h i n t h e i r
Returning
the
"building
experiential
to actual
through
(p.548).
non-jealous
persons
self-disclosure
of t h e i r
response
study
tendency
They t a u g h t
subjects a cognitive,
would cope
better
than
with
jealous
was " t o s t u d y t h e
i n coping with
17 " j e a l o u s "
social
and 13 "non-
reversal-of-affect
technique
88
as
the t e s t c o n d i t i o n .
disclosure
sessions
questionnaire
intimate
used
the
Private,
served
f o r the p r e - t e s t
post-test.
The
as t h e s o c i a l
i t e m s were r a n k e d
by a l l s u b j e c t s
while
from most
No c o n t r o l g r o u p was
is
i d e n t i f y i n g jealous
desirability.
condition
lowest
consisted
scorers
imply a t o t a l
jealous
They
low
though t h e i r
of only
s a y " i t may w e l l
in jealousy
(p.554).
jealousy
the very
In t h e f i n a l
useful
situations
It
that
therefore
example
jealousy
could
that
people
the idea
that
eventually
[who m e a s u r e d ]
jealous
the age-old
underlies
conclude
assumption
that
several
other
"certain
experiment
empirical
that
i t may be more
i n most p e o p l e "
this
persons"
t h e many p r o b l e m s
They m e n t i o n
be e l i c i t e d
that
and t h e v e r y
o f 80, t h e y
a s r e s u l t i n g from
seems e v i d e n t
supports
highest
by s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e s .
analysis,
c o n f o u n d s and f i n a l l y
Jealousy
to social
masked h i g h l y
i s a personality trait
t o view
non-jealous
i n terms o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
have been
w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e measurements.
possible
pool
persons
were i n f a c t
experiment
sample o f 30 f o r t h e t e s t
of c o n f i d e n c e
from n o n - j e a l o u s
from
their
(1979) " S e l f - R e p o r t
from an o r i g i n a l
lack
to support
persons
i t t o be s u s c e p t i b l e
Even
1, 3 and -5 were
key p r o b l e m w i t h t h e i r
They u s e d B r i n g l e ' s
and f o u n d
to least
formed.
evidence
The r e p o r t e d
Scale"
intimate
Six
i t e m s 2, 4 and 6 were u s e d f o r
hypothesis.
persons.
self-
stressor.
and i t e m s r a n k e d
authors d i d not f i n d
common
tape-recorded,
(p.553).
i s an
research
used
alone
89
is
less
lead
than
efficient
to a greater
i n t e r m s of p r o d u c i n g
understanding,
of
the
results
that
human e x p e r i e n c e
of,
jealousy.
Using
1980,
the
for three
jealousy.
development
first
of
stage
has
with
three
two
His
threat
stages
White
of
study
"romantic
as
and
(1976) m e a s u r e s
(among o t h e r
self-esteem,
due
developed
things)
feelings
relationship,
results
of
the
His
as. t h e
first
of a n g e r
over
i n a d e q u a c y as
alternative
jealousywith his
to partner's
would p r e d i c t l a t e r
collected
model
jealousy".
feelings
on
(p.51).
hypothesizes
the
(1976,
conceptualized
a .consequence of
"Relationships Questionnaire"
the
explores
including "feelings
relationship
that develop
relationship"
1977
to s e l f - e s t e e m
components
alternative
partner
to
s t u d i e s , White
1981a) d i s c u s s e s a power-and-dependency p e r s p e c t i v e
"romantic"
the
same sample
a n g e r and
from a s u r v e y
to support
of
these
a b s e n c e of e v i d e n c e ,
where s e l f - e s t e e m
f o r the
150
with
inadequacy,
fights.
couples
predictions.
a new
study
that perceived
involvement
of
17-scale
model of
His
threat
to
rival,
perceived
threat
a n a l y s i s of .data
d i d not
He
and
generate
concludes
jealousy
that " i n
i s required
i s r e l e g a t e d t o a more p e r i p h e r a l
role"
(p.135).
In a
later
more l i k e l y
especially
to
paper, White
induce
i f they
are
sexual
in a
(1980) r e p o r t s t h a t
j e a l o u s y than
are
low-power p o s i t i o n
females
are
males,
relative
to
90
their
partner.
relationship
The
considers
indicates a
subjects*
were most
He
relatively
f r e q u e n t l y , to t e s t
increase
esteem, and
least
involvement
i n the
that
o f t e n , as
to gain
to
m a l e s , on
final
and
for
involved
powerful
inducing
in
the
position.
jealousy
r e l a t i o n s h i p , followed
form of
r e l a t i o n s h i p was
specific
indirect
the
to b o l s t e r
punishment.
not
relevant
reported
concrete
ways i n w h i c h
suggestions,
of
the
power"
by
self-
Level
to
of
these
forms of
He
jealousy
power.
this
power
exercise
suggests,
in
the
i s r e l a t e d to
the
Unlike
many
earlier
i s r e l a t e d more t o
r e l a t i o n s h i p than
in
(1980') e x p l a i n s
more f r e e t o
(p.226).
share
jealousy
stereotypically
personal
ordinary
White d e c i d e s
the
is
hand, a r e
couple
inducing
r e w a r d and' so W h i t e
and
other
a n a l y s i s , that
shaping
less
f o r revenge,
" f e m a l e e x e r c i s e of power
direct
more
motives.
constrained
...
the
rewards,
F e m a l e s more f r e q u e n t l y
order
being
s e l f - r e p o r t e d motives
a d e s i r e to
various
that
t o the
the
individual
personalities.
Possible
self-esteem,
of
c o r r e l a t e s of
self-esteem
i n a d e q u a c y as
traditionalism,
examined
failed
romanticism,
dependence on
i n White's
jealousy
including
dependence, e x c l u s i v i t y ,
a partner,
d e p e n d e n c e of p a r t n e r ,
are
romantic
birth
the
order
role
relationship, perceived
and
(1981a) s t u d y .
to predict jealousy.
sex
feelings
r e l a t i o n s h i p stage
The
Expectations
of
last
three
sexual
91
exclusivity
only
v a r i a b l e s that
sexes.
with
a n d f e e l i n g s of i n a d e q u a c y a s a p a r t n e r
Self-esteem
jealousy
traditional
were p r e d i c t i v e o f j e a l o u s y
d e p e n d e n c e was p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d
as j e a l o u s .
belief,
fixed
than
White d e c i d e s
i n the t r a d i t i o n a l
role,
However, sex r o l e
of jealousy
may,be b e c a u s e
double
are
h a s t o do a
t h a n man a n d so any
be o v e r i n t e r p r e t e d by
t r a d i t i o n a l i s m was n o t
f e m a l e s no l o n g e r
assumptions
that
this
endorse the
t h a t male a t t r a c t i o n s t o o t h e r s
self-eseem
low s e l f - e s t e e m
m a l e s were f o u n d
males.
p r e d i c t s male a n d n o t f e m a l e
discusses
sexual
component
of self-esteem
(as a p a r t n e r )
perception
of t h r e a t
that
t o be l e s s
self-esteem
j e a l o u s y White
(1981a)
that
i s captured
and t h e r e f o r e
i t may be a
by f e e l i n g s o f
related to
f o r men b u t n o t f o r women.
Dependence on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was t h e o n l y
White
female
(1981a) f o u n d t o be i n d e p e n d e n t l y
jealousy.
jealous
To e x p l a i n why
p r e s t i g e , suggesting
inadequacy
that
that
not s e r i o u s .
High
than
this
i n f e m a l e s and he e x p l a i n s
traditional
standard
males t o r a t e
which h o l d s
she h a s t o a n o t h e r man w i l l
partner.
predictive
other
that
her
f o r both
himself
attraction
were t h e
He e x p l a i n s
variable
p r e d i c t i v e of
this as:
b e i n g r o o t e d i n an economic s t r u c t u r e t h a t c r e a t e s more
r e l a t i o n s h i p d e p e n d e n c y i n women t h a n i n men. A
female's m a t e r i a l and s o c i a l s t a t u s as w e l l as h e r
s e l f - e s t e e m may be more r e l a t e d t o m a i n t a i n i n g a
92
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n i s t r u e f o r men.
I f a r e a l or
p o t e n t i a l r i v a l a t t r a c t i o n e x i s t s , t h e t h r e a t would be
c o n s e q u e n t l y g r e a t e r than f o r the male.
The d e p e n d e n t
male may h a v e , or f i n d i t e a s i e r t o d e v e l o p ,
a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of e s t e e m and s t a t u s and hence
would be l e s s a f f e c t e d by a p e r c e i v e d a t t r a c t i o n
( W h i t e , 1981a, p . 1 4 4 ) .
This
explanation
"jealous
woman"
recalls
Mead's
(1931)
r e j e c t i o n of
stereotype presented e a r l i e r
in
the
this
chapter.
White's
cultural
His
three
perspectives
explanations
views
studies
are
and r e s e a r c h
must be k e p t
add t o and s y n t h e s i z e
on j e a l o u s y - r e l a t e d
insightful
in a d d i t i o n
i n mind t h a t
his
consisting
of
(91%).
he a c k n o w l e d g e s ,
As
predominantly
engaged or m a r r i e d and so
seriously
affected his
measurement
Buunk
of
anticipated
sexual
self-esteem,
samples
involvement.
The s a m p l e s
in both
and s e c o n d
in
the t h i r d
white
very
own d a t a . '
was v e r y
(84%),
sample)
r a n g e s and v a r y i n g
the
Finally,
students
(16%)
his
were
may
have
static
confounding.
relationship
differing
or
between
variables
in age,
including
large
samples
sexual
125 women
138 women
and h e t e r o g e n e o u s
relationship
He u s e s
socio-economic
extra-relationship
are
it
homogeneous,
committment
and s e v e r a l
However,
university
few c o u p l e s
of
earlier-
d e p e n d e n c y and r e c i p r o c i t y .
and e x t r a - m a r i t a l
first
sample
findings.
jealousy
emotional
three male/female
status
to h i s
level
examines
differences.
and s u p p o r t e d by
(1982)
sex
socio-
including
structures.
wide
Again,
age
the
93
situations
are
"anticipated".
correlations
hypothetical
The
author
f o r e i t h e r m a l e s or
of
inconsistencies
of W h i t e ' s
hence h i s use
does not
females.
role"
that
the
Again,
we
self-esteem
term
significant
jealousy
in jealousy/self-esteem
(1977) s u g g e s t i o n
t o a more p e r i p h e r a l
of
establish
between a n t i c i p a t e d s e x u a l
esteem
the
and
and
are
self-
reminded
research
be
and
"relegated
(p.135) i n b u i l d i n g m o d e l s
for
jealousy.
Buunk
and
-.67
at
intended
He
(1982) f i n d s n e g a t i v e
p<.001, r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r
extramarital
concludes that
involved
this
third
"the
(p.314).
higher
He
factor
s u c h as
of
the
sexual
s p o u s e or
exchange t h e o r y
(-.79,
3 samples
anticipated
intention
behavior,
the
by
the
jealousy.
to become
-
lower
influence
dependency, the
-.55
) between
some s u b s t a n t i a t i o n
explained
emotional
the
and
one's
provides
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not
activities
Using
involvement
in extramarital
jealousy"
correlations
one's
that
of
extramarital
self-representational bias.
his explanation
is
that:
P e o p l e w i l l r e a c t l e s s j e a l o u s l y when t h e y t h e m s e l v e s
f e e l a need t o engage i n e x t r a m a r i t a l s e x u a l b e h a v i o r .
In s u c h a c a s e i t may be f e l t u n j u s t i f i e d t o m a n i f e s t
j e a l o u s y , even when t h i s e m o t i o n i s f e l t .
By t h e same
t o k e n , someone who r e f r a i n s from e x t r a m a r i t a l sex w i l l
r e a c t j e a l o u s l y when t h e p a r t n e r does engage i n
e x t r a m a r i t a l a c t i v i t i e s b e c a u s e the norm of r e c i p r o c i t y
i s v i o l a t e d (Buunk, 1982,
p.311).
As
the
author
investigation
when r e a l
suggests,
this
t o d e t e r m i n e whether
behaviours are
f i n d i n g warrants
the
incorporated.
association
However,
further
holds
typical
94
problems are e v i d e n t
not
use
t h e word
b e c a u s e he
by
relevant
people
using
i t .
indirect
of t h e
term
and
They
necessary
person
focus
and
he/she
of
of
feeling
and
sufficient
especially
self-esteem
totally
emotion
that
feel
an
deserving"
these
on
reliant
on
i n terms
of.
phenomenological
what
j e a l o u s and
factors.
The
i t must be
it difficult
i t is like
they
identify
first
of
to
i s that
or
object,
event,
the
to o u r s e l v e s .
impossible
person"
feeling
"a
another
perceived that
of t h e o t h e r
" a b s e n c e of
by
in his subjects.
i s d e s i r a b l e t o h i m / h e r and
Richards
way
reader
d e s i r a b l e aspect
Secondly,
"must
Implementing
Barrell
created
likelihood
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h an
t h e r e must be
[ o b j e c t ] t o be
emotion
instead relying
s u b j e c t s on
have t h e d e s i r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e
Finally,
i t and
(1982) use
their
a single
(p.42).
other's experience
Thirdly,
i n c r e a s e the
some o t h e r
sufficient
experience
or p e r s o n "
was
situational* e l i c i t o r s
Richards
f o c u s e s on
person's
felt
j e a l o u s y and
l e a v e s the
not
i n the e x p e r i e n c e
four
using
of h i s f i v e
j e a l o u s y and
approach.
the
did
s e l f - i m a g e s would d e s c r i b e t h e m s e l v e s
terminology,
Barrell
i n s t a n c e , he
usual a r t i f a c t
T h i s he
of
might
However, not
the v a l i d i t y
be
f o r the
connotations.
w i t h poor
evoking
to c o n t r o l
to h i s c o r r e l a t i o n s
b e c a u s e use
For
wished
i t s negative
in his design.
the
to
(p.43).
person
(p.43).
four e x p e r i e n t i a l
(1982) recommend
f o r overcoming
components,
that a necessary
jealousy i s to learn
"a
and
sense
95
of
relatedness
believe
that
them s i m p l y
ourselves"
t o an
(p.44).
of
former
of how
i n our
part
latter
other
togetherness
trusted mutuality"
The
authors
i s aimed a t
jealousy
and
belief
their
an
like
and
us
t h a t we
being
must
the
The
learn
same i n
authors
identification.
wants t o be
one-sided"
derive
The
our
r e l a t e d to
object,
leads
unique
own'
others.
(p.45)
resulting
and
in a
from a s h a r e d
setting.
t o our
further research
on
i n d i v i d u a l s to explore
and
sense
and
jealousy
their
understanding.
own
contributes
something
However, t h e i r
be
that are
problem with
unconsciously
motivated
from c o n s c i o u s l y
accounting
outside
phenomenologies
the
phenomenal
i s discussed
while
perceived
for aspects
of
human
field.
This
i n the
new
most
i n t e r v e n t i o n recommends a f u n d a m e n t a l change
emanates o n l y
that
s h a r e them t h r o u g h d i s c l o s u r e i n a
Their a r t i c l e
of what comes t o
own
whole.
f o r c e d and
recommend
s y s t e m t h a t may
data
profess
a l l broadly
"does not
encouraging
different
emphasized
are
we
(p.45).
experiences
controlled
"each o f
p e r s o n as
that
our
b o u n d a r i e s as
i s "generally
observes the
they
that
s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n that
create
relatedness
we
so
as human b e i n g s
of a g r e a t e r
between
(p.45) but
we
and
recognizes, that
person"
exist
others"
deserving
They s u g g e s t
jealousy
being
distinguish
of
persons are
because they
include others
terms of
The
"other
understanding
experience
to
or c o n n e c t e d n e s s w i t h
earlier
in a
96
critique
of
self-esteem
a p p r o a c h e s may
alone.
other
The
transcend
on
gives
and
context.
His
interviews,
jealousy
a level
model and
theory
questionnaires
behaviours
jealousy
kind
s i t u a t i o n which
valued
involves
which g e n e r a t e
actor
(another
person).
object"
possible
to
research.
structure
which
from
observations
of
relationships.
He
as
of
situational
response
i s perceived
to a p a r t i c u l a r
threatening
f e e l i n g s that
The
context
has
person),
an
The
and
actor
(p.385).
secondary
in
may
to
The
is a
or may
not
be
involves
( t h a t need n o t ,
an
impending
[ h e / s h e ] has
actor
emotional
also
i n the
positions:
object
but
may
be
l o s s of
r e l a t i o n s h i p with
"experiences
responses
expressed
three
a r e l a t i o n s h i p with
agent
process
then i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
always
"perceives
which
(1976) v i e w
perceptions,
( p e r s o n ) who
behaves
agent.
in s i t u
"a d e f e n s i v e
initial
something v a l u e d
and
and
and
process
model
were d e v e l o p e d
in Constantine's
behaviourally.
an
this
r e l a t i o n s h i p " (p.385).
Jealousy,
that
as
within
in m u l t i l a t e r a l
defines
of
approach
transformational
behaviour
either
facilitate
incorporate
a combined
combined
using
(1976) s u g g e s t s a c o n t e x t u a l
a sequential,
jealous
below w i l l
and
Again,
d e f i c i e n c i e s of
s t u d i e s which
jealousy
Constantine
jealousy
the
model d i s c u s s e d
preliminary
perspective
methodologies.
to the
primary
and
l o s s or
threat
' j e a l o u s manner' t o w a r d b o t h o b j e c t
and
97
Constantine's
is
either
automatic
sequential.
The
"programmed
with
non-sequential
former
i f any,
experience"
and
and
response
little,
unfelt
(1976) model a c c o u n t s
results
triggered
i n behaviour
by
a s e t of
"societal
and
or e x p e c t a t i o n s of
jealousy in specific
independent
p e r c e p t i o n of
process
j e a l o u s y , on
that begins
behaviour.
insecurity
The
with
jealousy.
synergic
for
an
The
has
the
(Constantine,
threshold
especially
object
and
the
likelihood
individual
a way
"essential
situational
of
1976,
important
hand,
involves a
culminates
of
committment,
l o n g e v i t y of
his ability
a c t as
or
or
tendency
perceptual
and
express
is highly
interdependence
by
which
threatening
t h a t he/she w i l l
of
that
allows
dichotomies"
security-insecurity
a multitude
t h e d e g r e e and
of
relationship.
jealousy behaviours,
factors,
nature
the p e r s o n a l m a t u r i t y
their
in
security
as p o t e n t i a l l y
The
but
(p.387).
r e a d i n e s s or e a s e w i t h
p.387).
are
affectual
circumstances
of o r g a n i z i n g h i s / h e r r e a l i t y
u n i t y and
cues
i s expected
whose p e r c e p t i o n
is also affected
Eventual
sense
is a
familial conditioning
p e r c e p t i o n and
he/she p e r c e i v e s a s i t u a t i o n
the
other
synergically,
Both determine
consequently
loss"
r e l a t i o n s h i p and
to p e r c e i v e s i t u a t i o n s
filters.
the
actor's personal
i n the
that
T h i s b e h a v i o u r a l type
emanates from
Sequential
o r , more commonly,
intervening interpretation
(p.387).
of any
of
of both
,
i f they
but
the a c t o r partners
occur,
are
of
98
four
types
including
redefinitional
and/or
(1976) s t r e s s e s
statement"
jealousy
affect
people.
By
(or
emotional
quickly
initial
into
d e s p a i r and
internalize
or a n g e r ,
unique
to
primary
very c o n s i s t e n t
feelings
include
of
and
secondary
emotional
i f the person's
r a g e and
hate
across
"anxiety
loss,
in jealousy situations
guilt
hurt
loss"
are
often
responses
style
such
i s to
i f the person's
style
is
externalize.
Jealous behaviours
in
c l a i m s t o be
hurt
This i s in contrast
pain) a s s o c i a t e d
transformed
i s "almost
A n x i e t y and
as g r i e f ,
to
(p.390).
his report,
fear) connected
However, C o n s t a n t i n e
jealous behaviour
w h i c h he
(or
antagonistic,
resolutional.
that
personal
(p.389).
isolational,
t e r m s of
system
and
resolution
their
or
and
refusal
behaviours
to f i g h t
less
or
a common enemy
of
resolution"
T h i s model
...
in effective
behaviour
such
as
o r n e g o t i a t e , and
functional
because
but
" u n i t e s the
[but] p o t e n t i a l l y
( C o n s t a n t i n e , 1976,
involves
positive
the
A n t a g o n i s t i c and
' s e d u c t i v e men')
against
as
pair-boundary
a r e more e f f e c t i v e
intellectualization
'infidelity'
result
Isolational
i s not m a i n t a i n e d .
redefinitional
real
they
reintegration.
silence,
model a r e seen
to m a i n t a i n the
s e p a r a t i o n are thus
pair-contact
i n v o l v e an
intention
t o the e x t e n t t h a t
withholding,
silence
in this
several
the
latter
is
pair
at the
expense
p.393).
other transformations
99
between
initial
jealous
behaviours.
point
to
to
Each p r o v i d e s
for a potential
i n t e r v e n t i o n s i s h e l p i n g the c o u p l e
emotion,
trigger
the purpose
of
entry
t o the
that
(1976),
boundaries.
source
of
He
f e a r s and
i s perceived, actual
or
to
that w i l l
committment
s t r e s s e s the
clarifying
impending.
t h e r e f o r e , names s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
Basic
recognize
the p o t e n t i a l
communication
of v a l u e s , b e l i e f s ,
individual/couple
getting
i t s e r v e s and
more e f f e c t i v e
a clarification
loss
eventual consequences
f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n s when j e a l o u s y i s p r o b l e m a t i c .
these
the
p e r c e p t i o n and
i t has
result
in
and
importance
the
type
of
of
Constantine
types
of
loss
including:
1. L o s s of f a c e , s t a t u s , ego-hancement, e t c .
2. L o s s of need g r a t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l , e m o t i o n a l and o t h e r n e e d s .
3. L o s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r O b j e c t , of c o n t r o l o v e r A c t o r ' s
own l i f e , of power i n r e l a t i o n t o O b j e c t .
4. L o s s of p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , d e p e n d a b i l i t y of b e h a v i o r of
Object i n r e l a t i o n to Actor.
5. L o s s of p r i v a c y , t e r r i t o r y , e x c l u s i v e a c c e s s , e t c .
6. L o s s of a c t u a l t i m e w i t h O b j e c t , c o n t a c t ,
e t c . ( C o n s t a n t i n e , 1976, p . 3 9 5 ) .
Constantine's
situational
usual
context
etc.
t h e wants,
as
More
source
sexual, heterosexual,
important
of
i s an
f e a r s and
f o r a v a l u e - f r e e approach
and
practice.
highly
useful
Jealousy,
need
of
loss.
to theory
for i t s
(p.391) or
of
wants
His
development
i n h i s v i e w , can
interpersonal process"
time,
examination
type
model a l l o w s
clinical
s t r u c t u r e and
f o r j e a l o u s y e l i m i n a t e s the
categorization
opportunity,
under
p r e s e n t a t i o n of a t r i a d i c
be
i t can
"a
"work
100
to the disadvantage
fundamental
level
perception
correlated
o f h i s model
that
with
Unfortunately,
this
(p.391).
of the s i t u a t i o n
hypothesizes
at
of a l l "
time
i s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s
and C o n s t a n t i n e
the r e s u l t i n g
current
because a s u i t a b l e
most p e r t i n e n t
revealed several
were t h a t
t o number o f i t e m s
jealousy
instrument,
exist.
from
spread
problems.
Inventory"
item-format
and t y p e
Among
any c o r r e l a t i o n s
are forced
which
(1974)
p r e f e r e n c e , and t h e base
one s u b s c a l e t o c r e a t e a s e p a r a t e new
for establishing
with
statistics
Finally,
mind
i s sane,
that
cannot
1969, p . 3 9 4 ) .
reliability
established
in Bartell's
rational
be measured
and e t h i c a l
solely
that
may
"Personal
line
extracting
instrument.
(Thorndike,
(1982)
This
depend on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
himself"
comparison
them, t h e
ipsatively.
individual
does n o t a l l o w
f o r the
i s scored
of s c o r i n g
of r e l a t i v e
study
f o r o b t a i n i n g the
s u b s c a l e of Shostrum's
Orientation
"pattern
i n the p i l o t
i n A r o n s o n and P i n e s '
to demonstrate
the "synergy"
i s not a v a i l a b l e .
(1974) was d e s i g n e d t o
d i d not a l l o w
A l s o , h i s items
empirically
i t s s m a l l number o f i t e m s ( 1 4 ) ,
relative
necessary
be t e s t e d
instrument
need b u t i t s i n c l u s i o n
project
(p.397).
h y p o t h e s i s cannot
(1976)
"jealous behavior i s
synergic perception"
this
A t t h e most
i s the
Hence,
instrument
or v a l i d i t y
by
f o r Shostrum's
(1977) v i e w
the synergic
and o p e r a t e s
i n a mode
by t h e c o g n i t i v e
a b i l i t y to
101
transcend dichotomies.
Scale
the
(1971),
items
Therefore,
measures
only
require only
t h e most s o c i a l l y
Although
desirable
synergic
has
been c l o s e l y
study
pair
constituting
synergistic.
These
relationships
but a l s o
and p r o f e s s i o n a l
things,
that
individual
qualities
synergism
that
including
pairs
blending
positive
For
found t h i s
t o be t r u e
t h e two p e r s o n s
will
in
of
the
each c o n t r i b u t e
dynamics
individual
i n human
(1977).
were not
She
She
(by
to
only
of
the
be
when t h e
couple/lover
co-worker
traditionally
and i n t e r m s
of
the
the
the
and
the
in a
feminine-
qualities
be more s y n e r g i s t i c .
of
other
individuals
masculine-positive
terms
highly
paradoxical
serious/playful
both
to
f o u n d , among many
sets
not
used
were r e p r e s e n t e d by
four
is
relationships
and o p p o s i t e - s e x ,
instance,
and t r a d i t i o n a l l y
relationship
the
and
apparent.
realistic/imaginative,
individualistic/collective,
masculine/feminine.
quite
them and' by o t h e r s )
same-sex
the
decisions
were r e p o r t e d
relationships
synergistic
is
because
r e s e a r c h methodology)
relationships.
and p a i r
relationship
in
examined by B a r t e l l
relationships
individuals
response
(a q u a l i t a t i v e
Contrast
the c o n s t r u c t
cognitive
perception
e m p i r i c a l l y measurable,
theory
of
simplistic
yet
grounded
part
constantine's
the
Bartell
interactions
c o u p l e - i n t e r a c t ion
between
with
others.
West's
experiencing
(1983)
d e s i g n of
problematic
a group
jealousy
workshop
includes
for
several
couples
exercises
1 02
One
of them
assessment of r e l a t i o n s h i p synergism.
e x e r c i s e i s as important as the a c t u a l d e c i s i o n s a r r i v e d at
by the c o u p l e .
structured
the
to be more s y n e r g i s t i c .
i n t e r v e n t i o n holds p o t e n t i a l
This
f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h on
jealousy.
As mentioned e a r l i e r ,
available.
They include,
i n t o the
"Sexual
Hence,
"Self-
" P r o j e c t i v e J e a l o u s y " s c a l e s by B r i n g l e
was
not found.
Distinguishing
a c e n t r a l problem
expected
j e a l o u s y from
and t h i s i s r e a d i l y
1 03
evidenced
in
instance,
the
simply
poses
elicitors
the
name
each
the
28-item
a
and
of
on a
his/her
someone
of
formats
simply
is.
is,
Item
the
or
at
scales
at
cognitive,
and
approximating
jealousy,
remains
by
subjects'
rating
prevalence
f i l l
in
"I
feel
an
and
level
one
often
by
by
all
Pines.
by
accounts
of
emotional,
two of
that
The
Other
jealous
the
story
sexual
required
result
in
physical
about
Pines
to
a
(1982)
the
behavioural,
are
crucial
(1971)
then
in
and
to
phenomenological
theory
except
jealousy
unique
and c o l l e c t s d a t a
in
often
w h i c h may
inventory
which are
also
are
instruments
own d e f i n i t i o n s
when
how
exclusively
Aronson
Izard's
Their
weight
set.
picture.
suggested
good
ways,
imply
the
then
irritated").
various
subjects
with
admired
frequently
intimate
a blank
feel
the person
and
(1981b)
"If
in
For
situational
upset
one
is
Severa
or
a whole
instrument
of
to
would
subject,
except
their
and
(e.g.,
instruments.
g i r l f r i e n d and
a f f e c t i v e domains
and
experiential
This
sex
jealous
untouched
Aronson
for
the
an
least
or
nine
d e s i r a b i l i t y response
All
neglect
ask
subject
f r i e n d " and
jealousy
self-disclose
social
to
opposite
how
of
one
several
variety
boyfriend
a new
formats
definition
of
of
the
of
by M a t h e s
narrow
requests
makes
he/she
scale
rather
scale
item formats
also
used as
and
it
emotions,
again,
solicits
but
that
of
the
not
one
only
their
the
general
criteria
reactions.
examines
culture,
aspect
family
jealousy
of
1 04
origin,
and
current
demographic
results
information.
the
next
adapted,
For
this
were 35
undergraduate
sample of
Their
individual
they
the
was
will
w o u l d be
b a s i s of
on
able
selected,
"Sexual
promote
subjects'
evident
i n the
yes/no q u e s t i o n
jealousy.
and
Their
in" age
s e c t i o n , in that
but
Jealousy
from
i t remains a
(94%)
married
i t did
than
not
selective
(41%)
s i g n i f i c a n c e of
dispositional
not
defined
couples.
study
on
options
for their
their
the
f o c u s i n g more
f a c t o r s in order
experience.
focus
own
that
r e p o r t i n g of
f o r change.
subjects
d e g r e e of
so
that
jealousy
However, g i v e n
situational
you
their
consider
on
the
factors
the
and
s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n , a weakness becomes
"Do
21
jealousy.
own
i n t e n t to
but
correlates
to p a r t i c i p a t e in a
to define
their
discussed
i s more h e t e r o g e n e o u s
have more d i s t i n c t
was
survey
t o be
females ranging
white
s t r e s s the
than
jealousy
authors'
others
their
sample
students,
sexual
authors
64
in this
were a p p r o a c h e d
situational
Sexual
i n terms of
which
study.
(1983) use
predominantly
investigating
The
this
m a l e s and
(M=34) y e a r s .
Subjects
inventory
s e l f - r e p o r t e d sexual
(and
other
i s i t s length
t o examine p o s s i b l e a n t e c e d e n t s ,
c o n s e q u e n c e s of
subjects
Pines
w e l l as
problem
reasons
f o r p u r p o s e s of
Inventory"
64
these
chapter)
A r o n s o n and
to
One
i n some l a c k of p r a c t i c a l i t y
application.
in
r e l a t i o n s h i p , as
findings
yourself a
they
jealous
use
the
on
105
person?" as a c r i t e r i o n
"jealous"
The
criterion
than
the use of t h i s
a s s u m i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s have osmosed, t o
t o focus
on j e a l o u s y
Hence, t h e e x a m i n a t i o n
d i f f e r e n c e s i s very
rather
persons.
re-explores
t h e tendency
dispositional.
Pines
research
question
some e x t e n t ,
just
t o e s t a b l i s h d i f f e r e n c e s between
an i m p l i e d
as being
of s i m i l a r i t i e s not
r e l e v a n t a n d r e q u i r e s a documented
focus.
F o r i n s t a n c e , A r o n s o n and
(1983) r e p o r t :
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r own p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r j e a l o u s y ,
other peoples' r e a c t i o n s v a l i d a t e d the c r i t e r i o n
v a r i a b l e : p e o p l e who d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s a s j e a l o u s
were c o n s i d e r e d j e a l o u s by more p e o p l e who knew them
w e l l a n d by more p e o p l e w i t h whom t h e y h a d an i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p (p.115).
However,
i t must be remembered
t h e m s e l v e s were q u e s t i o n e d
with
well.
whom t h e y
only
the subjects
by t h e s u r v e y ,
intimate
and not o t h e r s
Hence, t h e above a n a l y s i s i s n o t v a l i d a t i o n
criterion
tendency
they
were
that
question
but r a t h e r
t o assume t h a t
perceive
criterion
themselves.
question
researcher
uses
differences,
"positive"
others
i ti svalidation
perceive
Instead
r e p o r t i n g seemingly
findings.
of response s e t .
The
research
Aronson and P i n e s
of d e l e t i n g
this
and seemingly
i t t o re-examine t h e
also differs
(1983) i n t h a t
this
s i m i l a r i t i e s and
"negative"
She a l s o u s e s
implications
current
of s u b j e c t s '
from t h e a d a p t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
i t t o examine b o t h
of the
f r o m t h e s t u d y by
i treturns
to a basic
106
assumption
about
otherwise,
depending
describe.
This
phenomenological
theory
aspect
"sexual"
themselves
and s e x u a l
other
referred
self-concept.
themes
and t o
include
t o as t h e
of e m o t i o n s
this
study
adapts
instrument.
The f o c u s
on s e x u a l
issues a n d e l i c i t o r s
eliminated,
t h e use of
subjects'
own d e f i n i t i o n s
experiences
i s m a i n t a i n e d and added' t o by r e q u e s t i n g
insights
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
original
inventory
questions
are
(e.g.,
or
r e v i e w has i n d e e d r e v e a l e d a
invalidating
(1971)
emotion,
on what t h e s u b j e c t s
sex, s e x u a l i t y ,
to avoid
what I z a r d ' s
as a d i s c r e t e
literature
theme i n v o l v i n g
However,
jealousy
Hence,
large
see A p p e n d i x
A, q u e s t i o n s
is
and
portions
a r e d e l e t e d and a d d i t i o n a l
the
their
of the
subjective
2 9 , 30 and 123)
incorporated.
A few of
and P i n e s
that
t h e many
(1983)
integrates
their
findings
Aronson
findings
from t h e s t u d y
a r e now p r e s e n t e d
the c u r r e n t
that
will
and P i n e s
study
by A r o n s o n
incorporating
and g i v i n g
discussion
precedence to
be c o m p a r a b l e .
(1983)
say
that:
people"
be more e a s i l y
longer
in t h e i r
triggered,
study
also
r e p o r t e d the emotion
t o o c c u r more f r e q u e n t l y ,
and t o be a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h more
intense
to
to
last
p h y s i c a l and
1 07
emotional
report
reactions.
significant
level
of
their
data
findings
if
in
be
the
empirical
The
used
had
Significance,
own
jealousy,
study
data
collected
hypotheses
issues
their
the
subjects'
in
additional
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and
hoped
the
Aronson
the
average,
inventory
chapter
reader
and
generally
for
most
reported
during
young
during
advanced
of
their
people'
(p.116),
of
be
(1983)
being
to
seven
as
being
adulthood
subjects
but
people
are
order
to
and
that
found
are
actually
do
the
to
present.
jealous,
the
one
in
was
less
less
Fifty-four
as
"when
the
on
(Their
childhood,
that
is
subjects,
Jealousy
themselves
it
same.
adolescence,
during
i t i s noteworthy
the
jealous.
discussed.)
"defined
verbatim
her
identical
at
their
Ultimately
also
least
as
by
present
during
will
definitions
and
to
rating
study
well
stimulated
less
the
become
discussed
insights.
most
even
as
completely
"somewhat"
responses
adulthood,
percent
percentage
one
in
will
Pines
reported
uses
Appendix
four
and
research.
therefore
Examples
exploring
current
e x p e r i e n t i a l accounts
appendices.
at
investigation
instead
researcher
that
the
future
presented
only
findings
further
authors
established.
in
for
the
were
reliability
and"
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are
within
they
Their
be
when
is applicable
require
i s to
and
that
because
hypotheses.
validity
phenomenological
of
no
significance
suggest
this
generation
current
objective
to
i s noteworthy
differences
hypothesis
and
It
'jealous
asked
average
what
108
r e s p o n s e was
and
75%"
women t o be
The
was
(p.119).
equally
inventory
changed
original
to-a
one
therefore
to
seven
allow
jealousy
occasion
this
question).
Given
to
(55%),
i t may
be
of
as
a response
actually
do
respond
rational
discussion
the
The
Pines
of
and
only
younger
was
younger
more o l d e r
brothers,
assault
social
the
80%
to
and
7%
(56%),
thing
79%
order.
brothers,
many more
acknowledged
i n t e n t at
by
Aronson
c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s that
was
negatively
the
less jealous).
the
do).
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with
brothers
For
acknowledged
their
to
(18%).
these
t h u s wonders how
that
to
frequently
in a reversed
that
process
'yes'
denial
desirability,
the
subjects
sarcasm
f i n d i n g reported
family
and
Their
reponded
their
(7%)
reflecting
acceptable
The
researcher
much l e s s
(60%),
than
coping
Pines.
r o l e and
of
and
one
way)
(perhaps
significant
brothers
the
percent
(e.g.,
this
socially
number of
(e.g.,
(e.g.,
significant
(1983) i n terms of
older
lose
more s i g n i f i c a n t
violence
men
to acknowledge u s i n g
physical violence
likewise
and
this
through t h e i r
rational discussion;
responses are
t i m e or
likely
Severtty-nine
a consideration
instance,
Aronson
i s u s e d by
most
they acknowledged v e r b a l
acceptance
by
s t r a t e g i e s for
for d i r e c t comparison.
to think
stood/feared
acknowledged
format
scale
were, o v e r a l l ,
also believed
jealous...
yes/no
subjects
they
subjects
section assessing
does not
what
Their
number
jealousy
correlated
more j e a l o u s ;
However,
and
the
this
more
109
interpretation
of
must be c o n s i d e r e d
t h e few c a s e s
would
fall
possible
possibly
sibling
(for the r e l a t i v e l y
i n t o the necessary
subgroupings
positions
very
i n various
the majority
small
but p o s s i b l y
i f they
family
t e n t a t i v e l y because
sample)
vast
that
number o f .
had c a l c u l a t e d a c t u a l
constellations.
of t h e i r
sibling
For instance,
position.
Aronson
and P i n e s
(1983) r e p o r t
t e r m s o f sex d i f f e r e n c e s .
very
few f i n d i n g s i n
They s a y :
In t e r m s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e , , i t s e l f , a n d i t s g e n e r a l
e f f e c t s , however, t h e r e were no sex d i f f e r e n c e s ; and
when a s k e d d i r e c t l y who were t h e most j e a l o u s , men o r
women, t h e r e s p o n s e was ' e q u a l l y j e a l o u s ' .... The few
sex d i f f e r e n c e s f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y ( e . g . , women were
more l i k e l y t h a n men t o f e e l ' c l o s e t o a n e r v o u s
breakdown', ' i n f e r i o r ' a n d ' h u m i l i a t e d ' a n d t o
e x p e r i e n c e ' f e a r of l o s s ' , ' g r i e f ' and ' v u l n e r a b i l i t y ' )
c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d by W h i t e ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a s
r e s u l t i n g from t h e women's l a c k o f power i n t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p or i n s o c i e t y a t l a r g e (p.129).
However,
i t i s noteworthy
previous
trend
men
in this
most
people.
and now r e p o r t
study,
jealous
The c u r r e n t
of
and
findings
themselves as j e a l o u s
r e - e x a m i n e sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n
the d i s c i p l i n e
of t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
Jung.
themselves as
emotions.
on j e a l o u s y
the departure
their
f o r a l l women and a l l
t h o s e who r a t e d
research
summary, t h i s
literature
variety
as versus
t h e a u t h o r s change
o r t h o s e who d e f i n e d
terms o f e l e m e n t a l
In
that
from F r e u d i a n
of psychology.
emerged a s a c o n s e q u e n c e
tradition
The r e s u l t i n g d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n
initiated
by A d l e r
of s p e c i a l t i e si n
110
psychology
jealousy
partly
that
that
research
and
in psychiatry,
In s p i t e
negative
the e a r l y
the emotion
or d e s t r u c t i v e
individual.
empirical
Much of
the
Adlerian
and
therapy
the e a r l y
and
was
emerges.
T h i s was
setting
in psychology
viewed
as
directed
inherently
o n l y a t the.
some o f t h e more r e c e n t
"jealous person"
socio-cultural
with Ard's
is
Jungian
G r a d u a l l y , the
initially
As
jealous disposition.
and
r e s e a r c h t h u s compares t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p and
practice
on
in theory, in
to therapy.
literature
was' p r i m a r i l y
"non-jealous person".
family,
of both
f o r t h e most p a r t ,
implications,
were p r e s e n t e d
the developments
o f more o p t i m i s t i c
of r e s e a r c h
used.
psychology
to r e f l e c t
about
f o r the v a r i e t y
i n the a p p l i c a t i o n
concentrated,
the
have been
p e r s p e c t i v e s from
chronologically
ongoing
f o r t h e many themes
methodologies
The
accounts
influence
dynamics
of
also
e v i d e n c e d most d i r e c t l y
(1967) f o c u s on
with
i n the
couple-
communication .
May's
researcher
these
two
(1972) t h e s i s
to jealousy in order
concepts
continuum,
things,
but a l s o
and
and
studies
from
critiqued.
the broadening
applied
by
this
t o expand h i s a s s o c i a t i o n
t r a n s c e n d the b a s i c
thus b u i l d i n g
Several
discussed
on power was
of
positive-negative
a more h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e .
the e a r l y
They
and
mid-seventies
indicated,
among o t h e r
conceptual understanding
a continuing reticence
were
i n research to
of j e a l o u s y
relinquish
111
the
tendency
basis
of
evidence
and
the
to l a b e l
f o r wide
of
of
the
jealousy
emotion
about
preventing
of
loss),
short
envy, h u r t ,
jealousy
of
jealousy
that
the
the
that
security
to t h e i r
were t y p i c a l l y
roles
and
partners
1978;
pain,
i n the
by
open
being
and
by
to
explained
i s s u e s of
(Corzine,
White,
1980) .
White's
(1976,
1980,
idea
that
the
sum
experienced.
and
theme and
to
the
beliefs
expression
there
was
emotion
and
emotional
cooperation
1974;
combinations
the
fixed
on
the
basis
f e m a l e s more
These
in
and
on
the
differences
traditional
or p o w e r - s h a r i n g
Shettel-Neuber,
of
consensus
involvement
relationships.
by
compounded
humiliation,
many p r o p o s e d
self-esteem
their
were
( s o m e t h i n g more t h a n
react
their
status
powerlessness,
vulnerability,
experience
ongoing
sexual
threats
provided
as
r a g e , power or
i s uniquely
were a l s o an
of
social
jealousy
"whole" t h u s s u p p o r t i n g
males e x p e r i e n c e
basis
e m o t i o n s of
However, the
differences
threats
how
individual discrepancies.
i s a d i s c r e t e emotion
i t s parts)
Sex
of
of
inhibit
showed
experience
demonstrated
to
the
(1977) r e s e a r c h
i t is described
anger,
love and/or h a t e .
of
elemental
Generally,
fall
serves
recognition
suggested.
self-doubt,
and
on
i t , thus r e i n f o r c i n g i t s negative
Many d i f f e r e n t
(of
Francis'
i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n the
expression
communication
fear
individual's character
s i n g l e emotion.
disapproval
and
the
Bryson
1981a) s t u d i e s added
between
& Young,
to
and
11 2
synthesized
sex
socio-cultural
differences.
remain grounded
either
are
neglect
perspectives
However, t h e s e
on j e a l o u s y - r e l a t e d
proposed
i n h i s and o t h e r
empirical
sex d i f f e r e n c e s
findings that
of j e a l o u s y or
i n c o n c l u s i v e b e c a u s e o f t h e many m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
discussed
in this
section.
White's
(1976) s t u d y
also
m e a s u r e s of s e l f - e s t e e m
defined
concept
The
in
first'phenomenological
and s u f f i c i e n t
experience.
"a
i n a c e n t r a l conceptual
1982 and i n i t B a r r e l l
necessary
and/or p l a c e s
They
study
with
others"
adds a new e x p e r i e n t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e
exemplifies
it
a c e n t r a l problem with
does n o t a c c c o u n t
the
phenomenal
motivation).
field
problems encountered
approach
t o the study
Accordingly,
most
of
f o r aspects
(e.g.,
For t h i s
jealousy
role.
emotions.
appeared
identified
jealousy
(p.44).
four
by l e a r n i n g
Their
on j e a l o u s y
reason
study
but i t a l s o
phenomenologies
i n that
o f human e x p e r i e n c e
outside
and
and b e c a u s e o f t h e many
i n e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , a combined
of j e a l o u s y
i s supported.
instruments
were c r i t i q u e d
r e l e v a n t problems o u t l i n e d , emphasizing
inefficiency
nebulously
unconscious processes
their
this
uses
f a c t o r s which c o n s t i t u t e the
recommend o v e r c o m i n g
sense of r e l a t e d n e s s
that
of j e a l o u s y
and R i c h a r d s
problems
and t h e
their
neglect
of the emotion as w e l l as
i n d i s t i n q u i s h i n g jealousy
from
other
113
Toward t h e end o f t h e s e c t i o n
facilitate
integration
Constantine's
and i n o r d e r t o
o f t h i s , and f o l l o w i n g , chapters,,
(1976) i n t e r a c t i o n a l
model was e x t r a c t e d
the c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence, p r e s e n t e d ,
partial
foundation
foundation also
synergism
jealousy
adapted
model,
f o r the current
i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s
instrument
preliminary
pursued
(1977) r e s e a r c h on
and p o t e n t i a l
recent
(1983),
jealousy inventory.
e s p e c i a l l y an
T h i s use of
intervention
f a c i l i t a t e the
combined p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l - e m p i r i c a l
approach
Chapter
This chapter
first
This
and t h e most
r e s e a r c h by A r o n s o n and P i n e s
v e r s i o n of t h e i r
and d i s c u s s e d a s a
research.
incorporates Bartell's
from
section
was d i v i d e d
j e a l o u s y and envy.
presented
and c r i t i q u e d
i n order
The
(along with
chapter
one) s u p p o r t s
depending
The
t h a t compares and
The n e x t
three sections
:i
for this
i n the f i r s t
section
the t h e o r i e s of emotion
this
t o meet d i f f e r e n t
but r e l a t e d
of t h i s
examined i n
emotions;
and c h a n g i n g
t o be a d a p t i v e
on t h e t h e s o c i a l
research.
r e s e a r c h e r ' s assumptions
and envy a r e d i s c r e t e
each has t h e p o t e n t i a l
sections.
m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a - r y perspectrves 'on
examined
chapter
have e v o l v e d
f o u r major
t o p r o v i d e a background
literature
jealousy
into
examined l i t e r a t u r e
contrasts
jealousy
Summary
or
and c u l t u r a l
that
they
human n e e d s ; and
maladaptive
contexts
i n which
11 4
they
occur.
The
second
s e c t i o n of t h i s
chapter
perspectives
on j e a l o u s y
anthropology
and s o c i o l o g y .
( 1 9 3 6 ) , Mead
( 1 9 3 1 ) , and B e n e d i c t
very
significant
emotion.
effect
the
seventies
used
The
perspectives
follows
almost
that
Benedict's
The
of s y n e r g y
by t h i s
Jealousy
as e i t h e r
literature
clinical
subjects'
The
own
t o be
T h e r e were no p r e s e n t a t i o n s
t h e most
May's
jealousy
and c r i t i q u e s
of p s y c h o l o g y
beginning
recent
and
Pines
the
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of j e a l o u s y .
t h e s i s on power was
new
only
of the
experiences.
perspectives
with
research
This
and
'non-pathological'.
o r i e n t e d and d i s c u s s e s
(1983).
underlying
was and c o n t i n u e s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e i r
(1928) and e n d i n g w i t h
focusing
in psychiatric literature
i s not r e s e a r c h
from t h e d i s c i p l i n e
The
psychoanalysis,
' p a t h o l o g i c a l ' or
observations.
of
discipline
e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
discussed
was
i s a chronology
of p s y c h i a t r y .
of F r e u d i a n
viewed as a p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t
is
i t was n o t u n t i l
concept
chapter
contributed
unconscious processes.
view o f t h e
jealousy.
from t h e d i s c i p l i n e
the t r a d i t i o n
t o be
interdisciplinary
For i n s t a n c e ,
s e c t i o n of t h i s
on j e a l o u s y
major
Davis
(1934) were f o u n d
interactional
i n a s s o c i a t i o n with
third
literature
The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of
v i e w s had l i t t l e
f o r s e v e r a l decades.
late
again
their
four
from t h e d i s c i p l i n e s o f
t o a dynamic,
However,
sampled
Adler
by A r o n s o n
used
to extend
1 15
conceptualization,
relationships,
the
research
together
to
B a r t e l l ' s research
A r o n s o n and
t o e s t a b l i s h an
(1983),
Pines
for
jealousy
were
i n t e g r a t i v e base
i n human
and
discussed
f o r the
chapters
follow.
The
current
next
survey.
because
chapter
study.
statistics
constitutes
It w i l l
f o r the
More a d v a n c e d
this
present
objective
p h a s e of
generation
and
individual
subjects
own
synergism
(1976) model
Constantine's
by
on
the
conceptualization
using
previous
of
requires
of
that
analyses
chapter
but
incorporates
interpretations
their
and
data are
has
that
hypotheses
measures
supported
so
lend
this
empirical
something.
in chapter
involvement
of
by
their
insights.
a
itself
well
preliminary
research
Thus
four,
researcher
definitions, their
their
eschewed
criterion
does not
a p p r o a c h and
phenomenological phase, d e s c r i b e d
face-to-face
are
jealousy
jealousy.
each phase r e l i n q i s h
usual
the
descriptive
i s aimed" a t
a subjective
with
p h a s e of
c o l l e c t e d i n the
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and
the
empirical
discuss
objective
jealousy
to a s i n g u l a r l y o b j e c t i v e
combination
data
research
because the
the
and
statistical
most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e
Finally,
the
the
eschews
and
experiences,
subject
their
1 16
CHAPTER I I I
EMPIRICAL PHASE
Design
and Method
Subjects
This
who
reside
British
the
study
s u r v e y e d a non-random p o p u l a t i o n
i n student
Columbia.
family
housing
was b a s e d
on f i n a n c i a l
wish to i n c l u d e
races
from v a r i o u s
and r e l i g i o u s / s o c i a l
community
i s determined
"limitations"
Selection
considerations,
subjects
t o be between .
of the s u b j e c t
pool
c o n v e n i e n c e and a
countries,
backgrounds.
by c r i t e r i a
families
at the U n i v e r s i t y of
P a r t i c i p a n t s were r e q u i r e d
ages o f 20 and 60 y e a r s .
of
that
cultures,
Residency
i n the
are described
under
i n c h a p t e r one.
Instrument
The
instrument
adapted v e r s i o n
Jealousy
instrument
i n a p p e n d i x A.
o f A r o n s o n and P i n e s '
Inventory".
deleted.
i s included
Whole s e c t i o n s
(1982)
i n chapter
14-page
and s e v e r a l
I t i s an
two.
"Sexual
i t e m s were
of the
Additions
included
1 17
Pilot
f o r comprehensiveness.
Study
The
pilot
study used
They were n u r s i n g ,
15 f e m a l e and 16 male
m e d i c a l and s u p p o r t s t a f f
at the U n i v e r s i t y
volunteers.
at the Health
of
British
Columbia.
On t h e b a s i s
basic
of L e r t a p
correlations,
originally
a decision
adapted v e r s i o n
for
total
test
of the j e a l o u s y
statistics,
0.97 a n d a C r o n b a c h ' s
a Hoyt's
A l p h a o f 0.72.
respectively
f o r each of t h e f o l l o w i n g
general
reactions.
entitled
results for
demonstrated,
E s t i m a t e of
Hoyt's
physical
Lertap
inventory
demonstrated
prevalence;
( N e l s o n , 1974) and
was made n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e
i n t e n d e d measure o f s y n e r g y .
the
of
item a n a l y s i s
Reliability
Subtest
statistics
reactions;
A decision
subtests:
jealousy
e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s ; and
to include
the subtest
was made f o l l o w i n g
study.
On t h e b a s i s
of feedback
changes
were made i n t h e o r i g i n a l
from t h e s u b j e c t s
wording
of items
the p i l o t
minor
numbered
8, 9, a n d 18.
The
interest
statistics
more i n terms
more a d v a n c e d
empirical
presented f o r the p i l o t
of f u t u r e
statistical
phase
of t h i s
study a r e of
s t u d i e s which
analysis
study which
than
incorporate
f o r purposes of the
uses o n l y
descriptive
118
statistics.
to assess
interest
the o v e r a l l
items
t h e main
the purpose
and r e s p o n s e
structuring
(especially
facilitate
Data
Otherwise,
and d a t a h a n d l i n g f o r
t o t h e commencement o f d a t a
(see appendix
300
s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelopes
unsealed,
t h e homes i n t h e h o u s i n g
B).
complex.
(see appendix
C) s t a t i n g :
participation
requirements;
participants
week
were d i s t r i b u t e d t o
In a d d i t i o n
to the
contained a cover
letter
of the study;
delivery
considerations.
the next
two n e w s l e t t e r s .
returned
t o t h e two c o l l e c t i o n
used
the f o l l o w i n g
of the r e t u r n
were d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e
During
the purpose
( s e t a t 21 d a y s a f t e r
the usual e t h i c a l
remind
collection
participation
and
to
and P r o c e d u r e s
One week p r i o r
deadline
about:
i n v e n t o r y ; wording of
i t e m s ) ; and f i n a l l y ,
of p r o c e d u r e s
was
study.
Collection
jealousy
study
and t o g a i n f e e d b a c k
of the adapted
subjective
refinement
of the p i l o t
of the e n v e l o p e s ) ;
Follow-up
notes to
d e a d l i n e were p u b l i s h e d i n
Seventy-seven
points.
i n three cases
inventories
Four
were
inventories
respondents
had n o t
thirds
of both
omitted.
objective
and s u b j e c t i v e
i t e m s had been
119
Sample Demography
The
final
demography
they
at
the
i n age
from
percent
level
of
93%
of
countries
residency)
and
responses to
culture
item
three
the
22
t o 43
the
subjects
(of b i r t h ,
7.
and
Iran
and
the
were C a u c a s i a n ,
New
Spain,
on
Table
1)
and
(and
range
the
the
one
and
the
Guyana,
The
and
Haida
were e a c h named
Paraguay,
Australia
"other"
West
Indies-y
Yugoslavia.
hence not
separately
i n c l u d e d : M e n n o n i t e , T a o i s t , Mormon,
Latter-Day
Saint,
"unclassified".
Seventy-three percent
second
subjective
separately
Zealand
Tosan, U n i t a r i a n , E v a n g e l i s t , Buddhist,
Agnostic
permanent
instances,
The*-Middle - E a s t ,
Kenya, S w i t z e r l a n d ,
indicated
i n the
many
I r e l a n d were e a c h named t w i c e
Italy-,
as
education
beyond.
Cree c u l t u r e i n
Columbia,
specified
(M=31; S.D.=2.7).
Canadians
were named o n c e : B r a z i l ,
Religions
In a d d i t i o n ,
f r e q u e n t l y named Canada,
Germany but
instance
1.
r e a r i n g and/or
Subjects
Their
i n d i c a t e d formal
d e g r e e or
following
Nigeria,
Table
years
respondents
O t h e r w i s e , J a p a n and
times,
by
Q u e b e c o i s c u l t u r e i n two
i n one
instance.
respondents.
c u l t u r e s were d e s c r i b e d
U.S.A., E n g l a n d and
specified
73
in part,
of a b a c h e l o r ' s
Although
different
included
i s described,
ranged
Sixty-four
sample
sibling
of
subjects
positions in their
f o r number of
were from
f a m i l i e s of
c h i l d r e n i n f a m i l i e s of
first
origin.
origin
was
or
The
from
1 20
Table 1
Frequencies
o f t h e Demographic V a r i a b l e s
Var i a b l e s
Subjects
Students
Race:
Caucasian
Negroid
Or i e n t a l
Canadian Indian
East Indian
Other
Religion:
None
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish
Moslem
Hindu
Sikh
Other
Twins
Total
Females
73
(100.0)
28
(100.0)
45
(100.0)
45
( 61.6)
16
( 57. 1 )
29
( 64.4)
68
2
1
1
( 93.2)
( 2.7)
(
1.4)
1.4)
(
24 ( 8 7 . 5 )
1 ( 3.6)
3.6)
1 (
3.6)
1 (
1
23
18
12
1
1.4)
( 3T.5)
( 24.7)
( 16.4)
(
1.4)
l9-( 26.0)
4
Ma l e s
Note.
1. Absolute
41
20
5
7
7 ( 25.0)
5.5)
( 56,.2)
( 27,.4)
( 6,.8)
( 9,.6)
and ( r e l a t i v e )
10 ( 2 2 . 2 )
14 ( 3 1 . 1 )
9 ( 20.0)
3.6)
12
( 26.7)
4 (
Present M a r i t a l or R e l a t i o n s h i p S t a t u s :
Single
6 ( 8.2)
4 ( 14.3)
Divorced
1 0 ( 13.7)
2 ( 7.1 )
Separated
8 ( 11.0)
2 ( 7.1 )
Widowed
Partnered
6 ( 8.2)
4 ( 14.3)
Cohabiting
6 ( 8.2)
2 ( 7.1)
Remarried
4 ( 5.5)
1 ( 3.6)
Married
33 ( 4 5 . 2 )
1 3 ( 46.4)
Other
Current Family:
Two-parent
Single-parent
Blended
Other
44 ( 9 7 . 8 )
1 ( 2.2)
3.6)
13 ( 4 6 . 4 )
4 (14.3)
3 ( 10.7)
1
1 6
3
2
7
( 5 7 ..1 )
( 10.,7)
( 7..1)
( 2 5 ..0)
8.9)
2 ( 4.4)
8 ( 17.8)
6 ( 13.3)
2 ( 4.4)
4- ( 8.9)
3 ( 6.7)
20 ( 4 4 . 4 )
25 ( 5 5 ,.6)
1 7 ( 37,.8)
3 ( 6..7)
frequencies
2. C a l c u l a t e d on b a s i s o f p o s i t i v e
Yes/No q u e s t i o n
response
to a
121
one
to eight with
represented
contained
three
'only'
i n t h e sample.
more t h a n
It
results
i s not f e a s i b l e
from t h i s
survey
allow
Therefore,
the researcher
I. J e a l o u s y :
f o r m u l t i p l e combinations
subjects
in
(Do y o u c o n s i d e r
review
labels.
to apply
The l i t e r a t u r e
t h a t women w i l l
no
the
status.
s u r p r i s e that
there
above q u e s t i o n
t o some
as r e s e a r c h e r s
inventory
extent
critiqued
be more l i k e l y
With these
yourself a
when t h e o r i g i n a l
I t s i n c l u s i o n assumes t h a t
of t h e o r e t i c a l
Trait-Based?
have t h e same t e n d e n c i e s
prediction
critique
only
and t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y .
the l i t e r a t u r e
jealous'
of data.
i s selective in presenting
j e a l o u s p e r s o n ? ) was n o t d e l e t e d
was a d a p t e d .
a l l of the o b j e c t i v e
b e c a u s e even t h e b a s i c d e s c r i p t i v e
19 o f t h e i n v e n t o r y
Item
household
and D i s c u s s i o n
r e s u l t s v i s a v i s the e a r l i e r
perspectives
'twins'
(M=3.4).
to present
statistics
key
The a v e r a g e c u r r e n t
3 people
Results
c h i l d r e n and f o u r
t h a n men t o
because of t h e i r
considerations
were no o c c a s i o n s
even t h o u g h t h i s
an a
d e p e n d e n t and
i n mind,
i t was
of non-response t o
a l t e r n a t i v e was
clearly
122
stated
i n the enclosed
The
refute
pattern
instructions.
of responses
or support
to this
item
trait-based theories
(19)
does n o t
of j e a l o u s y .
However,
i t demonstrates
the i n a c c u r a c i e s
that
applying
d i s p o s i t i o n a l l a b e l s on t h e b a s i s
result
from
of a s i n g l e
emot i o n .
Forty-eight
question
subjects
(66%) r e s p o n d e d
and 25 (34%) r e s p o n d e d
sample o n l y
25% (7) r e s p o n d e d
women d i d t h e same.jealousy
scores
emotional
response.
(19)
than males.
Of t h e 28 men i n t h e
while
40% (18) o f t h e 45
were a s s i g n e d "
of t h e i r
When a l l s c o r e s
more l i k e l y
to score
that
r e s p o n d e n t s ) would d o m i n a t e
mentioned
total
jealous
from w h i c h
found
i n t h e t o p two i n t e r v a l s w h i l e
t h e y were d e r i v e d )
were i n t h e same i n t e r v a l s .
(38%);
difference
females=45
persons
(62%)] along
scores.
the one-to-seven
Considering
i n sample
('yes'
f o r t h e above-
( i n accordance with
scale
porportionate
closely
t h e above median
i n t e r v a l s were c r e a t e d
scores
above t h e
l i k e l i h o o d of o c c u r r e n c e .
we would e x p e c t
When s e v e n
females
Logically,
stronger
were r a n k e d
However, sex a s i d e ,
a p p r o x i m a t e an i d e n t i c a l
total
summed r e s p o n s e s t o
females o v e r a l l i n d i c a t e d a
were a l s o p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
median
"yes"
When s u b j e c t s
on t h e b a s i s
emotional, r e a c t i o n s
"yes".
"no" t o t h e
15.5% o f a l l women
t h e much l a r g e r
structure
[n=73; males=28
with the p r e d i c t i o n
that
1 23
women a s a s u b g r o u p a r e more l i k e l y
jealous
not
t o be d i s p o s i t i o n a l l y
then
men, t h e n
they
s h o u l d be f o u n d
a lesser
frequency
than
men i n e s p e c i a l l y
intervals.
these
intervals
theories,
that
Even an i d e n t i c a l
would be i n c o n s i s t e n t
especially
given
t h e t o p two
with
trait-based
women a r e more l i k e l y
personalities
occurrence
with a greater
to f i n a l l y
ascribe
f o r the idea
to their
basic
the consequences of n e g a t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d
circumstances.
Random s a m p l i n g
interval
w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y
significance
these
a n d an a d e q u a t e number
of t h e above
experimental
to verify
findings.
the e m p i r i c a l
However, even
p r e c a u t i o n s , i t would be v e r y
to c o n t r o l
f o r the s o c i a l l y - i n f l u e n c e d
determined
and seemingly
categorize
themselves
theories
recommendation
II.
that
o f women t o
trait-based
lack
of evidence
separately
c o l l e a g u e s and c l i e n t s .
1 graphically
level
of t h e E m o t i o n ?
p o r t r a y s ( f o r a l l s u b j e c t s and
f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s )
a t each
supports a
c o u n s e l l o r s a v o i d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n and
caution their
Figure
("How
Hence,
responded
difficult
or s o c i a l l y -
g r e a t e r tendency
as j e a l o u s .
with
a n d r e s e a r c h on j e a l o u s y a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y
impractical
likewise
of cases per
t h e number
of the response
j e a l o u s a r e you a t t h i s
time
scale
i n your
o f s u b j e c t s who
f o r items
life?")
20 ;
124
F i g u r e 1. R e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t i o n s 20 ( s o l i d l i n e )
and 122 ( b r o k e n l i n e ) bu, q u e s t i o n 19 (Yes/No)
125
("Using y o u r own
graphs are
arid
"no"
further divided
responses
There
dotted
that
sex
being
are
end
of
regardless
phendnmenon.
answer"
The
("Are
shift
with
you
toward
the
whether or
the
solid
inventory
usual
answer
(Borg
The
b a s i s of
jealous
right
line.
"yes"
person?").
when
This
the
indicates
a l l subjects
(regardless
not
acknowledged
they
had
would commonly
by
subjects
that
than
by
fault
However,
case
in assessing
than at
effect
the
of
Given
subjects
the
this
a true
in a patterned
self-report
jealousy
beginning
definition,
reports
measure t o the
in
t o a c k n o w l e d g e and
their
true
conflicting
in s o l i c i t i n g
of
the
by
the
measure
which
general.
subjects
were
p e r h a p s more
end
b e c a u s e of a
way
extent
of
the
therapeutic
instrument.
that
much c a u t i o n
the
and
Using
the
difference
i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e that
inventory
with
responded
inaccuracy
accurate
that
efficient
demonstrates the
in this
respondent
p.311).
suggested
subjects
There
apparent
i n d i c a t e s "the
the
1979,
indicate a
i t is less
simply
given
be
of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would" a t t r i b u t e t h e
s e t which
& Gall,
it
or
19
you?).
the
to a response
between the
that
of
j e a l o u s are
j e a l o u s p e r s o n ) were r e p o r t i n g more j e a l o u s y .
many p o s s i b l e
shift
the
how
i n t o p a i r s on
item
i s compared
the
and
to
is a visible
line
by
definition,
was
no
definition
taken
of
to avoid
were e s s e n t i a l l y
jealousy
implying
responding
was
a
to the
presented
and
definition,
same q u e s t i o n
in
126
items
20
and
definition
be
122.
If they
when r e s p o n d i n g
a p r o j e c t i o n and
own
were a s s u m i n g a
definition
to
item
hence s t i l l
w h i c h was
the
20
researcher
i t would n e c e s s a r i l y
closely
criterion
comparable
to
for response
their
to
item
122.
Therefore,
the
usual
negative
assumptions
response
set
i n t e r m s of
i t s confounding
findings
can
be
in this
if
the
reversed
differences portrayed
response' s e t
because
i t . i s one
that
by
acts
i t demonstrates that
encouraged
presenting
their
reflecting
on
(see a p p e n d i x D),
experience
and
d e f i n i n g the
accuracy
their
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
s u b j e c t i v e and
overall
study
subjects.
i n terms of
jealousy,
negative
effects
o b j e c t i v e data
observations.
both
i n t e r m s of
main s t u d y
the
speaks to the
even
123
(requesting
to
insights/thoughts/experiences
contribute)
they
hence
item
k e e n n e s s and
to
large
pilot
keenness
content
which s u b j e c t s might
a l s o speaks to t h i s
supported
The
specific
responses
the
and
is also
The
of
to
E),
jealousy
of p a r t i c i p a n t s t o s e l f - e x p l o r e .
length)
After
self-report.
survey
the
with
their
phenomenological
r e s p o n s e t o the
and
by
inventory
(see a p p e n d i x
t o own
accurate
words,
way
feelings relative
emotion
were s e e m i n g l y more p r e p a r e d
In o t h e r
to the
p o s i t i v e and
examining
research
in a constructive
most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e
i t s ultimate
on
graph demonstrate a
responding
self-determined
effect
instance.
the
about
(and
other
wish
their
to
127
willingness
feelings,
appendix
t o s h a r e and
t h o u g h t s , and
F,
especially
Alternatively,
set
i s an
aspect
objective
(which
codes
possibly
items
cognitive
39 and
43).
suggested
that
demonstration
of the
Interpreted
19 and
prior
the
Of
in relation
an
of t h e s e e v e n t s
(see
response
to the
jealousy
actual
r e - e x p e r i e n c i n g of
inventory.
If
is insufficient
in
f o r these d i f f e r e n c e s ,
responses
item
(122)
may
o r more a c c u r a t e
that
i s experienced following
Again,
the
speak
emotion.
approached
accumulated
"true"
phenomenological
interpretation.
code 06)
the
The
on
by
fellow
and
evidence
subjective
one
on
t o the
final
feeling
self-exploration.
supports the
responses
b e h a l f of the s u g g e s t e d
Also,
122
differences
accounting
reflect
their
to responding to item
d u r i n g c o m p l e t i o n of t h e
recall
of
phenomenological
2 0 ) , the d e m o n s t r a t e d
the. e f f e c t
use
jealousy
most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h
indicate
emotion
22,
be
subjects contributed
but a f t e r
the
about
experiences with
i t can
of the emotion.
statements
make more c o n s t r u c t i v e
several
above
(e.g., appendix
r e - e x p e r i e n c i n g of
o c c a s i o n s the r e s e a r c h e r
community members.
non-respondent
F,
Process notes
was
were
i s n o t e d as s a y i n g :
"It's
s i t t i n g t h e r e l o o k i n g a t me, p a r t of me wants
t o do i t and p a r t o f me d o e s n ' t .
I g u e s s I'm a f r a i d
of what i t might s t i r up f o r me.
I'm a s i n g l e p a r e n t
and I've gone t h r o u g h a l o t g e t t i n g t o t h e p o i n t t h a t
I'm now a t .
I j u s t want t o l e t a l l t h a t go now, y e t
I know a l o t of i t i s s t i l l t h e r e and I g u e s s
I'm
a f r a i d the j e a l o u s y q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l r e a l l y s t i r i t
a l l up a g a i n " .
128
This person's
indecision
was
seemingly based
a w a r e n e s s o f t h e phenomena b e i n g d i s c u s s e d .
participating
Further
would
conversation
to p a r t i c i p a t e
resolution.
because
because
negative
of h e r
reveals
jealous
emotions.
encouragement
complete
for counselling
because,
i n the p r o c e s s
h e r an a l t e r n a t e
feelings
that
may
and
less
have
only
becomes e v i d e n t
without
data.
o b s e r v a t i o n s and
that
subjects'
from
losing
by
figure
one
be p o r t r a y e d by
the o b j e c t i v e
s e p a r a t e d from
evaluations
set demonstrated
more t h a n c a n
phenomenological
be
i s s u e s and
the response
something
interpretating
cannot
referred
that
h e r responses-.
In e s s e n c e ,
it
was
past
she wanted
an
sensed
t o r e a c h a more
the r e s e a r c h e r o f f e r e d
view
influenced
that
of a wish
of her p a r t i c u l a r
She
in re-experiencing
indicated
I n s t e a d , she
of h e l p i n g ,
and
result
on
When b o t h
f i n d i n g s are
insights
their
combined
and e x p e r i e n c e
objective
a large part
empirical
self-
of t h e
"whole"
meaning.
III.
J e a l o u s y and
Sibling
separately
then
73%
12 and
Sibling
position
adding
13
was
Position
determined
for a l l subjects
responses to inventory
(see appendix
o f t h e sample were f r o m
their
families
of o r i g i n .
along
w i t h t h e wide range
A).
first
Given
of
items
As p r e v i o u s l y
and
this
family
10 and
by
11
mentioned,
second p o s i t i o n s
sample
size
and
in
characteristic
(and t h e r e f o r e
the
1 29
vast
possibilities
evident
beyond
that d e s c r i p t i v e
saying that
distributed
for
total
IV.
i n a random
Jealousy
responses
a r e not
and
siblings
second
f a s h i o n above and
t h e means and
again
meaningful
were
below
seemingly
the
standard
median
deviations (for
s e p a r a t e l y f o r males and
'jealousy prevalence'
scores are h i g h e s t
adolescence
and
findings
A r o n s o n and
by
statistics
i t is
response.
2 presents
to
family constellations)
Prevalence
s u b j e c t s and
that
first
emotional
Table
all
i n t e r m s of
f o r both
m a l e s and
young a d u l t h o o d .
Pines
for
I t i s noteworthy
females
In c o n t r a s t t o
during
the
(1983) d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r
two,
subjects in this
sample, on
less
j e a l o u s d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d than
items.
females)
females
the
are
average,
during
reported
being
adulthood.
considered separately
m a l e s r e p o r t more c h i l d h o o d j e a l o u s y t h a n
females
(M=3.4 v s .
2.7).
V.
General
Reactions
Table
3 presents
responses
the
to
items
inventory.
more t h a n
Subjects
'days'
Jealousy
t h e means and
i n the
extreme e x p e r i e n c e s
for
to
with
but
'general
on
standard
r e a c t i o n s ' s u b s e c t i o n of
the average
jealousy are
less
than
deviations for
reported that
'rare'
and
'weeks' and
they
are
last
coped
130
Table
Jealousy
P r e v a l e n c e Q u e s t i o n s : Means and
Standard D e v i a t i o n s
Total
(n=73)
Males
(n=28)
Females
(n=45)
SD
SD
19. Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f
a j e a l o u s person?
1=Yes, 2=No
1.7
0.5
1.7
0.4
1.6
0.5
20.
How j e a l o u s a r e you a t
t h i s time i n your l i f e ?
1=not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.4
2.4
1.1
21.
During childhood
1 = n o t a t a l l ' - ' . . . 7=extremely
2.9
1.5
3.4
1.5
2.7
1.5
22.
During adolescence .
1-not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y
3.9
1.6
4.4
1.6
3.7
1.6
23. D u r i n g young a d u l t h o o d
1=not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y
3.9
1.7
3.7
1.8
4.0
1.6
24.
3.0
1.4
2.8
1.2
3.0
1.4
Question
During adulthood
1=not a t a l l ...
SD
7=extremely
25.
Have any of y o u r i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s ended
b e c a u s e of y o u r j e a l o u s y ?
1=none ... 7 = a l l o f them
1.6
1.1
1.6
0.9
1.6
1.1
26.
1.3
2.0
1.0
2.1
1.5
2.5
1.6
2.9
1.9
yes
131
Table
General
Reaction
Questions:
Means and S t a n d a r d
Deviations
Total
(n=73)
Males
(n=28)
Females
(n=45)
Question
SD
SD
SD
4.4 1 .6
89. R e c a l l i n g y o u r most e x t r e m e
e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y , how
long d i d the experience
last?
1=seconds ... 4=days ... 7=years
4 .3
1 .5
4. 5 1 .6
3.0 0.9
2 .7
1 .0
3. 2 0 .9
91 . Do you t h i n k you c o p e d w e l l
w i t h t h e extreme s i t u a t i o n
you
described?
1=very p o o r l y ... 7=very w e l l
4.2 1.7
4 <4
1 .8
4. 1 1 .7
92. Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r
j e a l o u s y a problem?
1=not a t a l l ... 7=a v e r y
2.2 1 .5
1 .9 1 .5
2. 5 1 .5
4 .9 1 .7
4. 0 1 .8
3 .7 0 .8
3. 8 0 .7
s e r i o u s one
3.8 0.8
95. Do you t h i n k t h a t j e a l o u s y
,5.7 1 .6
i s a normal response i n
certain situations?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y n o t ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y yes
6 .0
1 .2
5. 4 1 .7
2 .0
1 .0
2. 1 1 .5
132
with
'averagely
jealousy
was
not
"occasionally"
average,
not
The
"rarely".
t o be
t o be
to
females.
i t e m s 92
their
subjects
mild
The
jealousy
response
jealousy
an
appropriate
differences
and
93
be
are
l e s s of
findings
stop being
by
White
interpretation
jealous.
(1976,
i s posed
1980
in certain
situations
thus
apparent
the
average
in that
and
they p o s s i b l y
r e l a t i o n s h i p and
h e n c e her
l e s s powerful p o s i t i o n .
support
i n the
m a l e s and
especially
but
the
females
to
c o d e s 01,
i t e m s 28,
02,
08,
await
29,
09,
subjective
and
25,
30
36,
(see
41,
the
Again,
more
interpretation also
between
the
d e p e n d e n c e on
these d i f f e r e n c e s
above
differences
and
reflect
involvement
advanced a n a l y s i s
their
similar
emotional
s i g n i f i c a n c e of
did
support
female's greater
statistical
than
in reporting
These d i f f e r e n c e s
1981)
in
a problem
M a l e s were a l s o more c o n f i d e n t
to
the
status.
w i t h m a l e s on
to
on
reaction
taboo
that
occurred
i n extreme
sex
jealousy
reported
e m o t i o n was,
normal
i t s ongoing
most v i s i b l e
considering
"a
In c o n t r a s t ,
supporting
responses
ability
not
considered
seemingly
Overall,
a p r o b l e m but
reported
situations".
was
well'.
finds
responses
by
appendix
D,
46,
48,
55
and
56) .
VI.
Physical
Table
Reactions
4 lists
responses to
the
28
and
to
Jealousy
ranks the
'physical
ten
highest
reaction'
means
for
items, again
for a l l
1 33
subjects
and s e p a r a t e l y
f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s .
Table
Ranking
of P h y s i c a l R e a c t i o n s
T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e
4
on B a s i s
o f Mean R e s p o n s e
M a l e s (n=28)
Mean Response
F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean Response
Fast
heartbeat
3. 6
Shakey
3. 4
Fast
heartbeat
3. 9
Shakey
3. 5
Fast
heartbeat
3. 1
Energized
3. 9
Energized
3. 5
Stomach empty
3. 0
Insomnia
3. 6
Insomnia
3. 2
Blood
2. 9
Shakey
3. 6
2. 8
Appetite
loss
3. 2
Hot
2. 7
Stomach empty
3. 2
Energ i z e d
2. 7
Blood
rushing
3. 1
short
3. 0
Stomach
Blood
rushing
empty 3. 1 .A p p e t i t e
l o s s 3. 1
Appetite
r u s h i n g 3. 0
loss
Trembling
hands
2. 8
Insomnia
2. 6
Breath
Hot
2. 6
Exhausted
2. 6
Trembling
hands
3. 0
2. 6
Trembling
hands
2. 5
Sweaty
2. 6:
Breath
Note.
short
In t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were a n s w e r e d on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .
noteworthy
that
although
the ten r e a c t i o n s
sample a r e a l l m o d e r a t e l y
describe
or
It i s
an a u t o n o m i c
seemingly,
w e i g h t e d and g e n e r a l l y
nervous
the 'jealous
f o r the t o t a l
system
flash'
they
fight-flight
described
i n the
response
134
literature.
However, f e m a l e s
considerably
h i g h e r than males p o s s i b l y
tendency
also
to fight
generally
rather
than
flee.
several
threat
be g r e a t e r f o r t h e f e m a l e
earlier
reactions
response,
feelings
support
than
social
a autonomic
a greater
responses are
that
again
the f e l t
f o r t h e male
s t a t u s and h e r
Also,
because
nervous
s e n s a t i o n s ) may be g e n e r a l i z e d
He s a y s
not i t s essence"
these
system
i s g i v e n t o Solomon's" (197/6) t h e s i s
emotions.
emotion,
that
t o many
responses
5 lists
and r a n k s
t h e t e n h i g h e s t means f o r
t o t h e 30 ' e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n '
s u b j e c t s and s e p a r a t e l y
and
inferior
describe
(as v i s c e r a l
different
VII.
interpretations
d e p e n d e n c e on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
physical
of
Female
somewhat h i g h e r t h a n male r e s p o n s e s
supporting
may
indicating
for a l l
f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s .
females are c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y
"envy",
items
"fear
When-males
of l o s s " ,
among t h e t e n h i g h e s t means f o r f e m a l e s b u t n o t f o r m a l e s .
Again,
female
responses.
responses o v e r a l l
a r e higher than
male
f o r females.
This
stereo-typically
finding
c o n s i d e r e d t o be j e a l o u s y
that
what
i s seemingly
1 35
Table 5
Ranking of Emotional
Reactions
T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e
on B a s i s o f Mean
M a l e s (n=28)
Mean R e s p o n s e
Response
F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean Response
Anger
4 .8
Humilation
4 .5
Anger
5 .2
Resentment
4 .6
Depression
4 .3
Rage
5. 1
Rage
4 .6
Resentment
4 .2
Resentment
4 .8
Humiliation
4 .5
Anger
Excluded
4 .8
Anxiety
4 .4
Frustration
3 .9
Anxiety
4 .7
Excluded
4 .3
Self-pity
3 .9
Fear
4 .6
F r u s t r a t ion
4 .3
Anxiety
3 .8
Low
Depression
4 .3
Rage
3 .8
Frustration
4 .5
Fear
4 .2
Vulnerability
3 .0. H u m i l i a t i o n
4 .5
4 .2
Excluded
3 .6
Possessiveness
4 .4
4. 1
Pain
3 .6
Envy
4 .4
of l o s s
Low s e l f image
Inferiority
Note.
4 .0
s e l f - i m a g e 4 .6
I n t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were answered on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .
b a s e d on e m o t i o n s t h a t t y p i f y
if
traditional
of
a focus
depression
It
on i t s e l e m e n t s o f p a i n ,
and s e l f - p i t y
i s also
total
woman's e x p e r i e n c e .
Perhaps
j e a l o u s man" r a t h e r t h a n
the
of l o s s
sample
then
t h e s t e r e o - t y p e would be " t h e
" t h e j e a l o u s women".
noteworthy t h a t
"envy"
vulnerability,
i n the t o p t e n rankings f o r
i s n o t on t h e l i s t
image" a p p e a r s o n l y n i n t h .
and "low s e l f -
The a b s e n c e o f envy
in this
136
ranking
s u p p o r t s a v i e w of
something
more and
ranking
of
for
female
the
subsample
relegate
"low
j e a l o u s y as a d i s c r e t e
different
than
envy.
The
s e l f - i m a g e " f o r the t o t a l
subsample
ranking)
(as w e l l
as
supports White's
emotion
relatively
sample
i t s absence
s e l f - e s t e e m t o a more p e r i p h e r a l
role
low
listing
i n the
(1976) d e c i s i o n
and
male
to
i n models of
jealousy.
Unlike
m a l e s and
'physical
females
highest
rankings
females
and
responses
females
finding
and
f o r the
a r e anger
for rating
was
results
t h e most p o i g n a n t
and
rage
and
top
elemental
emotions
f o r t h e male t h e y
that
also
both
and
the
this
on
socialization
of
the
feel
separate
anger,
humiliation
f o r the
the
emotional
Comparing
females,
two
interactionally
i n somewhat d i f f e r i n g
under
for
experience,
Reflecting
the
very
j e a l o u s y as an
emotion.
the
from' t h o s e
The
individual's
anxiety, frustration
and
time
Re-emphasizing
jealousy experiences.
resentment,
this
markedly
(1976) view of e m o t i o n s ,
seemingly
where t o p r a n k i n g s f o r
sample.
rage.
the
a v i e w of
r a n k i n g s under m a l e s and
anger
total
and
influenced
j u d g e m e n t s of
rage,
similar,
f o r males a r e h u m i l i a t i o n
socially
sexes
items
f o r males d i f f e r
supports
Solomon's
were v e r y
those
they
criterion
reaction'
female
are h u m i l i a t i o n
but
are
and
depression.
Using
synergistic
Bartell's
couples
(1977) c r i t e r i a
(thus v e r i f y i n g
to i d e n t i f y
a high l e v e l
highly
of
social
137
and
possibly
economic
hypothesized
would not
that
differ
for these
necessary
emotion
in their
emotions.
i n acceptance
of
i t could
relationships.,
significantly
jealousy's elemental
evenuate
interdependence)
m a l e s and
rankings
differences
or
between t h e
this
hypothesis
in addition
sexes
females
of
However, i f f i n d i n g s
i t will
t o c o n s i d e r t h e common p u r p o s e s e r v e d
r a t h e r than,
be
still
by
the
to, s i m i l a r i t i e s
i n terms of
be
and
internal
exper i e n c e .
VIII.
list
Coping
With
Table
6 lists
of
'coping with
24
sample, m a l e s and
The
and
ranks
females
the
i s evident.
socially
"negotiation"
t e n h i g h e s t means f o r t h e
Again
the
total
are each c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y .
The
higher
female
top three
acceptable
appears
the
j e a l o u s y ' items.
same p a t t e r n of o v e r a l l
responses
are
Jealousy
than
items
male
a c r o s s the
" t h i n g s t o do".
table
However,
c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e c on- the' l i s t - ,
supporting
a suggestion
that
j e a l o u s y i s not
recognized
as a t r i g g e r
for interdependent
thus-
typically
change t o
the
relationship.
A l s o apparent
items
suggest
antagonistic
a female
ranking
tendency
i s t h a t the next
t o g i v e more w e i g h t
or a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r s
g i v e more w e i g h t
a withdrawal.
in this
to behaviours
Reflecting
on
and
several
to
a male t e n d e n c y
that portray a c l o s i n g
Constantine's
(1976)
to
o f f or
typology
138
Table 6
Ranking
T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e
Items on B a s i s
M a l e s (n=28)
Mean R e s p o n s e
o f Mean
F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean R e s p o n s e
Thinking
through
4 .8
Thinking
through
4.5
Thinking
through
5. 0
Acceptance
4 .2
Acceptance
4.4
Rational
discussion
4. 1
Rational
discussion
4. 1
Rational
discussion
3.9
Acceptance
4. 2
Sarcasm
3 .6
Withdrawal
3.5
Sarcasm
3. 8
Withdrawal
3 .4
Stoney
3.4
Crying
3. 7
Arguing
3 .4
I solation'
Arguing
3. 6
Isolation
3 .2
Sarcasm
Negotiation
3. 4
Stoney
s i l e n c e 3 .2
silence
3.3
Suffer
silently
3.0
+ visibly
Withdrawal
3. 3
2.9
+ covertly
I s o l a t ion
3. 2
Negot i a t i o n
3. 1
Suffer
silently
Crying
2 .9
Negotiation
Note.
of
2.7
Stoney
s i l e n c e 3. 0
In t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were a n s w e r e d on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .
jealous
behaviours discussed
antagonistic,
redefinitional
females a r e r e p o r t i n g
i n t h e ways t h a t
likely
to preserve
i n chapter
two
and r e s o l u t i o n a l )
a greater
behave
with
' 3.4
tendency
(isolational,
i t seems
than males t o
Constantine maintains w i l l
the r e l a t i o n s h i p .
that
This
i s also
t h e many v i e w s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d
be more
congruent
i n chapter
1 39
two
in that
the
female's
g r e a t e r d e p e n d e n c y on
r e l a t i o n s h i p a b d i c a t e s her
Again,
these d i f f e r e n c e s
so a p p a r e n t
on
economically
of t h e i r
differences
occurred
on
higher
1.2
membership
the
in socially
"crying",
of
24
and
i t e m s t h e most
"screaming"
F o r a l l t h r e e items' f e m a l e
t h a n male means
and
(3.7
vs
1.6;
and
"throwing
means were
2.5
f e m a l e s were a l s o
considerably
1.6;
and
1.5).
A l t h o u g h a l l o f t h e s e means a r e r e l a t i v e l y
may
important.
and
4 out
violence
as a r e a c t i o n
One
reaction
and
subjectively
feeling,
i t is a killer"
ratings
male a c k n o w l e d g e d
remembered t h a t
reporting
on
physical
this
( o r 14%)
to jealousy
more o f t e n .
must be
than males
A c c o r d i n g l y , n i n e of t h e
of 28 m a l e s
beseeched
v i o l e n c e may
item.
occurs
i t as h i s
be
low
vs
they
females
(or
physical
"rarely"
or
"usual"
70).
undesirability
resulting
vs
more
(1.6
" t r y t o overcome
(appendix. F, code
the s o c i a l
45
acknowledged
that
2.0
very s l i g h t l y
t o acknowledge p h y s i c a l
20%)
violence
vs
females
likely
be
be
f o r study
items
respectively)
identified
not
relationships.
t h e whole l i s t
apparent
things".
f e m a l e s were
interdependent
Considering
to preserve i t .
i n c o p i n g mechanisms m i g h t
i f m a l e s and
the b a s i s
g r e a t e r need
the
this
Also, i t
of
i n lower
1 40
H y p o t h e s e s and I m p l i c a t i o n s
As
has been
empirical
phase of t h i s
based only
along
with
( i n c l u d i n g data
broader
study
are preliminary.
a w a i t s more a d v a n c e d
When c o n s i d e r e d
They a r e
and t h e i r
statistical
analysis.
f i n d i n g s of the phenomenological
i n t h e a p p e n d i c e s ) t h e y promote a
conceptualization
to as " j e a l o u s y " ,
Research
on d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s
"significance"
phase
frequently
f o r Future
o f t h e human e x p e r i e n c e
thus a c h i e v i n g
the o v e r a l l
referred
purpose of the
study.
It
i s hoped t h a t
research
on j e a l o u s y
this
that
study
again
will
i n each phase.
empirical
generation-of
methods t h a t a r e
Hence, among o t h e r
phase of t h i s
study
hypotheses
i s used
things, the
to exemplify
from p r e l i m i n a r y
Several
are
of o b j e c t i v e data-,
of the subsections
again
briefly
implications
counselling
research
for future
I above
result
hypotheses using
t h e above
be *-presented*.
7
and D i s c u s s i o n "
o f new h y p o t h e s e s and
Specific
implications for
from b o t h p h a s e s o f t h i s
i n chapter
implies
"Results
in light
research.
practice derived
are presented
Section
jealousy
discussed
from
o n l y a- few- w i l l
under
the
findings.
A l t h o u g h many h y p o t h e s e s c a n be e x t r a p o l a t e d
discussion
future
c o m b i n e s e m p i r i c a l and
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l approaches but u s i n g
additive
encourage
that
five.
t r a i t - b a s e d t h e o r i e s of
in inconsistent research
findings.
Thus
categorizations
141
of
i n d i v i d u a l s are
b a s e d on
well
as
the
on
chapter
the
Instead,
the
different
and
issues
in
who
i n terms of
change.
and
the
consider
r o l e s than
the
r o l e s as
II
aimed a t
development
experience
frequent
B o r g and
goal
of
research
take
"research
and
also
or
Gall
be
viewing
the
assessment
of
subject,
As
and
found
preliminary
of
VII,
and
VII)
e x i s t i n g programs
for
problems with
(1979) s t a t e t h a t
the
couples
jealousy.
primary
methodology
incorporate
of
past.
s e c t i o n s VI,
(R&D)
of
the
less frequently
i n the
of
should
f o r more s o c i a l
ongoing
knowledge and
of
i t s role in
group t h e r a p i e s
development
i n terms
dynamics change.
improvement
new
dynamics
p r e s e n c e or a b s e n c e
implements
the
of
Instead
f o r the
women may
(and
examine
about
possibility
t h e y were
that
Couple
research
allow
i n c r e a s i n g l y allow
be
Accordingly,
Future
as
the r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
i n t e r m s of
will
changing
the
research
researched
process.
examined
section
above c o u l d
and/or
be
future
be
re.s.earch
study.
assumptions
can
jealousy
research
of
this
d e p e n d e n c e on
interdependence,
Future
and
cooperation
of
agent
'subject'
findings
beliefs
methods t h a t
relationships
economic
in jealousy
the
i t can
and
f i n d i n g s of
boundaries,
reciprocity
object
previous
triangles.
dynamic p r o c e s s
role
of
roles
behaviour
incorporate
critique
implication is
that
they e f f e c t
pathology
two
This
i t i s recommended
p o w e r - s h a r i n g and
individual
recommended.
objective
s u c h as
relationship
how
not
i t into a
i s to
product
1 42
that
c a n be u s e d "
implies
purposes
effect
Alternatively,
individuals
i t might
selected
differences
i n terms of t h e i r
experiences
with
be u s e d
cannot
without
one i n d i v i d u a l
changes i n
t o t h e same a n d / o r
experiences.
be u s e d t o
individual
alot
and c o u p l e
i t s expression.
Or, i t
the o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s of
be s e p a r a t e d
losing
from
of v a l u a b l e
the s u b j e c t i v e
understanding.
between t h e a n g e r and r a g e
described
and t h e h u m i l i a t i o n and v u l n e r a b i l i t y
by t h e n e x t
(forsimilar
also
j e a l o u s y and w i t h
Hence, t h e d i f f e r e n c e
very
in a
t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and
t o d e m o n s t r a t e how
human e x p e r i e n c e
be
"coping
c o u l d be used
individual
jealousy
might
for participants
In
The
and a b r o a d e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
j e a l o u s y , the instrument
described
t o assess or
a p r o g r a m t h a t p r o m o t e s s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n and
negotiation.skills
experience
be u s e d
i n response
demonstrate
by
i t may be u s e f u l f o r
of the instrument
h y p o t h e t i c a l or r e a l
Given
might
Hence,
f a s h i o n t o measure
of behaviours
different
of
r e s e a r c h had a.
f o r the group e x p e r i e n c e .
jealousy" section
teaches
in this
on s u b j e c t s .
pre-test/post-test
types
used
I I above
o f f o r m a t i v e and summative e v a l u a t i o n o f s u c h
programs.
with
therapeutic
prepare
(p.623).
beliefs,
experiences
to a l a r g e extent
v a l u e s and
terms o f i m p l i c a t i o n s
with
by t h e i r
unique
assumptions.
for section
r e l e v a n t t h a t t h e sample o f p e o p l e
I I I above,
who
i t may
responded
to
143
the
jealousy
second
inventory
siblings.
positions
was c o n s t i t u t e d
Perhaps
have a g r e a t e r
Future
research
by 73% f i r s t
i n d i v i d u a l s from
need t o e x p l o r e
that
uses very
of
e x p e r i e n c e s and v a r i o u s
sibling
chapter
of a s s o c i a t i o n s
two d i s c u s s i o n s
power o r s t a t u s ,
provide
a u s e f u l context
development
others)
coping
that
of b e l i e f s
that
mechanisms.
society
Given the
between
j e a l o u s y and
sibling
position
would
which
to explore
the
and a s s u m p t i o n s
This
(about
self
and most
and i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
i f we assume
important
u n i t of
cooperative
that
were s u g g e s t e d
(by t h e
from a n t h r o p o l o g y
and s o c i o l o g y '
section)
influential
t o t h e outcomes o f j e a l o u s y
Two h y p o t h e s e s a r e s t a t e d
implications
and
s e l e c t i o n of e f f e c t i v e
i s e s p e c i a l l y relevant
i s the f i r s t
could
jealousy
i n t e r m s of l e a r n i n g and p r a c t i c i n g t h e
'perspectives
being
within
samples
positions.
e i t h e r enhance o r impede
the f a m i l y
values
i t seems t h a t
sibling
the t o p i c .
large
examine t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n
these
and
for section
in null
as
experiences.
terms t o
exemplify
IV a b o v e :
1. T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e ( s e l f - r e p o r t ) o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f f e l t
t h r e a t when an h y p o t h e t i c a l j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e i s
i d e n t i c a l l y described for a l l subjects.
2.
T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a
h y p o t h e t i c a l and p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g
jealousy
e x p e r i e n c e when t h e l a t t e r i s i d e n t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d
for a l l subjects.
144
The
using
first
objective
'general
the
o f t h e above h y p o t h e s e s c o u l d
reactions'
inventory
could
used
be t e s t e d
judges
items
(blind
s i m i l a r t o some of t h o s e under t h e
and ' e m o t i o n a l
in this
by u s i n g
reactions'
research.
an e x p e r t
segmented
from e a c h h y p o t h e s i s would t h e n
be v e r i f i e d
group.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , subjects
used as t h e judges
provided
categories for
responses.
be compared.
by t h e s u b j e c t s ,
panel of
who would be
The r e s u l t s
To
a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l phase t h e c a t e g o r i e s ' a n d / o r
could
hypothesis
and i n d e p e n d e n t
t o t h e sex o f s u b j e c t s )
o f whole a n d / o r
s e c t i o n s of
The s e c o n d
w i t h a v a r i e t y of t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d
placement
be t e s t e d by
incorporate
findings
i n d i v i d u a l l y or as a
( i n an open
for categorizing
forum) c o u l d
be
t h e p o o l e d anonymous
data.
The
hypothesis already
s u g g e s t e d and d i s c u s s e d
s e c t i o n V I I above c a n be s t a t e d
in null
under
terms a s :
1. T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e r a n k i n g s o f e l e m e n t a l e m o t i o n s when an
h y p o t h e t i c a l and p o t e n t i a l l y j e a l o u s y - e v o k i n g
e x p e r i e n c e i s i d e n t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d - f o r s u b j e c t s whoa r e ( i n d i v i d u a l l y ) members of c o u p l e s p r e v i o u s l y
a s s e s s e d t o be h i g h l y s y n e r g i s t i c .
The
could
any
'emotional
be u s e d
reactions'
f o r measurement
s e c t i o n of the
o f t h e above h y p o t h e s i s and
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s
tested
f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e by u s i n g
(Glass
& Stanley,
assessment
1970, pp.
inventory
i n t h e r a n k i n g s would be
a two-tailed
316-317).
Again,
would be s e r v e d
Kendall's
subjective
by t h e
145
emotion
f o r each s u b j e c t
(relative
to the h y p o t h e t i c a l
situation)
would enhance
constitute
Finally,
VIII
h y p o t h e s e s c a n be d e r i v e d
i n t e r m s of e x a m i n i n g
mechanisms.
of
various
jealousy
potentially
and h e n c e
methodology
i s highly
I t i s evident
t h e gap between
that
recommended
research
Chapter
This
study.
chapter
study, data
collection
The p r e s e n t a t i o n
dealing
with
with
perspectives.
were g e n e r a t e d
along
with
many
the e m p i r i c a l phase of t h i s
pool,
preliminary,
t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y
theoretical
and p r a c t i c e .
the instrument,
including
the p i l o t
demography.
only
because of i t s aim t o
and m e t h o d o l o g y were p r e s e n t e d ,
a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s u b j e c t
this
Summary
has p r e s e n t e d
The d e s i g n
i n terms
and f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f p r e l i m i n a r y
problematic
bridge
section
sex d i f f e r e n c e s and c o p i n g
A g a i n R&D m e t h o d o l o g y would be u s e f u l
implementation
findings.
from
of r e s u l t s "
wa-s-selective-rn>
key f i n d i n g s
i n accordance
and t h e e a r l i e r
Finally,
from t h e p r e l i m i n a r y
c r i t i q u e of
s e v e r a l hypotheses
f i n d i n g s were
implications f o r future
research.
that
presented
146
CHAPTER IV
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
The
study.
last
chapter
presented
phase.
t o the s u b j e c t i v e data
This chapter
the phenomenological
Subjects'
appendices
integrating
this
which
D, E a n d F) c o n s t i t u t e
responses
i n a way t h a t
inter-comparisons
frequent
t h e body
phase.
verbatim
interpretations,
thus
made
d i s c u s s e s the s u b j e c t i v e data
(contained w i t h i n appendices
and
t h e e m p i r i c a l phase of t h i s
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the o b j e c t i v e data
references
of
PHASE
are organized
facilitates
of d a t a .
reader
To o f f e r
within the
interpretation
some o f h e r own
t h e r e s e a r c h e r e x t r a c t s a few major
e l e m e n t s o r themes from
e a c h o f two main
participant
definitions
of j e a l o u s y
participant
d e s c r i p t i o n s of j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s (see
appendix D).
theory
Finally,
development
discussed
are presented,
i n chapter
Participant
loss
f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and
adding
t o those- a l r e a d y
of J e a l o u s y : A D i s c u s s i o n
definitions
of j e a l o u s y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
Female s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s
male s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s .
and
( s e e a p p e n d i x E ) ; and
three.
Definitions
Participants'
appendix E.
implications
s e c t i o n s of data:
are separated
C o n s i d e r i n g both
together,
from
fear
emerge a s t h e major d e s c r i p t o r s o f t h e e m o t i o n .
147
Otherwise,
betrayal;
subjects
deception;
confusion;
self,
envy; t r u s t
partner,
or about
i n terms of s e l f ,
rivalry;
competition
covetousness;
partner
or the r e l a t i o n s h i p ) ;
a focus
than
one o f r e s i g n a t i o n o r a c c e p t a n c e .
i s more one o f p r e v e n t i o n
apparent q u a l i t y of p r e s e r v a t i o n ,
20,
negative
evaluations
"stimulus"
(as b e i n g
the
subject's
definitions
descriptors.
products
creating)
( c o d e s 09, 10,
i t s ongoing negative
use more
or
logical
resources"
which
theories
"there
teaching
we p l a y
this
(code
view
little
part
results in
who s e e
(code 0 3 ) .
by I z a r d
"source"
view of emotions
by s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s
i s no c u r e
of emotion
have d i r e c t
Seemingly,
expressed
as "automatic"
that
"effect",
"cause",
The t r a d i t i o n a l
i s evident.
hopelessness
jealousy
for
of t h i s
a l s o make
of t h e e m o t i o n
in
or p r o t e c t i o n
status.
Overall,
or
elemental
In s p i t e
subjects
taboo
The
possessiveness;
f i t a framework o f a n t i c i p a t e d g r i e f
with
frequent
with
the r e l a t i o n s h i p ; inadequacy
and hope o r h o p e l e s s n e s s .
that
pain;
an i n s e c u r i t y
or f e a r of c o m p e t i t i o n ;
e m o t i o n s named b r o a d l y
hurt;
or l a c k of i t ; doubt;
i n d i g n a t i o n ; anger; h o s t i l i t y ;
about
(again
name: d e s i r e ; l o v e ; c a r e ;
It i s a "sickness"
(code
60)
06).
The
(1976) t h u s
i m p l i c a t i o n f o r c o u n s e l l i n g p r a c t i c e i n terms o f
ways o f v i e w i n g , our
1 48
e m o t i o n s and t h e r o l e s t h e y
Male d e f i n i t i o n s
cognitive
variety
toward
locus
the external
negative
more f r e q u e n t
descriptors
subject's
the
internal
(codes
status
subjects
this
emotion
recognize
being
they
have some
a fundamental
e v o k e d by b o t h
this
liason.
i n t o the s o c i a l
above.
though
of
the
they
external factors,
t o "blame" t h e m s e l v e s f o r
by making n e g a t i v e
Again,
nature
i n terms of j e a l o u s y
and ( s o c i a l )
males) tend
of the
confirms
maintaining
Thus even
reciprocity
emotion
public.
i s an
some t h r e a t t o
This perception
insight
internal
"personalities".
general
there
an a n t i c i p a t e d d i m i n u t i o n
but i t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
e s s e n c e o f more r e c e n t
the
by
i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p and/or
(and e s p e c i a l l y
their
typified
their
o f d e c e i t , b e t r a y a l o r abandonment o f
view d e s c r i b e d
experiencing
of p a t h o l o g y
explain
by t h e o b j e c t ,
that
partially
more
b o t h male and f e m a l e d e f i n i t i o n s
b o u n d a r i e s of t h e i r
negative
l o c u s and an even
f o r t h e e m o t i o n may
perception
subject
In male d e f i n i t i o n s t h e
s u c h as " s i c k n e s s " ,
Throughout
apparent
t h r e a t and i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y i n f l u e n c e d
attribution
"irrationality"
w h i c h name a w i d e r
d e s c r i p t o r s and a r e d i r e c t e d more
o f a more
status
process.
of the emotion.
combination
i n our l i f e
female d e f i n i t i o n s
of emotional
qualities
the
than
play
this
a t t r i b u t i o n s to
i s evidence
that the
t h e o r i e s o f e m o t i o n has n o t r e a c h e d
Otherwise,
there
would be a
greater
149
balance
in subjective
recognizing
jealousy
for constructive
responses
i n terms of
participants
i n a. more, p o s i t i v e way
action
i n v o l v i n g on
as
their
motivator
primary
relationships.
Comparisons
across
male,
imagining
the
of
female, o b j e c t i v e
a t r i a n g l e of
experiential.
In
perspective
of
'within'
or
from an
internal
focus
of
our
perspective
'without'
describe
of
and
how
sense t h i s
of
be
the
fear
of
trust
deceived
total
viewing
speak t o
our
us
(or
or
the
our
be
agent
how
or
we
or
or
abandoned.
Seemingly
r a n k i n g s of
jealousy's
g r o u p were a n g e r ,
'source'
self
the
be
resentment,
or
projective
the
see
us
' s o u r c e ' as
in
betrayal
having
of
been
the
emotions
r a g e and
to
'subjective'
in congruence,
elemental
try
served.
threatened
of
a
from
agent
'want'
female
or
from
attempt
others) to
'reason'
imagined, a c t u a l
or
In a
emotion w i l l
c o m b i n e d male and
jealousy's
(or
and
this
to. t h e
subject).
then
self
unconsciously)
jealousy
(the
view may
the
p o s i t i o n we
by
attempt
'reason'
committment; a n d / o r a p e r c e p t i o n
'objective'
the
of
' p u r p o s e ' of
l o s s ; an
or
object
subjective,
to the
in relation
made
perceptions
p o s i t i o n we
perceived
objective
be
Seemingly,
(consciously
jealousy
Accordingly,
definitions
the
the
in r e l a t i o n
experience
objective
that
subjective
the
also
subjective
i n t e r n a l focus.
In
the
and
objective,
experience
speaks to
the
our
the
the
hence we
o t h e r s ) might
order
the
jealousy.
object
t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s can
highest
for
humiliation
150
(see
the
table
5).
If
r e l a t i o n s h i p the
agent
know t h i s )
these
e m o t i o n s and
descriptors
However,
i f anger,
n o r m a l and
or
anticipated
requires
the
and
letting
deny or
the
the
i f not
resentment,
r a g e and
tests
the
accuracy
or
trust,
and
the
etc.)
stage
'threat
With
display
of
loss
will
rather
anger,
explains
subjective
the
'pathological'.
and
humiliation
to
the
and
are
threat
seen
of
This
the
emotions thus
(and
a/the
validity
(the
agent
anticipated
loss
view
subjective
and
we
With
subject
'objectively'
loss, felt
to
anger,
'source'
'reasonable'
in a grief reaction
the
o t h e r s ) know
loss
his/her
of
serve
threat.
the
of
fear
does t h i s i n
or
betrayal
ways
of
given
'anticipated
loss'
or
loss'.
reference,
'acceptance'
by
objective
accept
t h i s frame of
an
served
and
humiliation
emotions
inadequately
'purpose'.
our
yet
'subjective'
his/her
the
object
refute
'recognize'
and
t h e y make more s e n s e .
of
preserve
object
grief reactions
l o s s then
to
letting
resentment
objectively described
p u r p o s e of
we
or
'irrational'
rage,
is really
(e.g.,
this possibly
a combination
The
that
'purpose'
initial
'reason'
intent
seems p o o r l y
s u c h as
as
jealousy's
emotions
would make l e s s s e n s e or
them t h e
i n t e r p r e t them an
t h a n as
objective
subject
as
recognition
rage, h u m i l i a t i o n
and
of
the
resentment
be
r i s k s that
a c c e p t a n c e of
the
threat.
may
not
that
the
potential
Thus
be
the
most
151
efficient
emotions
serve
purpose during
the
i n t e r m s of
the
the
ultimate
initial
goal
s t a g e of
but
they
anticipatory
grief.
for
Examining
table
humiliation
and
highest
5 once a g a i n ,
depression
f o r a n g e r and
rage.
can
objective
subjective.
subjective
the
'possessiveness'
55,
59,
frequently
f o u n d by
61,
70)
and
'desire',
06,
12,
09,
10,
11,
18,
male
48,
51 ,
54,
are
more-
competion'
(codes
22,
for
the
female d e s c r i p t o r s
of
are
descriptors"
( c o d e s 46,
'envy'
14,
the
include
08,
combining
Accordingly,
whereas the
highest
rankings
explanation
again
'envy'
v e r s u s c o m p e t i t i o n ) and
07,
female
d e f i n i t i o n s more f r e q u e n t l y
s u c h as
56,
while
A possible
these d i f f e r e n c e s
and
be
male r a n k i n g s a r e
23,
(as
01,
03,
04,
05,
26,
29,
32,
34,
36,41).
The
powerful
male
i n our
social
and
society
t o assume h i s
relative
to
the
jealousy
(as a t h r e a t
one
female.
to
In
the
of
point
the
'subjective'
p o t e n t i a l l o s s of
of
powerful
sense t h a t
position
should
instance
of
b o u n d a r i e s of
humiliation
source
of
his
and
relationship)
depression
be
i s moreso
internal
'irrational'
in a r e l a t i v e l y
suddenly
felt
From h i s
is likewise
someone
his
the
be
ownership
jealousy
'possession'.
view h i s e x p e r i e n c e
makes l i t t l e
the
more
'logically'
r i g h t s , p r i v i l e g e s and
thus o b j e c t i v e l y d i s p l a y s
because
relatively
e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n would
more l i k e l y
he
with h i s
more
in a v i c t i m . r o l e
and
it
152
required
his
in
to
fear
l o s s and/or
possessions.
the
process
In
This
of
of
necessarily
the
the
should
desire,
value
she
includes
on
the
insecurity,
to
l e v e l s of
male and
t y p e of
fear
the
be
values
on
necessary
only
behaviours
She
as
of
in chapter
(the
is
power
May's
the
of
'anger'
l e v e l s of
also
and
'source'
etc.).
aggression
and
are
named above
(cf. discussion
her
dependent
subjective
others
two
c l a i m s and
relatively
descriptors
display
off
of
relationship
competition,
in chapter
female c o p i n g
her
position
blocked
power
of
to
from her
be
on
Hence, her
more l i k e l y
because
perceived
places
o n g o i n g b e c a u s e of
objectively
'rage'
'reasonably'
female's p r o t e c t i o n
less powerful p o s i t i o n .
jealousy
c l a i m s and
acquisition.
contrast,
portrayal
re-state
and
are
thesis
comparison
three,
of
section
VIII).
Females a l s o
described
behaviours a greater
(objectively)
tendency
in t h e i r
toward a g g r e s s i o n
a n t a g o n i s m w h i l e m a l e s were more l i k e l y
to
off.
offered
In
(e.g.,
this
using
indicators
ways t h a t
that
but
sense,
that
will
as
interpretation
and
w i t h d r a w or
one
f e m a l e s have a g r e a t e r
preserve
the
f e m a l e ' s p u r p o s e as
that
tendency
relationship)
i s more
can
possibly
'required'
by
be
more
her
close
earlier
views the
also
the
coping
as
t o behave
in
seen as
one
altruistic
social
status.
In
contrast,
when t h e
male's p o s i t i o n
i s threatened
he
1 53
will
be more l i k e l y
than
loss
by w i t h d r a w i n g
and
depression.
relatively
this
less
impending
imminent
or
Alternatively,
than
which
his).
In
i f her
than
display
and
priori
the
of a c c e p t a n c e
may
i s not
relationship
becomes one
jealousy
f o r b o t h m a l e s and
of
e l e m e n t a l emotions
are
further
and
in their
their
be
grief.
objective
experimental
Jealousy Experiences: A
Participants'
most extreme e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h
responses
i n appendix
'speak
extrapolates
than
emerges
This
ratings
descriptions
d i s c u s s e d below.
Participants'
are d e p i c t e d
of
as
females
e x p e r i e n c e of a n t i c i p a t o r y
evident in subject's d e f i n i t i o n s ,
one
of more power
summary,
in
or ending i t
t h e m a l e ' s n o n - a c t i o n may
is
loss
jealousy
'finally'
action.
an
of
be more e f f e c t i v e
female's
and
loss
'threatened'.
as t h e
as a d i s p l a y
which
an
the
i n him
powerful.)' f e m a l e ' s
of t h e
c a s e her p o s i t i o n
t o evoke
simply
intention
the boundaries
sense,
managing
the
and
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e of
is actual
less
himself to
humiliation
of a t h r e a t
(dependent,
In t h i s
effective
rather
objective
behaviour
sabataging
(in
an
to resign
approaches
the t h r e a t
recognition
the
female
emotion,
that
evoking
displaying
powerful
confirmation
reversing
female
From h i s p e r s p e c t i v e
'irrational'
rather
the
(item
for themselves'.
some o f t h e major
28).
The
Discussion
These
verbatim
discussion
themes t h a t
jealousy
to
follow
seem e v i d e n t t o
154
the
researcher.
items
29 a n d 30 i n t h e same
Again
and
Very
often
appendix.
are central
f o r both males
'fear
of l o s s ' i s
name t h e p a r t i c u l a r
The most d i s t i n c t
loss
that
i s a naming o f a ' l o s s o f
Sometimes
this
loss
of t r u s t
t h e p a r t n e r ' s sex ( c o d e s
overall, ability
definitions,
to trust
i s generalized
(codes
these responses
reveal
to relationship
object
h a s b e t r a y e d an assumed
been d e c e i t f u l
t o a l l members
34 a n d 66) o r t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s
threat
has
themes
a generalized
and many r e s p o n s e s
anticipated.
trust'
of
l o s s and f e a r
females.
described
is
R e f e r e n c e s a r e a l s o made t o r e s p o n s e s f o r
an a p p a r e n t
As i n t h e
or p e r c e i v e d
b o u n d a r i e s and a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e
or e s t a b l i s h e d
committment o r
or d i s h o n e s t .
F e m a l e s a l s o d e s c r i b e many o t h e r t y p e s o f a n t i c i p a t e d
loss
including:
loss
of c o n f i d e n c e i n s e l f
as a woman
(code
attention,
intimacy, interest,
relationship
respect
(code
(codes
for self
34); loss
freedom
(code
Few
sexual
01, 13, e t c . ) ;
or o b j e c t
time or l o s s
(codes
affection,
of the
21, 2 4 ) ; l o s s
with another
mention
their
l o s s of
of c o n t r o l
2 6 ) ; l o s s of
(code .42).
name t h e p a r t n e r ' s
as the primary
to re-directed
that
(code
of a p p r e c i a t i o n
responses e x p l i c i t l y
a l t h o u g h many do a l l u d e
few e x p l i c i t y
of l o v e ,
of f r i e n d s h i p w i t h agent
involvement
g e n e r a l l y or
3 8 ) ; and l o s s
female
loss
threat
sexual attention..
jealousy
emanated more
A
from
1 55
the
potential
partner's
itself.
of e m o t i o n a l
infidelity
The h i g h
specificity
losses
loss
than
level
and
and f e a r s
those
as
well
as her d i s t i n c t
Males
or
loss
frequently
of sexual
understanding,
48,
60,
As
they
than
their
fear
the a c t u a l
t h e many
findings
i n c h a p t e r two,
greater
i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p
of s o c i a l i z a t i o n .
loss
(codes
status
of l o v e r
o r sex p a r t n e r
46, 50, 5 8 ) ; l o s s o f
o r hoped
of p a r t n e r ' s
loyalty
or i t s s t a b i l i t y
of p a r t n e r ' s
f o r status
(code 4 8 ) ;
(codes
interest,
(codes
attention
or
friendship
with agent
(code 7 0 ) .
in their definitions
name o r i m p l y
jealousy.
67,
understood
61, 64, 6 9 ) ; l o s s
intimacy
as
fidelity
of the r e l a t i o n s h i p
with
involvement
describe
indeed
the female's
process
loss
were d i s c u s s e d
d e p e n d e n c e on and e m o t i o r i a l
and t h e
relationships
discussed
by t h e i r
knowledge o f t h e a c t
that
i s congruent
that
that
further
to their
This
interpretations
implied
of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e
indicates
of f i d e l i t y .
especially
from t h e i r
w i t h w h i c h women i n t h i s
more t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
loss
intimacy
elemental
responses.
males
'envy' o r u s e i t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y
They do n o t d i s t i n g u i s h
c l e a r l y a s do f e m a l e s
68).
of j e a l o u s y ,
Again,
their
(codes
with
between t h e two e m o t i o n s
responses generally
emotions and a r e l e s s
frequently
disclosing
name
fewer
than
female
to or a c c e p t i n g
of the
1 56
threat
their
65,
o f l o s s and more
feelings
inclined
t o withdraw and/or
and t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e
(codes
recall
T h i s may be t h e c a s e
likely
remember
Our
jealousy
than
females
occurrences
society
by e i t h e r
stereotype.
expression
either
don't
relatively
of t h i s
emotion.
emotion
t o r e p r e s s t h e e x p e r i e n c e and
(even
more t h a n
women) i n o r d e r t o
a s s o c i a t i o n s with emotional
rare experiences
with
this
dependence,
Their claims to
'irrational'
ascribed to the i n s t i n c t u a l
cognitive control
itself
t h e acknowledgement o f
b e c a u s e o f t h e ' j e a l o u s woman'
envy and p o s s e s s i v e n e s s .
are congruously
manifest
taboo
of j e a l o u s y
i t snegative
with
t o r e c o g n i z e , acknowledge or
Men may t e n d
femininity,
their
that they
o r i t may be t h a t t h e y a r e
does n o t f a c i l i t a t e
men t o c l a i m t h i s
avoid
jealousy.
less
avoid
emotion
o r f o r c e s beyond
( c f . code 72 " j e a l o u s y d i d n o t
t o the person
def i n i t i o n s ) .
Males
in this
c o n t r i b u t e more t h a n
and
30 i n a p p e n d i x D a n d i t e m
appendix F.
by
other males
code
socialization
with
i n responding
123, ' o t h e r
48 d e m o n s t r a t e
jealousy.
process
emotions
t o items
t o each of these
t h a t was m o t i v a t e d
29
insights' in
the s u b j e c t ' s i n s i g h t
In c o n t r a s t , code
also
into
items
t h e male
by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s
56 d e m o n s t r a t e s ( i n
157
responses to
between
items
j e a l o u s y and
norms of
the
negative
jealousy
final
most
experiences
of
loss
are
is poignantly
the
experience.
The
and
that
idea
e a c h new
she
that
communication
and
29,
appendix D).
named as
the
significant
or
Sometimes
this
with
a motivator
the
i n code
02
Sometimes s u b j e c t s
by
she
i s evident
or
report
that
19,
29,
33,
negative
the
28,
effects
erosion
of
are
trust
31,
resolution
42,
many and
61,
the
subject's
re-activates
new
65,
for
the
extreme
more
04,
73).
of
responses
their
intimate
08,
11,
15,
Likewise,
most p o i g n a n t
a s s o c i a t e d with
u n d e r s t o o d committments.
way.
re-evaluation
i n many of
defined
27,
the
n o t e s her
or more c l e a r l y
22,
but
characteristics
experience
f o r review
to
experiences
of
is a positive trigger
boundaries
29.
f o r both p a r t i e s
on".
relationship
item
one
Positively,
"moved
Many
i n a much more n e g a t i v e
jealousy
jealousy
experiences
item
described
of how
the
and
most e x t r e m e
relationship.
affiliation
with
societies.
both p o s i t i v e
their
to
distinction
affiliation
in western
report
i s viewed
description
insight
a l a c k of
a c o n s t r u c t i v e step
i t s effect
earlier
123)
male r o l e
for ending a
Jealousy's
and
a strong
i n t e r m s of
i s seen as
often
envy and
( c f . responses
trigger
ending
30
many s u b j e c t s
effects
times these
29,
traditional
Overall,
with
28,
b e t r a y a l of
is
(again)
assumed
or
l a c k of c o n s t r u c t i v e or p o s i t i v e
p e r v a d e s many r e s p o n s e s and
is typified
i n code
158
06
by t h e s u b j e c t ' s
feeling
that
demonstrate
subjects
responses
the broad
will
share
t o item
characterized
abnormal,
i n response
negative,
contributed
elemental
constructive, positive,
and many
causes,
t o a very
i s evident
r e s p o n s e s and from
Solutions
and r e s o l u t i o n s
broad c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
their
willing
of
jealousy.
Research
of s u b j e c t s '
of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e t h a t
The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f f e r e d
as a m o t i v a t i o n
they
the-ir
by t h e
for further
discourse.
understandings gained
data
yet
unrefined
the
continuing
terminology
level
they
b u t keen t o s e l f - e x p l o r e a b o u t
were p r e s e n t e d
broad
subjective
for Further
from t h e g e n e r o s i t y
experiences.
theoretical
other
e f f e c t s and'
A l l r e s p o n s e s a r e u n i q u e and t o g e t h e r
researcher
question.
were n o t o n l y
that
i s variously
destructive, pathological
Implications
The
understandings
jealousy
e m o t i o n s a r e named.
contribute
jealousy
F) e f f e c t i v e l y
t o an open-ended
as normal, h e a l t h y ,
categorizations.
It
t o hate myself f o r
123 ( a p p e n d i x
and v a r i o u s
abound.
"I l e a r n e d
jealous".
Finally,
In
claim
i n d i c a t e t h e need
conceptualization
will
allow
the
t o r e m a i n open t o t h e a s
of j e a l o u s y .
use o f a d e f i n i t i o n a l
that
by r e v i e w i n g
They
support
for flexibility
i n terms of
159
incorporating
jealousy
i n t o an o v e r a l l framework
f o r human
emotions.
The
needs
d e f i n i t i o n presented
by g i v i n g
synergistic
It
are
grounds
the concept
development
the emotion
dynamic,
a form t h a t
of s u b j e c t i v e
further
network.
and s o c i a l l y
development
as w e l l
of a
are
implied
of p e r c e p t i o n
as
discussed
subjects
of
data
of d i r e c t i o n s
major
The
p r e v i o u s phase
research
For instance,
presented
i n an open
leading
with
(as
groups of
forum
generation
t o a more
t o a more d e t a i l e d o u t l i n e of
themes and e l e m e n t a l
i n t h i s phase
of t h i s study
and/or
emotions.
as w e l l
indicate a central
definitions
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of j e a l o u s y
d e f i n i t i o n and/or
interpretations
i n terms of t h e
of j e a l o u s y
H a v i n g been
be i n c o r p o r a t e d
experiental
networks
for future
of the r e s e a r c h .
and a q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
convergent
allows
structure
triangular
positions
above), i n d i v i d u a l s , couples,
could
form a l s o
jealousy.
i s indicated.
triangular conceptual
which
intrapersonally
of other
more d e t a i l e d q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
the
ideas.
r o l e s and i n t e r a c t i o n and
of
a number
by t h i s phase
and e x p e r i e n c e s
for a
and o b j e c t i v e
into a tetrahedral
subjective-objective-experiental
Accordingly,
allow
these
cognitive-behavioural-emotional
f o r the a n a l y s i s
s u c h as s u b j e c t ^ o b j e c t - a g e n t
individuals
will
The t r i a n g u l a r
I t c a n be expanded
thus a l l o w i n g
one meets
d e t e r m i n e d and i n f l u e n c e d .
for
i n chapter
as the
need
for a
160
qualitative
different
by May
analysis
t y p e s and
(1972) and
Price
and
(involving
an
attend"
jealousy's relationship
levels
of power
Barrell
might
be
approach
useful
investigators
( e . g . , from
as o b j e c t , and
as
those
s.ug,ge_sted
two.
(1980) d e s c r i b e a r e s e a r c h p a r a d i g m
quantitative
research.
" q u e s t i o n and
of t h e i r
different
as a g e n t )
with
i n such
would
(p.75) t o a v a r i e t y
jealousy
such
with
d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h i n chapter
experiental
methods) t h a t
methodology,
of
role
own
Using
this
passively
experiences
positions
with
as s u b j e c t ,
and
d e s c r i b e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e c o n t e x t of p l a c i n g
t h e m s e l v e s i n s i t u a t i o n s or r e l i v i n g p a s t s i t u a t i o n s .
T h e . e x p e r i e n c e s a r e t h e n d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s of how t h e y
e x p e r i e n c e t h e phenomenon [ i n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e i r
power] r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r m s of t h e t a r g e t of t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n or t h e s t i m u l u s c o n d i t i o n s ( p . 7 6 ) .
Analysis
definitional
necessary
seemingly
be
that
types
variously
of power
(1972).
in satisfactory
or
these
some of
important
to
as
i n the
the
A l s o , the
eventuates
levels
generate
about
elements
(p.76).
to
the
f o r the
These
would
i n i n s t a n c e s of j e a l o u s y
result
such
used
"statements
competitive, nutrient
by May
i s then
experiental
quite different
manipulative,
suggested
sufficient
which are
of a g i v e n phenomenon"
experiences
different
hypotheses
and
occurrence
of t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s
exploitative,
and
integrative
types
jealousy process
resolution
of power
s h a r i n g of
may
that
move t h r o u g h a l l
s h a r i n g and
hence
incorporate subject-investigators
who
i t may
be
report a
161
range o f a d e q u a t e - i n a d e q u a t e
Price
and B a r r e l l
qualitative
be
analysis
used t o g e n e r a t e
"statements about
elements"
in
The
authors
suggest
fear
subjects
using
be u s e d
them
research.
to test
research
t o examine t h e many o t h e r
such as j e a l o u s y
as w e l l
t o te"st
relationships
and f e a r
as j e a l o u s y
methodology
of l o s s or
and s y n e r g y .
sample o f c o u p l e s c o u l d
and d i f f e r e n c e s
outcomes f o r j e a l o u s y
l e v e l s of synergy
be u s e d t o
demonstrate
i n terms of c o p i n g
experiences
For
given
or s e l f - a s s e s s e d
mechanisms
different
self-
types of l o s s
t h e i r meaning.
Equally
jealousy
data
questionnaires
h y p o t h e s e s and t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y
similarities
and
phase of t h e
of the above-described
of c o m p e t i t i o n
assessed
tested
hypotheses.
example, a h e t e r o g e n e o u s
and
experiental
who a r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h
the q u a n t i t a t i v e
by t h i s s t u d y
generate
can a l s o
h y p o t h e s e s and r a t i o - s c a l i n g t e c h n i q u e s
Variations
implied
t h e above
this constitutes
also
that
f u n c t i o n a l hypotheses which a r e
and
could
suggest
of e x p e r i e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s
experiments using
functional
(1980) f u r t h e r
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
(p.76).
definitional
resolutions.
relevant
and t r u s t .
i n t h i s study
i s t h e need
for further
The q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
indicates
that
extreme
e x p e r i e n c e s have e s p e c i a l l y n e g a t i v e
when t h e y
involve
a perceived
study of
of
subjective
jealousy
or d e s t r u c t i v e
or a c t u a l
betrayal
outcomes
of t r u s t or
162
committment
that
some s u b j e c t s
involving
i s based
report
sexual
conceptualization
re-evaluation
and
for their
research
However,
experiences
were u l t i m a t e l y
positive for
relationships.
This
to further
of j e a l o u s y
incorporate
indicates a
the broader
( a s a t r i g g e r f o r change o r
of r e l a t i o n s h i p b o u n d a r i e s )
into
quantitative
q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and o t h e r
factors
that
r e s u l t i n these
Development
further
trust
held
of j e a l o u s y
the r e c i p r o c a l r o l e s
possibility
that
value
may s e r v e
that
jealousy
outcome
theory
polarities.
a l s o needs t o c o n s i d e r
i n our c u l t u r e and t h e
i s sometimes p r o v o k e d
i s ultimately
or e x c l u s i v e l y based
on monogamy.
In t h i s
Thus, by p r o v o k i n g
unconsciously) through a c t i o n s
contrary
process
instance,
to test a
in a
rigidly
the value
t o the expectations
(altruistically
jealousy
contrary
(consciously or
to this
v a l u e and
b a s e d on i t , t h e o b j e c t
o r o t h e r w i s e ) a s a change a g e n t .
anywhere
Depending
c r e a t i v e or h i g h l y
d e s t r u c t i v e or
i n between.
A c r e a t i v e outcome t h r o u g h e f f e c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n
( f o r example) t h a t
value
and
acts
how t h e d y n a m i c s a r e managed by a l l c o n c e r n e d , t h e
outcomes c a n be h i g h l y
be
itself
a l e s s t h a n u s e f u l p u r p o s e and i t may be g r o w t h -
inhibiting.
on
on monogamy.
outcomes o f j e a l o u s y
infidelity
themselves and/or
need f o r f u t u r e
that
i n a value
the subject
b u t does so l e s s r i g i d l y ;
new o r e x p a n d e d b a s e s
continues
respect
might
to hold the
i s re-established
f o r t r u s t a r e formed.
163
In
contrast,
d y n a m i c s , may
and
those d e s c r i b e d
denial
ruminations,
by
empirical
the
study
norm
of
the
indicates
seemingly
i n our
the
t h e i r combination
combined a n a l y s i s
that
men
and
a common
is
'reasons'
'purpose'
expressed
validation
of
a p p r o a c h e d by
grounded
i n the
later
practice.
and
like
of
the
ways.
is
b o t h p h a s e s of
their
shared
for
the
be
this
jealousy
i n terms
awareness
but
of
somewhat
i t s occurrence,
humanely
evidence
that
t o human e x p e r i e n c e
via
yet
that
clarification
most
of
their
relationship)
Further
will
and
recommended.
emotion
of
Because
infidelity
interpreted
phenomenological
applied
other.
p r o c e s s of
'sources'
and
phenomenological
have a
(preservation
seeking
cycles,
i n the
of
t h i s was
these d i f f e r e n c e s
i n and
counselling
f o r or
in d i f f e r i n g
An
their
partner
women d e f i n e
Seemingly, they
phenomenological aspect
differing
rare
society,
c u l t u r a l phenomena
socialization.
i n one
remorse
e x p e r i e n c e s d i f f e r e n t l y and
differing
f e e l i n g s and
destructive
furtiveness
r a g e , mania and
Finally,
study
and
for destructiveness.
jealous
of
different
(1979) r - u n t r u t h f u l n e s s ,
Seeman
outcomes a r e
approaching
of
perpetuation
surreptitiousnous
creative
same s i t u a t i o n , g i v e n
have e q u a l p o t e n t i a l
example would be
provocation
the
is
and
1 64
Chapter
This
of
this
chapter
study.
participants
has p r e s e n t e d
The s u b j e c t i v e
were p r e s e n t e d
discussed.
Researcher
motivation
for further
emphasized
that
within
the
Finally,
development
previous
p h a s e were
of t h i s
by
phase
b u t i t was
is
contained
r e s o n s e s and i n t h e i r
d a t a and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
integrated
for future
were d i s c u s s e d
chapters.
contributed
theoretical discource
Objective
implications
data
phase
( i n a p p e n d i c e s D, E and F) and
p a r t i c i p a n t s ' verbatim
empirical
the phenomenological
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were o f f e r e d a s
the essence
interpretations.
Summary
own
from
i n t o the d i s c u s s i o n .
research
at length,
and
again
theory
integrating
1 65
CHAPTER V
IMPLICATIONS FOR
The
the
definition
subsequent
study
conceptualization
Implications
discussed
from the
the
of
and
f i n d i n g s of
body of
The
or
findings.
research
three
this
and
theory
four.
s t u d y and
core
threat
needs.
which
from an
of
were
derived
i n t e g r a t i o n of
jealousy
involves
threat
l o s s and
trust
sees
i t as
dynamic
and
in a context
to both p e r s o n a l
or a c t u a l b r e a c h of
and
development
They were
It occurs
This
f e a r of
one
earlier.
conceptualization
perceived
m a i n l y as
perceived
and
among c o g n i t i v e , b e h a v i o u r a l
interpersonal
subject
in chapter
many p r e l i m i n a r y
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l components.
actual
presented
broader
human e x p e r i e n c e
interaction
PRACTICE
have r e s u l t e d i n a
knowledge r e v i e w e d
broader
triangular
jealousy
for future
in chapters
COUNSELLING
of
and
i s experienced
often
involves
or committment
by
the
a
by
the
object.
Jealousy
sum
of
i s a d i s c r e t e emotion,
i t s elemental
emotions.
interactional
process
people
p e o p l e and
or
activity
two
or m a t e r i a l
s o m e t h i n g more t h a n
It i s a
w h i c h e f f e c t s and
some o t h e r
possession.
social,
i s e f f e c t e d by
agent
s u c h as
It i s variously
an
three
166
interpreted
and
and v a r i o u s l y
the s o c i a l
expressed
by i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s
many f a c t o r s
including
assumptions,
norms, v a l u e s and t h e r u l e s
boundaries
This
f o r t h e i r primary
chapter
practice.
gained
their particular
discusses
They emanate
from t h e r e v i e w
implications
t h e y make about t h e
for counselling
from a c o n s o l i d a t i o n
of three
critique.of perspectives
the
d i s c i p l i n e s of a n t h r o p o l o g y ,
the data,
beliefs,
relationships.
the
psychology;
d e p e n d i n g on
of i n s i g h t s
main t h e o r i e s
and r e s e a r c h
of emotion;
on j e a l o u s y
sociology,
p s y c h i a t r y and
f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of both
First,
they a r e f o l l o w e d
principles
general
considerations
by a t h r e e - s e c t i o n
and s p e c i f i c
individuals,
from
are discussed
presentation
interventions
for counselling
clinical
and
of
for counselling
c o u p l e s and f o r c o u n s e l l i n g
groups.
The
of
author
assumes t h a t ,
her suggestions w i l l
counsellor's
for
his/her
jealousy
out.
assessment
c l i e n t ( s ) given
She f u r t h e r
experience with
i s strong
jealousy
and c o n s u l t a t i o n
application
by t h e i n d i v i d u a l
of t h e i r
suitability
t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r and unique
assumes t h a t
a s a symptom of o r g a n i c
I f there
referral
be p r e c e d e d
professional
circumstances.
in a l l instances,
evidence
the p o s s i b i l i t y of
dysfunction
that
h a s been
the c l i e n t ' s
i s b a s e d on d e l u s i o n a l
should
ruled
be s o u g h t
material,
promptly.
167
Physical
out
violence,
s u i c i d e and h o m i c i d e
i f circumstances
to him/herself
or
suggest
for
primary
love,
other
role
as w e l l
When
involves
fears
The
his/her
the c l i e n t
also
c l i e n t ( s ) recognize
emotions which
and o t h e r
l o s s or
the c o u n s e l l o r ' s
i d e n t i f y and p r i o r i z e
losses.
and'express
jealousy's
many
seem t o be r e l a t e d t o v a r i o u s
grief reaction.
Fear
been b e t r a y e d
and/or
fear
o r abandoned
subjective
communicate a n g e r ,
with
and
individual's
other
sexual
the a n t i c i p a t e d
things,
needs
needs t o be aware a n d t o h e l p
l o s s and f e e l i n g s o f h a v i n g
appear
social
i n r e l a t i o n to these a n t i c i p a t e d
s t a g e s o f an a n t i c i p a t o r y
emotions.
rage,
potentially useful
status,
Objectively,
resentment, h u m i l i a t i o n
i n connecting
his/her
he/she may
a n d / o r many
emotions
i n a m e a n i n g f u l and p o s i t i v e way
movement t o w a r d
However,
experience.
Guidance
the experience
foster
and
occurs
Among o t h e r
helping
counsellor
elemental
of
as economic,
jealousy
a r e complex.
his/her
Considerations
intimacies,
losses
t h e c l i e n t , may be a d a n g e r
i n t e r e s t , a f f e c t i o n , time, a t t e n t i o n ,
securities.
be r u l e d
others.
General
The
that
should also
in light
recognition
of j e a l o u s y
will
as a v a l i d
emotion.
of j e a l o u s y ' s
alternative perspectives
n e g a t i v e and/or
are frequently
taboo
warranted.
168
Accordingly,
as
the c l i e n t ( s )
a motivator
that
or t r i g g e r
traditional
and
replaced
for potentially
'jealous person'
by t h e d y n a m i c ,
have been d i s c u s s e d
labels
label
in this
t o negate
should
"loyal",
be b a l a n c e d
"passionate",
involves
with
These
context
practice
couples
be
work.
emotional
"adaptive",
experience
or " p r o t e c t i v e " .
i s s u e s of competition,
skills
that
more p o s i t i v e l a b e l s s u c h
power and
freedom,
and e x p e c t a t i o n s .
of n e g o t i a t i o n
discouraged
Pejorative
i s s u e s need t o be o p e n l y
beliefs
Use o f
perspectives
r i g h t s and
discussed
assumptions,
jealousy
for experiencing
power-sharing, c o n t r o l , cooperation,
privileges.
should
their
t o "blame" t h e m s e l v e s o r o t h e r s
Jealousy
the
t o view
creative action
interactional
at length
u s e d by c l i e n t s
jealousy)
as
be h e l p e d
the
(or
should
will
within
individual
D e m o n s t r a t i o n and
facilitate
in their
individuals,
intimate
relat ionships.
Jealousy
a l s o fundamentally
i n v o l v e s a need f o r
maintenance,
r e - e v a l u a t i o n a n d / o r change o f r e l a t i o n s h i p
boundaries.
This
discussion
other
intimacies
f o r e a r l y a n d open
o f c o u n s e l l o r and c l i e n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p arrangements.
committment
their
i m p l i e s a need
should
should
biases
Other
a l s o be d i s c u s s e d .
be d i s c u s s e d
meaning and v a l u e
a b o u t monogamy o r
bases
f o r t r u s t and
Emotional
and compared
and s e x u a l
i n terms of
f o r e a c h member and f o r t h e d y a d .
169
The
of
counsellor will
the couple
facilitating
potential
The
s e p a r a t i n g and s h o u l d
this
process
unless
'source'
f o r the emotion
a central
promoting
goal
an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
agent;
and
by: i n d i v i u a l
the ongoing
stages
milieu;
individual,
negotiation
will
of the s u b j e c t ' s
of t h e o b j e c t ' s e x p e r i e n c e
and i n v o l v e m e n t
v i sa
i n evoking
remember t h a t b e h a v i o u r s
will
process
among s u b j e c t , o b j e c t and
type
couple
grief
reaction;
and p e r c e i v e d potency
and s o c i e t a l
t o i n c l u d e the agent
be c o n s i d e r e d .
in this
circumstance(s);
be
p e r c e p t i o n of the j e a l o u s y
levels
of
cultural
of
synergy
factors.
A decision
may
understanding
of the a n t i c i p a t o r y
many o t h e r
process
emotions) as
subcultural
threat;
by i t s v a r i o u s " e x p r e s s i o n s
behaviours
c o u n s e l l o r should
experience;
of p h y s i c a l
maintaining
^effected
and
f o r mutual
g e n e r a l l y be
i t s characteristics
(and i t s e l e m e n t a l
served
h i s / h e r emotions,
The
should
i s evidence
dangerous behaviour.
as t h e 'purpose'
experience.
or
g r o w t h - i n h i b i t i n g outcomes.
there
or other
vis
i n a way t h a t m i n i m i z e s t h e
w i t h i n t h e framework o f l o s s ,
violence
be
be s k i l l e d i n
i t s process
well
need t o be open t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
for destructive,
normalized
and
also
regard
In t h i s
i n the t h e r a p e u t i c
author's
v i e w , any
should c o n s i d e r the p a r t i c u l a r
t h e w i s h e s o f s u b j e c t , o b j e c t and
agent;
1 70
and
the c o u n s e l l o r ' s
decision
require
sections
most
of t h i s chapter
that
present
will
i n each
sections.
client-counsellor
Choice
of
suggestions
of s e t t i n g
three
specific
counselling.
modification
i s assumed t o be a
Individuals
the c l i e n t - c o u n s e l l o r
an a d e q u a t e o r b e t t e r
self-understanding
the c l i e n t
l e v e l of
has been g u i d e d i n
a t which a
goal
i s s u i t a b l y pursued ( c f .
1975, p . 3 6 ) .
1. H e l p t h e c l i e n t
dispositional
transcend
labels.
humans a s dynamic
jealousy
don't
of
into
applicable to
p r o c e s s of s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n t o a p o i n t
Egan,
2.
some
are also
below assume t h a t
t r u s t and h e n c e , t h a t
dynamic
will
decision..
r e l a t i o n s h i p has reached
the
and w i t h
section
Counselling
shared
i s divided
f o r i n d i v i d u a l , c o u p l e and g r o u p
statements
subsequent
t h e agent
p r i n c i p l e s and a few
these p r i n c i p l e s overlap
The
If a positive
and d i s c r e t i o n .
remainder
interventions
Often
judgement.
i s made, t h e means f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g
sensitivity
The
professional
Instead,
and c h a n g i n g
present
t o use
a perspective
and a p e r s p e c t i v e
as a s o c i a l - i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s
experience
an i m p o r t a n t
Give
the tendency
jealousy
jealousy
in isolation
of
(e.g.,
"We
but i n the c o n t e x t
and v a l u e d r e l a t i o n s h i p " ) .
a valid
unique e x p e r i e n c e .
context
within
H e l p him/her
of
the i n d i v i d u a l ' s
to recognize
that
171
j e a l o u s y may e x i s t
perceived
threat
pyschological
differing
jealousy
to his/her
well-being.
socio-cultural
i n varying
expression
values,
a s a sound
judgement
p h y s i c a l , emotional
Remember t h a t
situational
contexts
about
and t h e a s s u m p t i o n s
or
clients
backgrounds w i l l
of i t i s a statement
beliefs
of a r e a l or
with
experience
and t h e i r
their
they
norms,
make a b o u t
their
intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
3.
Proceed
from a r e a s
experiences
threat.
(e.g.,
to areas
childhood
of; g r e a t e r
recent
the jealousy
and most
or current
process
and r e l a t e
to anticipatory loss.
refine
s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n i n an o n g o i n g
r e c o g n i t i o n of the elemental
jealousy
emotions
way t o
in his/her
experience.
Help the c l i e n t
messages" t h a t
in
threat
use p a s t ,
to describe
4. Promote c l i e n t
5.
jealousy)
Accordingly,
. experiences
it
with
of l e a s t
name s p e c i f i c
he/she w i l l
open a n d d i r e c t
f e a r s and p r a c t i c e " I -
be a b l e
ways w i t h i n
t o u s e t o communicate
the context
of h i s / h e r
intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
6. E v e n t u a l l y
destructive
justify
7.
Guide
introduce
a perspective
behaviours
over
"blaming" o u r s e l v e s
the c l i e n t
that
c h o i c e of
c o n s t r u c t i v e ones d o e s n o t
for experiencing
i n the process
values,
a s s u m p t i o n s and b e l i e f s
current
intimate
of e x p l o r i n g
jealousy.
needs,
i n t e r m s o f h i s p a s t and
relationships, especially
with
respect
1 72
to boundaries.
security,
8.
Help
What a r e h i s / h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s
shared
the c l i e n t
to c l a r i f y
what b e h a v i o u r s
and
9.
m u t u a l i t y and
context
and
of
the c l i e n t ' s
needs t h a t u n e r l i e
expressed.
practice
t o be
opposite-sex
E n c o u r a g e e x p l o r a t i o n s of
skills
acceptable
(for self
persons.
experience.
those
of
i n terms o f
the
Examine t h e
t h a t a r e more
Accordingly, explore
the
intimacy?
his/her limits
are considered
emotional
for
wants
superficially
the p r i n c i p l e s
and
r e s o l u t i o n - s e e k i n g through
effective negotiation.
10.
Promote open d i s c u s s i o n of n e e d s f o r a t t e n t i o n ,
interest,
within
l o v e , time,
the c o n t e x t
of
e t c . from
p a r t n e r and
realistic
e x p e c t a t i o n s as
expressed
examine
them
versus
demands.
11. O p e n l y
d i s c u s s the
jealousy
i n our
resultant
culture
barriers
d i s c u s s i o n s and
12.
i s s u e of
to
and
ways f o r o v e r c o m i n g
throughout
in maintaining c l i e n t
subject
and
assume new
require
of
their
author's
their
without
mutual
'losing
insight
current experience
preference
(cf. previous
the
i n the
ways i n w h i c h c l i e n t
roles
the
paper).
i n t e r m s of p a r t n e r ' s p o s s i b l e
investment
d i s a p p r o v a l of
i t s communication
suggestions
Explore p o s s i b i l i t i e s
social
for couples
the
of
partner
face'.
into
and
and
role
This
jealous
can
will
reciprocal
r o l e s and
or g r o u p
hence
nature
this
therapy.
1 73
However, t h e r e w i l l
other
partner
counsellor
13.
responses
and
triangle
that
of and s e n s i t i v e
i s , nevertheless,
t o name h i s / h e r p a r t i c u l a r
during
parallel
conditioned
tendency
feelings
it'
response,
of c o n t r o l "
control
breath,
responses
drinking
other
a cold
develop,
behavioural
Distinguish
their
about the
r a t h e r than
the c l i e n t
i n which he/she
i n which these
managed.
and o t h e r
g l a s s of water very
a tendency
noting
and p h y s i c a l
'being
important
in talking
felt
"loss
occurrences
Suggest
cues t o h e l p
physiological
(e.g., abdominal b r e a t h i n g
As i n s i g h t s
included
support
ways
cues are e s p e c i a l l y
expresses
Talk
that i s
theory.
experiences
heartbeat
Distinguish
and b e h a v i o u r
the emotion
be more s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
and e n c o u r a g e
jealousy.
territoriality
and s u g g e s t
created.
and our s o c i e t y ,
(1976)
to the
physiological
'automatic'.
t o t h e above,
emotional
with
behaviour
by o u r f a m i l i e s
a s p e r Solomon's
about
of
instinctual
as accompanying
In r e l a t i o n
may
experiences
t o be e q u a l l y
fight/flight
15.
be c o g n i z a n t
and a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e
14.
i n w h i c h one o r t h e
refuses to p a r t i c i p a t e
should
therapeutic
be i n s t a n c e s
techniques
slowly).
and/or
T h e s e and
f o r the c l i e n t
who
toward p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e .
guide
options
the c l i e n t
for jealousy
i n an e x p l o r a t i o n
experiences.
e a c h o f t h e f o u r main b e h a v i o u r a l
in Constantine's
(1976) model
types
(isolational,
174
antagonistic,
evaluate
redefinitional
progress,
compare
terms o f t h e c l i e n t ' s
techniques
exchanges with
partner.
for
a)
about
b)
love
effectively
Use r o l e - p l a y i n g
verbal
intervention
include:
and j e a l o u s y .
I t i s written
o f a h u s b a n d and' h i s s e c o n d
demonstrates
i n the j e a l o u s y
'object'
outcomes i n
t h e two v i e w p o i n t s
shifts
To
to practice constructive
S u g g e s t i o n s might
Andre Maurois'
It
various
may be u s e f u l a s a s p e c i f i c
some c l i e n t s .
a novel
their
own e x p e r i e n c e .
or e m p t y - c h a i r
Bibliotherapy
and r e s o l u t i o n a l ) .
role
triangle
wife'.
r e c i p r o c i t y and
as ' s u b j e c t '
becomes
i n a new r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A.M. Dahms'
"Emotional
Requirement
skills
implied
perspective
social
I n t i m a c y : An O v e r l o o k e d
i n the t i t l e
on i n t i m a c y
constructive
the
from
and p r o v i d e s
a s a committment t o
human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t a l l l e v e l s o f
system.
This
book
is practical
and n o t
sent imental.
c)
Robbe-Grillet's
French version
experiential
(or the o r i g i n a l
"La J a l o u s i e " ) p r o v i d e s
perspective
characters
on t h e e m o t i o n .
has
three
the
presumed l o v e r .
and
very
The s t o r y
t h e h u s b a n d , t h e w i f e and
It i s narrated
by t h e husband
has t h e r e a d e r
i n an
175
'absent-I"
of
the
position.
narrator
'experience'
time d u r i n g
the
poignantly
of
visual
through
the
scenes
into a
the
of
few
The
days space
ever-present
of
lives
The
reader
'missing
bit
narrator's
i n v o l v i n g h i s wife
his
content
jealousy.
detail.
because the
complete
justify
mental
o b s e r v e s and
in great
blind's or
f o r the
to
subject
i s extremely
slatted
necessary
plot
information'
of
i s the
narrator
aware o f
lover
allowing
i s the
which the
is
description
text
i s compacted
e v e n t s of
presumed
who
The
and
d e t a i l e d but
her
h i s view
never
information
would
suspicions
that
of
is
be
her
infidelity.
Counselling
The
are
suggestions-
searching
I f , on
the
and
outlines
structured
separation.
a hope of
on
helping
decision;
other
will
strategies.
Her
them g e t
a plan
that
For
i s that
i n the
sense t h a t
be
hand,
to
Lynch
at
most c o u p l e s
they are
involved;
different
(1982)
the
point
separate
interview
making t h e
a w a r e n e s s of
a
is
incorporate
Her
couple
their
for couples
an
the
separation
instance,
future.
for proceeding;
will
improve
need
interview
premise
reconnecting
difficulties
the
counsellor
principles
a
s e c t i o n assume t h a t
f o r ways t o mend or
relationship.
imminent,
in this
Couples
feeling
of
with
focuses
right
the
that
not a l l
176
is
d e s t r o y e d ; and a s e n s e
Most
o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s under
also applicable
be
below.
universally
comprehensive
be n e c e s s a r y .
Finally,
applied
and t h i s
treatment
plan.
therapy.
therapist
To e f f e c t
will
need
decision
that
i n the couple
of c o n t r o l
therapist
therapy.
One way t o p r e v e n t
the
therapist
role
each
p a r t n e r and u n t i l
exchanges b r i e f .
discussions
unless
or
only a f t e r
necessary.
i n terms o f
collusion
i s t o agree t o
h a s been i s s u e d
i n telephone
o f p r o b l e m s w i t h one o r t h e o t h e r
i n which case
Otherwise,
requires the i n i t i a l
of p h y s i c a l
crisis
clarify
to requests
p o i n t , keep v e r b a l
Do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e
homicide
system the
respond
the request
that
initiation
needs t o make an a
how h e / s h e w i l l
for
by
a r e not
i s n o t i n t e n d e d as a
i s " s e t up" by
the balance
about
although
Hence, t h e y
section
change
the. p r o c e s s and so e a c h
priori
setting,
none o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s below c a n
1. Be aware o f t h e t r i a n g l e
of
f o r growth.
t h e s e c t i o n s above a r e
i n the couples-therapy
some m o d i f i c a t i o n s may
repeated
of the p o t e n t i a l
violence,
suicide
intervention i s
that
and o n g o i n g
partner
lasting
change
involvement
of b o t h
partners.
2. A v o i d p o l a r i z i n g
person'
couple
by
the couple
and a ' h o n - j e a l o u s
as a system
and e f f e c t i n g
by w o r k i n g
person'.
with a 'jealous
I n s t e a d , view t h e
and t h e j e a l o u s y a s a p r o c e s s c r e a t e d
that
system
and i t s members.
1 77
3. I f one o r t h e o t h e r
pathology
that
to their
contributes
member o f t h e c o u p l e
partner,
confront
efforts
in this
sessions
i twill
be i m p o r t a n t
to avoid
process
to s t r u c t u r e the process
During
f o r the l i s t e n i n g
(e.g.,
Accordingly,
a better
that
person
"As p a r t
t o speak w i t h
each
t i m e i t i s v e r y .t o be i n v o l v e d b u t
to f a c i l i t a t e
understanding
of the
a t a common
demonstrate a t t e n d i n g
to affirm
E s p e c i a l l y i n the e a r l y
o f t h e p r o b l e m , I am g o i n g
silent.").
in
w i t h i n the
both of you t o a r r i v e
of y o u f o r 10 m i n u t e s .
important
regard.
three-way exchanges
of helping
description
and
on ' s e l f '
a s an i s s u e ,
of the p r o c e s s .
o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p and remember
positive
and
this
to the d e s t r u c t i v e part
4. E n c o u r a g e e a c h member t o work
context
assigns
behaviours
the l i s t e n e r
of h i s / h e r
partner's
perspective.
5. A s s e s s what
to therapy
e a c h member a n d t h e c o u p l e
i n terms o f i n v o l v e m e n t
professionals;
and
family
importantly,
loss'
previous
current
unresolved
social
intimacy
f o r by t h e c o u p l e
in this
6. A c c o r d i n g l y ,
and o t h e r
brings
helping
family
marriages or
circles;
losses.
may be an i n d i c a t o r t h a t
been g r i e v e d
other
h i s t o r y and s t r u c t u r e of c u r r e n t
of o r i g i n ;
relationships;
with
as a u n i t
a n d most
Jealousy
a previous
as a ' f e a r of
l o s s has n o t
a s a u n i t , hence
blocking
areas.
may be i n r e d e f i n i n g
178
t h e p r o b l e m a s a common need
f o r intimacy.
Introduce the
perspective
t h a t t h e o l d p r o b l e m s may be f a i l e d o r
ineffective
attempts
because
at solution.
t h e p r o b l e m was n o t c l e a r l y
d e f i n e d i n the f i r s t
place.
7. As soon a s p o s s i b l e ,
naming a common g o a l
behavioural
this
of
f o r therapy
i n the p r o c e s s of
and i n naming t h e
g o a l h a s been a t t a i n e d .
therapy
a s a need
Often
f o r more and b e t t e r
a beginning
therapy
When t h i s
i s a negotiable
9. Speak t o h e a l t h y , p o s i t i v e
and
affirm
this
s i g n s t h a t they
point
good/bad,
i s reached
issue.
aspects
of t h e i r
relationship
a r e making c o n n e c t i o n s
right/wrong
black/white
Provide
a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t each person's
his/her
own a n d i s a v a l i d
one f o r h i m / h e r .
them t o examine t h e i r
jealousy process
11. H e l p
toward t h e
with
aspect.
If present, discourage
patterns
and c y c l e s such
as those
(1979) a n d d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r .
to
intimacy.
t h a t h a s been named.
further
that
t h e g o a l c a n be
s e s s i o n s t h a t w i l l be d e d i c a t e d t o w o r k i n g
goal
10.
the couple
changes t h a t w i l l s e r v e as i n d i c a t o r s
encapsulated
8. G i v e
guide
demonstrate
future
these
patterns visually
r e f e r e n c e when p l a n n i n g
polarities.
reality is
suggested
A flip
t o use
i n terms of
by Seeman
c h a r t may be u s e f u l
and t o use f o r
or e v a l u a t i n g a c t i o n -
179
oriented
12.
Inject
to
sex
humor i n t o
laugh
13. D e f i n e
of
changes.
about
the couple
some o f t h e i r
'affairs'
intimacy'.
by t h e i r
'source'
may
which they
14.
Dialogue
i n v o l v e both
should
openly
excitement,
about
shared
between
serves a similar
15.
Introduce
Solicit
accept
want"
affairs
t o name.
of intimacy
such as
sex, the a b i l i t y
e t c . Draw a 'common
purpose'
t o show how
are i n d i r e c t
each
attempts
for intimacy.
as a grounding
from
i n a vague
feelings
e a c h member
f o r intimacy.
when h e / s h e s t a t e s
way.
t h a t may come a l o n g
client
w i t h making " I -
statements.
develop
face their
in m a i n t a i n i n g
levels
The j e a l o u s y
i n separate
g o a l and how b o t h
'fear
another
guilt
17. As i n s i g h t s
to
partners
j e a l o u s y and t h e a f f a i r
specificity
16. D i s t i n g u i s h
activities.
various aspects
some r i t u a l s
wants o r needs
c a n be w i t h
h o p e s , dreams, good
t o meet m u t u a l needs
i s often a
a committment t o
e a c h be e n c o u r a g e d
to g r i e v e together,
parallel
which
a therapist,
work, c a r e e r , s p o r t s o r o t h e r
them
issues.
P o i n t out t h a t a f f a i r s
partner, a friend,
process
s y s t e m by e n c o u r a g i n g
and t h e c o u p l e
i s s u e s and a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r
mutual
of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e
by....").
are i n c r e a s i n g l y
(e.g.,
Explore e f f e c t i v e
able
roles
higher
"I t r y t o c o n t r o l y o u
ways of s h a r i n g power
in
its
180
positive
sense
of b e i n g
"with
the other
person"
(May,
1972, p . 1 0 9 ) .
18.
G e n e r a l l y use and t e a c h a r e s e a r c h a p p r o a c h by f r e q u e n t l y
encouraging
p e r c e p t i o n checks;
curiousity;
s h a r i n g e v a l u a t i o n s o f what
and
what
i s not working
appreciations
about
promoting
so w e l l ;
of therapy.
i s working
with
e a c h o t h e r and
The t h e r a p i s t
what h e / s h e h a s l e a r n e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s
person
19.
and. from
the couple
Power".
ways o f s t r i v i n g
relationships.
previous
couples
and
section
considerations.
consideration
nature;
will
f o r b i b l i o t h e r a p y under
Groups
by t h i s
present
The s u g g e s t i o n s
things, publicity
should c l e a r l y
jealousy;
o f power a n d
author
(West, 1983)
o n l y a few m a j o r
assume
i n c l u s i o n or
of previous s e c t i o n s .
1. Among o t h e r
jealousy
Side
program' d e s i g n - f o r g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g o f
i s p r o v i d e d elsewhere
so t h i s
each
are a l s o a p p l i c a b l e here.
Counselling
A comprehensive
name
f o r power p a r i t y i n
The s u g g e s t i o n s
section
from
C. S t e i n e r ' s "The O t h e r
T h i s book d i s c u s s e s t h e n a t u r e
cooperative
should
a s a u n i t . .,.
For b i b l i o t h e r a p y , . suggest
of
well
a n d by s h a r i n g
and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s
the process
shared
emphasize
exemplify
state
about
the o b j e c t i v e s ;
i t suniversal
mutuality
g r o u p s t h a t work
with
define
and i n t e r a c t i o n a l
i n t h e j e a l o u s y p r o c e s s ; and
181
specify
2.
criteria
Pre-screening
reasons
applicants
liason
For
for participation;
the. d e v e l o p m e n t
example,
meeting
of group
its
philosophies
and g o a l s
added p r e p a r a t i o n .
and m e e t i n g
itself
f e a r s about
need t o be
Reading m a t e r i a l s
some
c a n be made by
presented
d e s c r i p t i o n o f j e a l o u s y and
freedom, p r i v i l e g e
the t o p i c
Hence,
group experience
and
expectations;
introductory discussion
interviews
because
most p e o p l e .
in
and b r i e f
rights,
The p r e - s e s s i o n
important
interest
and a b r i e f ,
n e e d s , wants,
with
objectives
and i n t r o d u c t o r y c o n c e p t s c a n be
a definition
process
a b o u t c o u n s e l l i n g and a b o u t
and compared
statements about
about
and p o w e r ) .
are especially
implies c o n f l i c t to
what w i l l
happen
i n the
discussed.
and homework s h o u l d
Topics
be
themselves, the
l e a r n e r s ; members c a n g e t a c q u a i n t e d ;
participants;
a s a way of
development.
adult
be r e v i e w e d
an
of s e l e c t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s s h o u l d
and.their
(e.g.,
r e f e r r a l of
of t r u s t .
t o enhance t h e e a r l y s t a g e s
early
5.
s e l e c t i o n of
topic
can
4.
preparation
partners.
be. e s s e n t i a l f o r many
A pre-session
held
will
of both
n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e g r o u p ; and t o p r o v i d e
facilitating
3.
interviews
i n c l u d i n g needs a s s e s s m e n t ;
participants;
early
f o r the involvement
might
be c o n s i d e r e d
include
those
as
mentioned
#3 above a s w e l l a s an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s
skills
o f n e g o t i a t i o n a s f o r example, T e s s i n a and
182
Smith's
6.
(1980) "How
G r o u p numbers w i l l
the t r i a n g u l a r
inclusion
members
need
an
important
nature
of
j e a l o u s y and
f o r m u l t i p l e s of
the
and
Still
be
Free".
c o n s i d e r a t i o n given
hence the
probable
three people.
suggested
t h r e e and
in order
Twelve
t o meet
to approximate
as
Corey
this
closely
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of g r o u p t h e o r i s t s
such
(1977).
B e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e
structuring
and
be
(6 c o u p l e s ) a r e
as C o r e y
a Couple
of e x e r c i s e s i n v o l v i n g
as p o s s i b l e
7.
t o be
of t h e
of t h e g r o u p ,
a man/woman team) w i l l
topic
and
the
"couples"
c o - l e a d e r s h i p (e.g., o p t i m a l l y ,
best
facilitate
process
and
dynamics.
8.
I s s u e s of c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y ;
disclose;
and
s e s s i o n s and
is
topic.
much and
o t h e r g u i d e l i n e s s h o u l d be
reinforced
especially
how
important
Group p r o c e s s
i n an
ongoing
when t o
taught
way.
be
in early
Again,
b e c a u s e of the n a t u r e
should also
self-
taught
of
this
the
to
part ic ipants.
9.
E x e r c i s e s and
discussed
in t h i s
specifics,
10.
theory w i l l
please
For b i b l i o t h e r a p y
reade
and
generally involve
previous sections.
see West
For
analyze
sex
roles
in a closing
s e s s i o n , subgroups c o u l d
analysis,
i t i n t e r m s of h i s t o r i c a l
i n western
more
(1983).
p o r t i o n s of C o u r t i n ' s (1684) t r e a t i s e
and
concepts
society.
versus
Following
t h e whole g r o u p c o u l d be
on
jealousy
contemporary
subgroup
reassembled for
183
discussion
o f what
jealousy
meant
Chapter
This
practice
chapter
that
on
jealousy
It
was d i v i d e d
discussed
sections
discussed
were d e r i v e d
four
some g e n e r a l
included
counselling
Summary
implications
from
main
i t now
roles.
the broad
t h e n v e r s u s what
base o f t h i s
clinical
sections.
considerations
for counselling
experience.
The f i r s t
and t h e n e x t
p r i n c i p l e s and s p e c i f i c
study
section
three
interventions for
i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s and g r o u p s .
184
THESIS
This
s t u d y was d e s i g n e d t o r e - e x p l o r e
conceptualization
phenomenological
objective
of j e a l o u s y .
approaches.
the phenomenological
on
the basis
in
o f major
phase
e a c h phase
phase
In the e m p i r i c a l
phase
descriptive
subjective
descriptors,
statistics.
d a t a were a n a l y z e d
elements
and themes i n
The
interpretations
were s u p p o r t e d by d a t a and f i n d i n g s
from t h e
and by t h e c o n c e p t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s g a i n e d
review of t h r e e t h e o r i e s
conventional
disciplines
and b r o a d e n t h e
e m p i r i c a l and
v e r b a t i m responses of p a r t i c i p a n t s .
other
a
I t used
d a t a were a n a l y z e d u s i n g
In
the
SUMMARY
and r e s e a r c h
of emotion
literature
and a c r i t i q u e
on j e a l o u s y
of a n t h r o p o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y ,
from
of the
from t h e
psychiatry,
and
psychology.
Three
housing
jealousy
hundred
adults
from a u n i v e r s i t y
student-family
complex were s u r v e y e d u s i n g an a d a p t e d v e r s i o n
i n s t r u m e n t by A r o n s o n
and P i n e s
(1982).
f e m a l e and 28 male r e s p o n d e n t s d e f i n e d
jealousy
words; d e s c r i b e d
most
and i n t e r p r e t e d
their
and r e s p o n d e d
Forty-fivein their
own
extreme
(on a
one-to-seven
scale) to objective
item s u b t e s t s measuring
prevalence;
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s ; g e n e r a l
phyical
of a
jealousy
r e a c t i o n s and c o p i n g mechanisms.
Quantitative
preliminary
and q u a l i t a t i v e
findings.
analyses resulted
i n many
therapeutic
185
effects
of the instrument;
objective
subtests;
sex d i f f e r e n c e s
i n e a c h of t h e
and q u a l i t a t i v e s i m i l a r i t i e s and
differences
among i n d i v i d u a l s a n d between t h e s e x e s i n
participant
defintions,
in
their
interpretations.
descriptions
subjective
.variety
of l o s s e s
highest
The
subtest,
female
larger
t h a n d i d men.
and d e p r e s s i o n
i n four
research
appeared as
and s p e c i f i c
These
conceptualization
and b o t h p h a s e s
The f i r s t
and t h e n e x t
also
practice
section
f o r future
were
discussed
sections
presented
for counselling
c o u p l e s and f o r c o u n s e l l i n g
generally
promote a b r o a d e r
a n d more p o s i t i v e and g r o w t h f u l
experiences.
on
several
suggestions
three
interventions
implications
were
were e x p l a i n e d
t o generate
f o rcounselling
f o rcounselling
rankings
influences.
and s p e c i f i c
sections.
considerations
jealousy
f o r women t h e s e
p h a s e was u s e d
many g e n e r a l
individuals,
for
experiences
and c u l t u r a l
Implications
principles
groups.
while
f o r future
contributed
presented
subjective
emotions than
Many o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
empirical
hypotheses
general
in their
of s o c i a l
research.
male
f o r men, h u m i l i a t i o n
For instance,
reactions'
the
e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s and
named fewer e l e m e n t a l
descriptions
Objectively,
the
in their
outcomes
186
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New
APPENDIX A
Jealousy
Inventory
195
Jealousy
Circle
you.
A.
the
number a d j a c e n t
Background
Inventory*
to the
response
that a p p l i e s to
Information
1.
Sex:
1 male
2.
Age:
years
3.
Education: Last
grade completed
4.
Other
5.
Occupation:
6.
Are
you
currently
7.
Country
of b i r t h :
Country
or c o u n t r i e s i n w h i c h you
training
female
in school
(please specify)
a student:
1 Yes
No
. "
were
raised
O t h e r c o u n t r i e s or c u l t u r e s i n w h i c h you l i v e d or
p a r t i c i p a t e d t o an e x t e n t w h i c h has s i g n i f i c a n t l y
e f f e c t e d your g r o w t h a n d / o r v a l u e s y s t e m s
8.
Race:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Caucasian
Negroid
Oriental
Canadian Indian
East Indian
Other (please* s p e c i f y )
9.
Religion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.
None ( a t h e i s t )
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish
Moslem
Hindu
Sikh
Other ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )
Siblings:
10.
Number of o l d e r
brothers
* A d a p t e d from t h e S e x u a l
and E l l i o t A r o n s o n .
Jealousy
Inventory
by
Ayala
Pines
196
11.
12.
13.
14.
Number
Number
Number
I am a
15.
Number o f p e o p l e
16.
P l e a s e s p e c i f y t h e i r a g e s a n d sex ( i . e . , 10 y e a r
15 y e a r f e m a l e , e t c . ) Do n o t i n c l u d e y o u r s e l f .
17.
Present
18.
My c u r r e n t f a m i l y ( i . e . ,
best d e s c r i b e d a s :
1.
2.
3.
4.
B.
Jealousy
of o l d e r s i s t e r s
of younger b r o t h e r s
o f younger s i s t e r s
twin:
1 Yes
living
2 No
i n household
including
yourself
male,
m a r i t a l / r e l a t i o n s h i p status;
1. S i n g l e
2. D i v o r c e d
3.
Separated
4. Widowed
5.
Partnered
6.
Cohabi t ing
7. R e m a r r i e d
8. M a r r i e d
9. O t h e r ( p l e a s e
not your
family
Two-parent f a m i l y
Single parent family
Blended family ( c h i l d r e n i n f a m i l y
more m a r r i a g e s )
Other (please s p e c i f y )
of o r i g i n ) i s
from two o r
Prevalence
19.
Do y o u c o n s i d e r
20.
How
jealous
1
not a t a l l
jealous
a r e you a t t h i s
2
time
4
i n your
5
How j e a l o u s were y o u i n p r e v i o u s p e r i o d s
( P l e a s e use t h e above s c a l e f o r a l l f o u r
21.
During
childhood:
22.
During
adolescence:
23.
During
young a d u l t h o o d :
1 Ye s -2 No
;
3i
life?
6
7
extremely
jealous
i n your l i f e ?
periods.)
1 97
24.
During
adulthood:
25.
Have any of y o u r i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
of y o u r j e a l o u s y ?
1
none
26.
Do most p e o p l e
person?
1
definitely
not
27.
Do p e o p l e
jealous?
who
4
several
know you
you
1
definitely
not'
because
7
a l l of them
w e l l c o n s i d e r you
4
moderately
jealous
have b e e n i n t i m a t e
2
ended
4
moderately
jealous
a jealous
7
definitely
yes
with consider
5
7
definitely
yes
28.
P l e a s e d e s c r i b e the s i t u a t i o n t h a t produced
e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y .
29.
What p o s i t i v e a n d / o r n e g a t i v e
e x p e r i e n c e have on you and on
r e l a t i o n s h i p involved?
30.
D e s c r i b e - - a s i t u a t i o n t h a t w o u l d ( f o r you a n d - a t
t i m e i n y o u r l i f e ) r e s u l t i n a s i m i l a r or more
e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y .
C.
Reactions
to
effects did
the primary
you
your
most
this
this
Jealousy
R e c a l l i n g y o u r most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y , t o what
e x t e n t d i d you e x p e r i e n c e e a c h one of t h e f o l l o w i n g p h y s i c a l
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s . P l e a s e use t h e f o l l o w i n g s c a l e t o
describe a l l items.
not
1
at a l l
3
to a
4
"moderate"
degree
7
very
intensely
1 98
Physical
31 .
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41 .
42.
43.
89.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81 .
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
qr i e f
helplessness
v u l n e r a b i 1 i ty
blame
resentment
self-riqhteous
excluded
passion
hopelessness
annoyance
emotional exhaustion
excitement
entrapment
low s e l f - i m a q e
self-knowledge
Reactions
rage
humiliation
self-pity
confusion
pain
possessiveness
inferiority
f r u s t r a t ion
f e a r of l o s s
envy
anger
aqqression
anxiety
depression
gui I t
General
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
sexually aroused
dizzy
appetite loss
t r e m b l i n g hands
fast heartbeat
insomnia
blood rushinq
sweaty
exhausted
t u n n e l (or t e l e s c o p e d )
vi sion
blurred vision
double v i s i o n
sounds seem i n t e n s i f i e d
sounds seem d u l l e r
sounds a r e d i s t o r t e d
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51 .
52.
53.
hot
headachy
shakey
stomach empty
breath short
insomnia
energized
cold
faintness
nausea
stomach cramps
niqhtmares
a b o u t t o have a
nervous
breakdown
Emotional
59.
60.
61 .
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71 .
72.
73.
Reactions
Reactions
R e c a l l i n g your most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e
l o n g d i d the e x p e r i e n c e l a s t ?
1
seconds
2
minutes
3
hours
4
days
5
weeks
of
jealousy,
6
months
7
years
how
199
90.
How
often
never
91.
once
1
poorly
1
at a l l
not
95.
3
your
How
often
occas.
often
usually
with
being
do you e x p e r i e n c e
7
very
mild
7
a very
s e r i o u s one
7
definitely
yes
jealous?
jealousy?
never
once
rarely
occas.
often
usually
Do y o u c o n s i d e r y o u r
t o be an a p p r o p r i a t e
1
definitely
not
i s a normal
4
somewhat
own j e a l o u s y
reaction?
well
Do y o u t h i n k t h a t j e a l o u s y
certain situations?
always
a problem?
4
moderately
so
stop
the extreme s i t u a t i o n
3
4
5
to a c e r t a i n
degree
1
2
definitely
not
96.
jealousy
3
jealousy?
4
average
Can y o u make y o u r s e l f
1
definitely
not
94.
rarely
Do y o u c o n s i d e r
not
93.
extreme
Do y o u t h i n k you c o p e d w e l l
you
described?
very
92.
do you e x p e r i e n c e
4
somewhat
7
always
response i n
6
7
definitely
yes
i n extreme s i t u a t i o n s
5
7
definitely
yes
200
Coping with
Jealousy
Please
use
the
following
never
once
rarely
occas.
often
usually
97. r a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n
98. a c c e p t a n c e
99. s t o n y s i l e n c e
100. s a r c a s m
101. a v o i d i n g t h e i s s u e
102. s u f f e r s i l e n t l y but v i s i b l y
103. c r y i n g
104. f i n d i n g t h e funny s i d e
105. c l i n g i n g __.
106. b e s e e c h i n g
"
107. i s o l a t i o n
_____
108. s c r e a m i n g
.
109. t h r o w i n g t h i n g s
1 TO. d e n i a l
112. r e t a l i a t i n g - making p a r t n e r j e a l o u s
113. l e a v i n g p a r t n e r
114. s u f f e r s i l e n t l y and c o v e r t l y
115. p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e
116. ' making a j o k e of i t
117. n e g o t i a t i o n
118. a r g u i n g
119. w i t h d r a w a l
120. u s i n g t h e o c c a s i o n f o r t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h my r o l e
s i t u a t i o n and what i t i s I s t a n d / f e a r t o l o s e
Other
(please
specify)
121.
How
would you
define
122.
Using
not
123.
your
own
1
at a l l
in
the
jealousy?
definition,
3
always
how
4
moderately
jealous are
5
you?
7
extremely
O t h e r i n s i g h t s / t h o u g h t s / e x p e r i e n c e s I have had
w i t h / a b o u t j e a l o u s y and w i t h t o s h a r e a t t h i s t i m e .
D i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , l i n g u i s t i c or any o t h e r
c o n t r i b u t i o n s w i l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
I f , for
example, you a r e aware of a few or s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
words f o r j e a l o u s y i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s p l e a s e p r e s e n t
them and e x p l a i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i o n .
APPENDIX B
Request
for Participation
i n Study
202
Participation
needed i n j e a l o u s y s t u d y by M a s t e r s
Counselling
Psychology
student
in
We a l l have e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h j e a l o u s y d u r i n g our
lives.
T h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s can have b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e
e f f e c t s f o r o u r s e l v e s and our r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
A l t h o u g h none
of us a r e exempt from t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , s e e m i n g l y few
p e o p l e d i s c u s s them o p e n l y .
The p u r p o s e of t h i s s t u d y i s t o
e n l a r g e upon t h e t h e o r y a b o u t j e a l o u s y and t o p r o v i d e
c o u n s e l l o r s w i t h ways i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l be a b l e t o a s s i s t
i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s and f a m i l i e s t o use t h e i r j e a l o u s y
e x p e r i e n c e s i n m e a n i n g f u l , c o n s t r u c t i v e ways.
To p a r t i c i p a t e you must be between t h e a g e s of 20-60
years.
D u r i n g t h e coming week a l a r g e brown u n s e a l e d
e n v e l o p e c o n t a i n i n g t h e j e a l o u s y q u e s t i o n n a i r e and
i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d v i a y o u r m a i l s l o t .
I f you c h o o s e t o c o m p l e t e t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t w i l l be
assumed t h a t y o u r c o n s e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i s g i v e n .
The
q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l r e q u i r e a maximum of 30 m i n u t e s of your
t i m e and most p e o p l e w i l l be a b l e t o answer i t much more .
quickly.
You a r e r e q u e s t e d t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n
p r i v a c y and w i t h o u t d i s c u s s i o n or c o n s u l t a t i o n . You a r e , of
c o u r s e , f r e e t o withdraw a t any t i m e or r e f u s e t o answer any
questions without p r e j u d i c e .
S h o u l d you c h o o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e p l e a s e p l a c e t h e
c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e back i n t h e e n v e l o p e , s e a l i t and
r e t u r n i t t o t h e MELFA COURT a d d r e s s on t h e o u t s i d e of t h e
e n v e l o p e , or i f you l i v e i n t h e HIGHRISE, p l e a s e p l a c e t h e
s e a l e d e n v e l o p e t h r o u g h t h e i n s i d e m a i l s l o t on t h e main
floor.
P e o p l e who w i s h t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e but not
d e l i v e r i t may c a l l t h e number below and i t w i l l be p i c k e d
up.
R e t u r n of unanswered q u e s t i o n n a i r e s by t h e same
p r o c e d u r e ( e x c e p t t h e y s h o u l d r e m a i n u n s e a l e d ) would be
g r e a t l y appreciated?.
The r e s e a r c h e r w i l l c o l l e c t
l a r g e numbers of t h e
e n v e l o p e s and s h u f f l e them p r i o r t o o p e n i n g .
Your i d e n t i t y
w i l l r e m a i n a b s o l u t e l y anonymous.
P l e a s e do not p l a c e y o u r
name or a d d r e s s anywhere on t h e e n v e l o p e or q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
A l l i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d must r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l .
Return
d e a d l i n e i s J u l y 5,
1983.
At t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e s t u d y a f r e e w o r k s h o p w i l l be
g i v e n , w i t h d a t e , t i m e and l o c a t i o n t o be a n n o u n c e d i n t h e
newsletter.
The s t u d y f i n d i n g s w i l l be s h a r e d and q u e s t i o n s
w i l l be a n s w e r e d .
For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , p l e a s e
224-7015.
call
M a r i e t t e West a t
203
APPENDIX C
Cover L e t t e r
for
Inventory
204
Dear
Occupant,
E n c l o s e d p l e a s e f i n d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h a t i s p a r t of a
study about j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s .
The s t u d y i s f o r my
MA
t h e s i s in Counselling Psychology.
The p u r p o s e of the s t u d y
i s t o e n l a r g e upon the t h e o r y a b o u t j e a l o u s y and t o p r o v i d e
c o u n s e l l o r s w i t h ways i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l be a b l e t o a s s i s t
p e o p l e t o use t h e i r j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s i n more
c o n s t r u c t i v e ways.
We a l l have e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h j e a l o u s y d u r i n g our
lives.
These e x p e r i e n c e s can have b o t h p o s i t i v e and
negative
e f f e c t s f o r o u r s e l v e s and our r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l t h o u g h none
of us a r e exempt from t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s s e e m i n g l y few p e o p l e
c l a i m . o r d i s c u s s them o p e n l y .
To
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s
1. You must be
years.
study:
between
the
ages' of" 20
and
60
2.
I f you c h o o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e , y o u r c o n s e n t
be assumed by c o m p l e t i o n and r e t u r n of t h e
questionnaire.
will
3.
4.
Your i d e n t i t y w i l l r e m a i n a b s o l u t e l y anonymous
and a l l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w i l l be number c o d e d f o r
p u r p o s e s of d a t a h a n d l i n g and a n a l y s i s .
Please
do not put your' name- or a d d r e s s anywhere on' the
e n v e l o p e or q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
5.
The c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h o u l d be p l a c e d
back i n t h e e n v e l o p e , s e a l e d and r e t u r n e d t o
t h e M e l f a C o u r t a d d r e s s on the o u t s i d e , or t o
t h e i n s i d e m a i l s l o t of t h e f a m i l y h o u s i n g
o f f i c e on t h e main f l o o r of the h i g h r i s e .
H o u s e h o l d s who w i s h t o r e t u r n unanswered
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , or who would l i k e e x t r a
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f o r o t h e r members or who would,
p r e f e r p i c k - u p r a t h e r t h a n d e l i v e r y of a n s w e r e d
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s may c a l l t h e number b e l o w .
6.
You a r e , of c o u r s e , f r e e t o w i t h d r a w a t any
t i m e or t o r e f u s e t o answer any
questions
without p r e j u d i c e .
206
APPENDIX D
Responses
t o Items
28,
29,
30
207
The
28,
responses
t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e items
28.
your
29.
What p o s i t i v e a n d / o r n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s d i d t h i s
e x p e r i e n c e have on y o u and on t h e p r i m a r y
relationship involved?
30.
D e s c r i b e a s i t u a t i o n t h a t would ( f o r y o u a n d a t
t h i s time i n your l i f e ) r e s u l t i n a s i m i l a r or
more e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e o f j e a l o u s y .
Female S u b j e c t ' s R e s p o n s e s
28.
29.
30.
02
28.
29.
30.
03
28.
29.
F i n d i n g o u t t h a t my husband l o v e d a n o t h e r
woman.
I l o s t c o n f i d e n c e i n m y s e l f a s a woman f o r a
time.
I r e a l i z e d that the depth of the
r e l a t i o n s h i p on h i s p a r t had n e v e r been what I
had hoped i t t o be t h e r e f o r e b r o u g h t p a s t
happenings i n t o f o c u s .
R e l a t i o n s h i p ended.
I f I h a d u n r e a l i s t i c hopes f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o d e v e l o p , then r e a l i z e d I had
l o s t , i . e . t h a t i t would n e v e r be, b e c a u s e o f
a n o t h e r woman.
My h u s b a n d l o v e d a n o t h e r woman ( t h e c o u p l e were
c l o s e f r i e n d s of o u r s ) and I f e l t t e r r i b l e .
I
was m a r r i e d 2 y e a r s w i t h a s m a l l baby a n d
d e f i n i t e l y f e l t the victim.
I moved on ( p o s i t i v e ) .
I am a l s o a b l e t o s e e
how e a c h j e a l o u s s i t u a t i o n i s a r e a c t i v a t i o n o f
this e a r l i e r experience.
I b r o k e up my
marriage (negative).
My f i a n c e e w a n t i n g t o be w i t h a n o t h e r woman
besides myself.
D u r i n g m a r r i a g e breakdown, b e f o r e s e p a r a t i o n ,
a t a p a r t y , I became v e r y j e a l o u s o f a woman
f l i r t i n g w i t h my e x - h u s b a n d .
P o s i t i v e : I e x p r e s s e d my f e e l i n g s a n d f e l t a
l i t t l e b e t t e r b u t I r e a l i z e d i t was i n s e c u r i t y
208
30.
04
28.
29.
30.
05
28.
29.
30.
06
28.
29.
30.
about t h e m a r r i a g e , ( a n d t h e man) n o t t h e
woman, t h a t c a u s e d t h e j e a l o u s y . I t d i s g u s t e d
my e x - h u s b a n d , b u t did, n o t a f f e c t t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s already d i s i n t e g r a t i n g path.
I t h i n k I am e n v i o u s now o f s o l i d man/woman
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , but I c a n ' t imagine r e a l l y
f e e l i n g j e a l o u s y l i k e I u s e d t o , a s I am more
s e c u r e about m y s e l f .
D u r i n g c h i l d h o o d , s i s t e r 2 y e a r s younger than
me r e c e i v e d "more" t h i n g s ( c l o t h e s , p e t s , e t c . )
t h e way I saw i t . I a l s o saw h e r a s c u t e r and
more e a s y g o i n g w i t h more f r i e n d s .
I am t o l d
t h a t I was " r e s e n t f u l " o f h e r from t h e moment
she was b o r n (I threw numerous t a n t r u m s ) .
Up
u n t i l a d o l e s c e n c e I was e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s t o
t h e p o i n t o f f i g h t s and t e a r s b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t
m y . p a r e n t s l a v i s h e d "more" on h e r . I n f a c t , I .
t e n d e d t o r e f u s e " t h i n g s " whereas* she a c c e p t e d
e v e r y t h i n g handed to' h e r - a s i f I wanted t o be
j e a l o u s of h e r . ( s e l f - i n f l i c t e d j e a l o u s y )
D u r i n g c h i l d h o o d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s
s i s t e r and I was e x t r e m e l y t e n s e .
I t seems we
h a t e d e a c h o t h e r t h e whole t i m e .
But now I
t h i n k t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s even s t r o n g e r t h a n i t
would have been o t h e r w i s e .
I f e e l i n c a p a b l e o f t h i s k i n d o f j e a l o u s y now.
The t i m e was when a man I was l i v i n g w i t h
c o n f e s s e d he was i n l o v e ( a n d s e e i n g ) someone
else.
I s p l i t up w i t h h i m and d i d n ' t e a t f o r 8
days.
We s p l i t up. I c a n n o t a c c e p t i n f i d e l i t y ,
(yet,
I am c a p a b l e o f " s t r a y i n g " m y s e l f ) .
My b o y f r i e n d f l i r t s w i t h h i s n e i g h b o r a l o t .
I f he- f l i r t e d w i t h h e r at'^'party*,,-- i n - f r o n t - o-fime - t h e n " l e f t " w i t h h e r - I would be v e r y
jealous.
Grade 12, h i g h s c h o o l , my b o y f r i e n d s t a r t e d
dating another g i r l .
I t was e x t r e m e l y p a i n f u l .
I would go t o any l e n g t h t o t r y t o win back h i s
affections.
P o s : i t was a g r o w i n g e x p e r i e n c e a s I
e v e n t u a l l y got over i t . I l e a r n e d t o d i s l i k e
myself f o r f e e l i n g j e a l o u s .
Neg: I l o s t a l l
sense of p r i d e .
I was p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h
j e a l o u s y a n d i t a f f e c t e d my mood.
I became
q u i t e n a s t y and h a t e f u l .
H o p e f u l l y n o t h i n g w i l l e v e r be a s bad a s t h a t
was.
B u t , i f I d e e p l y l o v e d someone a n d f e l t
h i s a f f e c t i o n s s l i p p i n g away f o r a n o t h e r woman
209
that
07
28.
29.
30.
08
28.
29.
30.
09
28.
29.
may r e s u l t
in a similar
experience.
210
30.
10
28.
29.
30.
11
28.
29.
30.
12
28.
29.
30.
13
28.
c h i l d r e n and am p r e g n a n t w i t h a s e c o n d .
I f I were t o meet a man whom I l o v e d , r e s p e c t e d
and c o m m i t t e d m y s e l f t o and had f u n w i t h and a
g r e a t d e a l of i n t i m a c y and he l e f t out of t h e
b l u e or s i m p l y c u t me o f f - I d o n ' t know but I
c e r t a i n l y f e a r I w o u l d go t h r o u g h t h e same
jealous routine.
My most extreme e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y t h a t I
can r e c a l l p r o b a b l y had t o do w i t h t h e f a c t
t h a t I grew up w i t h a t w i n s i s t e r .
She
was
more " p o p u l a r " t h a n I and had many more f r i e n d s
and i n v i t a t i o n s t o p a r t i e s .
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t was p r o b a b l y t h a t of f e e l i n g
i n f e r i o r to her.
P o s i t i v e e f f e c t was t h a t i t
p r o b a b l y h e l p e d me t o p u r s u e my own
identity
and i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
I s t r i v e d to excel i n
d i f f e r e n t areas than her.
S i m i l a r perhaps' would be b e i n g ' e x c l u d e d from, a
"social circle".
:
B o y f r i e n d - g i r l f r i e n d s i t u a t i o n where b o y f r i e n d
appeared i n t e r e s t e d i n other g i r l .
T h i s was
late teens.
D i s c o v e r e d he had s e v e r a l o t h e r
girlfriends.
Subsequent r e l a t i o n s h i p s s u f f e r e d
b e c a u s e of a l a c k i n t r u s t as a r e s u l t of o t h e r
relationship.
(+)opened up more w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e
feelings.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n between us i n c r e a s e d .
(-) an i n c r e a s e i n a r g u m e n t s , d e c r e a s e i n my
t r u s t i n him.
F r u s t r a t i o n on b o t h s i d e s ,
studies suffered.
Husband i n t e r e s t e d i n a n o t h e r g i r l but i n a
more d e f i n i t e way i . e . not coming home.
In
o t h e r words, now I f e e l more s e c u r e i n our
relationship.
A d o l e s c e n c e - I was 16 w i t h a b o y f r i e n d and
moved t o J a p a n .
W h i l e I was l i v i n g t h e r e he
began d a t i n g a n o t h e r g i r l , d r o p p e d me q u i c k l y
upon my r e t u r n .
Made me somewhat c o l d i n o r d e r t o e r a d i c a t e t h e
p a i n c a u s e d by j e a l o u s y , I'm much q u i c k e r t o
s t e p out of a r e l a t i o n s h i p i f I f e e l
I'm
unwanted, d o n ' t commit m y s e l f a s e a s i l y on an
emotional l e v e l .
My s e c o n d h u s b a n d r e m a r r y i n g and g e t t i n g
c u s t o d y of one or more of t h e c h i l d r e n .
(Pain
too!)
In t h e a t r e s c h o o l , I had a g r e a t d e a l of
r e s p e c t f o r my a c t i n g t e a c h e r .
T h e r e was
21 1
29.
30.
14
28.
29.
30.
15
28.
29.
30.
16
28.
girl
A l o n g term general', l o w - l e v e l f e a r of l o s i n g
my h u s b a n d t o a n o t h e r woman, w h i c h i n t e n s i f i e d
when he had an a f f a i r .
I learned to l i k e myself.
In t e r m s of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o v e r a p e r i o d of y e a r s , my h u s b a n d
and I made a c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e t o be monogomous.
I f my husband had an a f f a i r now, p a r t of my
r e a c t i o n would be j e a l o u s y but I would d e a l
w i t h i t more s a n e l y and i t would be f o r a
shorter time.
In c h i l d h o o d - t h e t h o u g h t t h a t my t w i n would
g e t s o m e t h i n g or be a b l e t o do s o m e t h i n g I
couldn't.
We had a l w a y s done e v e r y t h i n g
t o g e t h e r , wore t h e same c l o t h e s (we're b o t h
f e m a l e ) e t c . u n t i l we were 16.
Various
g r a n d p a r e n t s ( n e v e r our p a r e n t s ) would s i n g l e
212
29.
30.
17
28.
29.
30.
18
28.
19
28.
married
to
29.
30.
20
28.
W a t c h i n g t h e man I was s e x u a l l y i n v o l v e d w i t h
t a l k i n g i n t i m a t e l y for s e v e r a l hours with
a n o t h e r woman.
I t made me more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e man
and
w i l l i n g t o make more of a committment t o t h e
relationship.
I f a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n r e o c c u r e d I t h i n k my
j e a l o u s y would be g r e a t e r
now.
S e e i n g my s e r i o u s b o y f r i e n d t a l k i n g
g i r l f r i e n d t h a t I d i d not l i k e .
t o an
ex-
213
21
29.
30.
E x a s p e r a t i o n on my b o y f r i e n d ' s p a r t .
An o l d g i r l f r i e n d o f my h u s b a n d ' s r e - a p p e a r i n g
on t h e scene and my h u s b a n d b e i n g f r i e n d l y w i t h
h e r , even i f he was o n l y b e i n g f r i e n d l y .
28.
29.
30.
22
2.8.
29.
30.
23
28.
29.
30.
24
28.
29.
A f t e r b e i n g s e p a r a t e d o n l y 2 months my h u s b a n d "
s t a r t e d d a t i n g a good f r i e n d o f mine.
She h a d
a good j o b , n i c e f i g u r e , and g o r g e o u s c l o t h e s .
I had a l l t h i s b e f o r e I m a r r i e d .
The p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s were g r e a t e s t .
I had t o
d e a l w i t h h i m d a t i n g o t h e r women.
I t h e l p e d me
t o r e a l i z e "I am who I am". The o n l y n e g a t i v e
e f f e c t was t h a t I no l o n g e r s e e h e r i n t h e same
l i g h t a s when we were f r i e n d s .
P r o b a b l y i f my c h i l d r e n were a l w a y s r a n t i n g a n d
r a v i n g a b o u t how g r e a t daddy's new g i r l f r i e n d
is.
I t h i n k I m i g h t f e e l somewhat t h r e a t e n e d .
S i b l i n g r i v a l r y - y o u n g e r s i s t e r was a t t r a c t i v e
- clever etc.
S t i l l a l i t t l e j e a l o u s - but d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s
this--.
Seeing other f a m i l i e s enjoying family a c t i v i t y
without the s t r e s s a t t a c h e d t o those i n our
own.
Combination
j e a l o u s y / a n g e r - a f t e r 4 years of
mates' i n f i d e l i t y we s e p a r a t e d a n d c o n t i n u e d
r e l a t i o n s h i p l i v i n g i n separate dwellings.
Mate s t o o d me up t o go t o a g a t h e r i n g a t a
f r i e n d ' s house so I went a l o n e .
He a r r i v e d
l a t e r w i t h woman he h a d been s e e i n g w h i l e we
l i v e d t o g e t h e r a n d h a d p r e v i o u s l y s a i d he
wasn't s e e i n g h e r any more.
I t ended t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
"Last straw"
concept.
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t s - f i r s t time I
r e a l l y f e l t h a t r e d a n d I r e a c t e d b a d l y - threw
g l a s s a t h i m a s he l e f t h o u s e .
Felt horrible
214
30.
25
28.
29.
30.
26
28.
29.
30.
27
28.
29.
30.
28
28.
29.
30.
215
29
28.
29.
30.
30
28.
29.
30.
31
28.
29.
30.
32
28.
29.
30.
33
28.
29.
30.
- a d e s i r e t o want b e t t e r l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n o r
material things.
- a d e s i r e t o want more
attention.
- i t b r o u g h t us c l o s e r t o g e t h e r , t a l k i n g a b o u t
it.
I f my h u s b a n d gave a t t e n t i o n t o someone w i t h a
better l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n .
I was on v a c a t i o n .
B o y f r i e n d (I t h o u g h t ) t o o k
up w i t h a n o t h e r woman.
P o s i t i v e - I have l e a r n e d n o t t o be q u i t e so
d e p e n d e n t on someone.
Negative - d i s t r u s t of
people.
S t i l l f i n d i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o speak
t o woman i n v o l v e d , o r even be i n t h e same room
with h e r .
F o r a f r i e n d t o win a m i l l i o n - d o l l a r l o t t e r y .
Meet i n g p a s t g i r l f r i e n d o f my h u s b a n d ' s who I .
knew he had once been s e r i o u s a b o u t .
Had a. p o s i t i v e e f f e c t i n t h a t i t t a u g h t me t h a t
the p a s t had no s i g n i f i c a n c e on t h e p r i m a r y
relationship.
I f I f e l t my h u s b a n d was i n t e r e s t e d a n d
a t t r a c t e d t o a n o t h e r woman.
When my h u s b a n d d a n c e s w i t h a n o t h e r g i r l
y o u n g e r t h a n me and b e t t e r d a n c e r .
Very negative - negative d i s c u s s i o n - negative
view o f m y s e l f s a d n e s s o f my h u s b a n d who e n j o y s
dancing.
Same e x p e r i e n c e .
When I was a b o u t 20, t h e r e was a f e e l i n g o f
extreme j e a l o u s y t o w a r d s a c o - w o r k e r .
She was
c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r t h a n !, but- my - husband
admired her, and I f e l t I j u s t c o u l d n ' t
compete.
The d i f f i c u l t t h i n g was t h a t I a l s o
a d m i r e d h e r and l i k e d h e r .
I t was h a r d t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e f e e l i n g s I h a d when my h u s b a n d
praised her.
From t h i s I r e a l i z e d t h a t i t was "O.K." f o r my
husband t o a d m i r e somebody e l s e f o r t h e i r good
q u a l i t i e s , a s l o n g a s t h e r e was no i l l
r e f l e c t i o n on me.
I have l e a r n e d t h a t a l t h o u g h
some p e o p l e " o u t s h i n e " me, I am s t i l l an
O.K. p e r s o n .
I f my h u s b a n d were t o a d m i r e a c l o s e f r i e n d and i t seemed t o be more t h a n a d m i r a t i o n !
If I
f e l t t h a t he was p l a c i n g me i n a p o s i t i o n where
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o compete f o r h i s a f f e c t i o n .
;
216
34
28.
29.
30.
35
28.
29.
30.
36
28.
29.
30.
37
28.
29.
30.
38
39
28.
29.
30.
28.
j e a l o u s y i n an
insecure
country.
is
"free"
relationship.
217
29.
30.
40
28.
29.
30.
41
28.
29.
30.
42
28.
29.
30.
43
28.
29.
30.
44
28.
H e l p e d t o end an u n s t a b l e and h a r m f u l
relationship.
I f my husband was a t t r a c t e d t o someone e l s e .
C o n t a c t ( d o n ' t know t o what d e g r e e o f i n t i m a c y )
between my husband a n d a f o r m e r g i r l f r i e n d ( t o
whom he was t o be m a r r i e d ) .
Taught me t h a t t r u s t o f someone c l o s e t o y o u ,
came from w i t h i n y o u r s e l f .
I d o n ' t t h i n k i t would happen.
I believe I
have p r e t t y w e l l e l i m i n a t e d j e a l o u s y - a s an
u n p r o d u c t i v e emotion!
A y o u n g e r p h y s i c a l l y more v o l u p t u o u s woman w i t h
d e f i n i t e i n t e n t t o make i m p r e s s i o n on my
h u s b a n d i n my v e r y p r e s e n c e .
I f e l t h e l p l e s s and became more k e e n l y aware o f
my p h y s i c a l s h o r t c o m i n g s .
I pouted a b i t but
. s i n c e husband d i d not d i s p l a y l a s t i n g i n t e r e s t
i n o t h e r woman t h e e p i s o d e was soon f o r g o t t e n .
I would be much more j e a l o u s i f my husband
r e s p o n d e d more v i g o r o u s l y t o a come-on o r
i n i t i a t e d one h i m s e l f .
F o r me t o become
e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s t h e woman i n v o l v e d would have
t o be d e f i n i t e l y much b e t t e r l o o k i n g t h a n
myself.
I f my husband showed i n t e r e s t i n a
woman who was more p l a i n t h a n m y s e l f I would
p i t y him a n d would t e n d n o t t o t a k e h i m
seriously.
T h i n k i n g t h a t I was
the one I l o v e .
Negative - r e s u l t e d
us.
P o s i t i v e - got
out t h e p r o b l e m .
F i n d i n g o u t t h a t my
not appreciated
o r l o v e d by
i n a n g r y words between 2 o f
us t a l k i n g and s t r a i g h t e n e d
husband was f o o l i n g a r o u n d :
A f t e r becoming p r e g n a n t by my b o y f r i e n d (now my
husband) we s e p a r a t e d f o r a y e a r .
During that
y e a r a c l o s e g i r l f r i e n d became v e r y f r i e n d l y
with him.
Between my husband and m y s e l f t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s
no l o n g e r a n e g a t i v e o n e . I s t i l l c a n n o t .
a s s o c i a t e o r even s e e t h i s f o r m e r g i r l f r i e n d .
I f my h u s b a n d were t o become f r i e n d l y w i t h t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r g i r l again.
Even a f r i e n d s h i p would
cause j e a l o u s y .
Husband p r e f e r r e d t o spend h i s t i m e more and
more w i t h a g r o u p o f f r i e n d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h
a certain g i r l .
T o l d me one day t h a t he had
f a l l e n i n love with h e r .
218
29.
30.
45
28.
29.
30.
Male S u b j e c t s '
46
28.
29.
30.
47
28.
29.
30.
Responses
My g i r l f r i e n d l e f t me, a n d r e t u r n e d t o h e r e x lover.
N e g a t i v e - l o n e l i n e s s , s e l f - p i t y , s a p p e d my
m o t i v a t i o n t o work, s o I q u i t .
Positive a f t e r 3 weeks, f o u n d I c o u l d e a s i l y c r e a t e new
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b o l s t e r e d my c o n f i d e n c e t o w a r d
defeating jealousy.
Same - g i r l f r i e n d l e a v e s me f o r a n o t h e r .
When a g i r l I had t a k e n t o a p a r t y l e f t w i t h
someone- e l s e w i t h o u t s a y i n g a n y t h i n g i
A p r i m a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p was n o t i n v o l v e d , i t was
casual.
I f my w i f e l e f t a s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g w i t h someone
e l s e w i t h o u t f i r s t f i l l i n g me i n on t h e
p o s i t i o n I was l e f t i n .
48
28.
29.
In a d u l t h o o d , an o c c a s i o n where my l o v e r t o l d
me t h a t she h a d been i n t i m a t e w i t h a n o t h e r man
she met a t a c o n f e r e n c e .
I t was a p r o f o u n d
f e e l i n g of h u m i l i a t i o n , d i s l o y a l t y ( a t t r i b u t e d
to h e r ) , r i v a l r y .
I t was t h e " l a s t s t r a w " i n a f a l t e r i n g
relationship.
We were n e v e r i n t i m a t e a f t e r
t h a t , a l t h o u g h we have met on c o r d i a l , f r i e n d l y
terms s i n c e .
F o r m y s e l f i t was a " w a t e r s h e d "
219
30.
49
28.
29.
30.
50
28.
29.
30.
W i f e and b e s t f r i e n d s l e e p i n g t o g e t h e r .
Ended m a r r i a g e and began a c o u r t s h i p .
A n o t h e r man b e i n g (becoming) t h e f a t h e r r o l e o f
my c h i l d r e n .
51
28.
29.
30.
Don't r e c a l l any e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e o f
jealousy.
Only f e e l i n g of j e a l o u s y i s i n a
v e r y g e n e r a l s e n s e w i t h r e g a r d t o p e o p l e who
l i v e a more d e s i r a b l e l i f e s t y l e , b e t t e r sex
l i f e , w e l l behaved k i d s , e t c .
Not a p p l i c a b l e .
(no r e p s o n s e )
52
28.
29.
30.
(No r e s p o n s e )
(No r e s p o n s e )
(No r e s p o n s e )
53
28.
29.
1) A p p e a r a n c e s 2) Work r e l a t i o n s h i p s
1) Lack o f s e l f c o n f i d e n c e and few f r i e n d s 2)
C r e a t e d a tremendous need f o r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t over a c h i e v e r .
Someone who I f e e l i s l e s s c a p a b l e t h a n I , y e t
i s more s u c c e s s f u l .
30.
54
28.
29.
30.
When my s t e p m o t h e r would o f f e r s p e c i a l f o o d
b e h i n d my back t o my s t e p s i s t e r s e t c .
Hate t h a t l a s t s t o t h i s day, o r s h o u l d p e r h a p s
I c a l l i t v e r y bad moments t o remember.
Well I c o n s i d e r myself self-made,
financially
and f a m i l y - w i s e .
P e r h a p s , i f I w o u l d n ' t have a
f i n a n c i a l l y s e c u r e f e e l i n g I would f e e l j e a l o u s
220
t o w a r d s some of my
55
28.
29.
30.
56
28.
29.
30.
57
28.
29.
30.
friends
or
f e l l o w workers.
O n l y 1 e x p e r i e n c e - a t age 17 - t h e g i r l I t o o k
t o a h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t i o n d a n c e d e s e r t e d me
for another
guy.
We were f r i e n d s b e f o r e and a r e s t i l l f r i e n d s
now - I was u p s e t a t t h e t i m e , but g o t o v e r i t .
I had n e a r l y f o r g o t t e n t h e i n c i d e n t u n t i l t h i s
survey.
(No
response)
As i t happens so i n f r e q u e n t l y , I have no memory
of 'the most extreme e x p e r i e n c e ' of j e a l o u s y .
One t h i n g I remember: b e i n g i n a back s e a t
w h i l e a f r i e n d 'made o u t ' w i t h a g i r l I
desired.
I t made me a n g r y and d e p r e s s e d , s u l l e n and
distant.
I wanted t o be a l o n e and d i d n ' t f e e l
much l i k e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s
w i t h t h e f r i e n d ( s ) I was t h e n w i t h - f o r a day
or s o .
L o s i n g a j o b t o a f r i e n d whom I knew t o be l e s s
q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e p o s i t i o n - b e i n g r e j e c t e d by
a p u b l i s h i n g house t h a t a c c e p t e d a work of a
f r i e n d I t h o u g h t t o be of l e s s e r s i g n i f i c a n c e
t h a n mine.
A c t u a l l y , t h i s would p r o b a b l y make
me a n g r y , r e s e n t f u l - maybe more e n v i o u s t h a n
jealous.
When I saw a f r i e n d of mine go a f t e r a
g i r l f r i e n d t h a t I had my eye on.
I became f r i e n d s w i t h t h e g i r l and the boy and
I became d i s t a n t .
I f my w i f e b r o u g h t up our c h i l d r e n w i t h h e r
s i d e up of t h e f a m i l y i n f l u e n c e .
T h i s would
make^me- a n g r y - t h r n M ng that- my f a m i l y isn-'t
good enough.
58
28.
29.
30.
Sexual deception - i n f i d e l i t y .
Ended i t .
D i f f i c u l t t o say - j e a l o u s y t e n d e n c y
now
s u p p l a n t e d t o d i s s a p p o i n t e d r e c o g n i t i o n and
a c c e p t a n c e of r e a l i t y .
59
28.
As a young t e e n ( 1 2 - 1 3 ) , a n e i g h b o u r boy
was
endowed w i t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l i s t l u x u r y money
c o u l d buy - I was not so endowed and he made
s u r e I remembered t h a t .
Even i f t h e p e r s o n i n q u e s t i o n ' s l i f e had n o t
become as d i r e c t i o n l e s s as i t d i d , I would have
s t i l l l e a r n e d t h e p o i n t l e s s n e s s of s i m p l y
acquiring "possessions."
29.
221
60
30.
I f a p e r s o n were t o e x h i b i t a g r e a t d e a l o f
s k i l l at a musical instrument without p r a c t i c e ,
but s i m p l y by p u r e i n n a t e t a l e n t (which I do
not have much of')' I o f t e n become e n v i o u s and
self-critical.
28.
My g i r l f r i e n d had a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r
male.
P o s i t i v e - t o t a l l y c u r t a i l e d any o t h e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s I may have had o r t h i n k i n g o f
having.
N e g a t i v e - t h e f e e l i n g o f t r u s t was
somewhat r u p t u r e d .
I f I was h a v i n g a c o n t i n u e d i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p and my p a r t n e r was c a r r y i n g on an
a f f a i r w i t h someone e l s e .
29.
30.
61
28.
29.
30.
62
28.
29.
30.
63
28.
29.
30.
My f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d l i k e d someone e l s e .
(No r e s p o n s e )
My- spouse- t o fa-fee^a-"l/o-veu'-o.s*'leaver
64
28.
My f i r s t l o v e r , was an e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s p e r s o n
and was a l w a y s c h e c k i n g up on me, she was v e r y
suspicious.
I r o n i c a l l y she made i t w i t h a
trumpet p l a y e r from a v e r y good r o c k g r o u p , I
was s i c k w i t h b e t r a y a l , a n g e r and j e a l o u s y .
P o s i t i v e l y i t ended t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a s we knew
i t and s h a t t e r e d a l l t h e i n a n e i l l u s i o n s I had
been s a d d l e d w i t h from my l e a r n i n g up u n t i l
that p o i n t ( i e . love) i n i t s narrowest
senses.
P e r h a p s i f someone were t o show e x t r e m e
i n t e r e s t i n my p a r t n e r and t h e r e was some
r e c i p r o c a t i o n my i d l e t h o u g h t s c o u l d be
aroused.
29.
30.
65
28.
My
girlfriend
(now my w i f e )
w r o t e a l e t t e r (I
222
29.
30.
66
28.
29.
30.
67
28.
29.
30.
68
28.
29.
30.
69
28.
29.
30.
An e x t r e m e l y i n t e n s e , p r o l o n g e d , y e t t e n u o u s
r e l a t i o n s h i p ; i n which p a r t n e r c a s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e s a t t r a c t i o n f o r a n o t h e r male p e r c e i v e d
by me t o be a more a c c o m p l i s h e d , dynamic a n d
c a p a b l e i n d i v i d u a l than m y s e l f .
P o s : s h a r i n g f e e l i n g s w i t h p a r t n e r . Neg: a f t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p h a d ended t h e e v e n t c o n t r i b u t e d t o
t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t t h e p a r t n e r h a d been
i n s i n c e r e and ( d i s ) h o n e s t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
( w i t h h e r s e l f a n d me).
P r e s e n t p a r t n e r c h a n g i n g and s u b s e q u e n t l y
223
28.
29.
30.
71
28.
29.
30.
72
28..
29.
30.
73
28.
29.
30.
meet h e r
needs
F i n d i n g my g i r l f r i e n d i n t i m a t e l y d a n c i n g w i t h
another person.
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t : break r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h
friends.
P o s i t i v e e f f e c t : t r y t o be l e s s
possessive.
At t h i s t i m e i n l i f e I do not have any f e e l i n g
of j e a l o u s y .
A f t e r s e e i n g my f i r s t and most i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n
i n l i f e , i n an i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r o v o k e
my s e n s e s .
As a s i d e e f f e c t h e l p e d me t o g e t m y s e l f more
together.
N e g a t i v e p a r t was t h e t r u s t w h i c h I
c o u l d not s h a r e 100% w i t h h e r anymore.
Unknown a t t h e moment.
P e r c e p t i o n t h a t my h i g h s c h o o l s w e e t h e a r t
was
i n t e r e s t e d i n another f e l l o w .
L i t t l e e f f e c t as j e a l o u s y d i d n o t m a n i f e s t
i t s e l f to person involved.
J e a l o u s y proved
unfounded.
S i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n 28 a b o v e .
My w i f e s p e n d i n g an e v e n i n g j u s t t a l k i n g w i t h a
m u t u a l man f r i e n d who was f o n d o f h e r .
R e a l i z e d t h a t my j e a l o u s y was a r e s u l t of n o t
t r u s t i n g my s p o u s e - l e a r n e d t o be more
t r u s t i n g and r e s p e c t f u l of her c o n t a c t w i t h
other
men.
My w i f e becoming i n v o l v e d i n a l o n g - t e r m
emotional r e l a t i o n s h i p with another
man.
224
APPENDIX E
R e s p o n s e s t o Item
120
225
The f o l l o w i n g
questionnaire
120.
How
responses
to
would you d e f i n e j e a l o u s y ?
Subject
Female S u b j e c t s ' R e s p o n s e s
01
( j e a l o u s y i s ) f e a r of not h a v i n g the r e q u i r e d
p r o p o r t i o n of a l o v e d - o n e ' s a f f e c t i o n s - i n s e c u r i t y .
02
an a u t o m a t i c
st imulus.
03
an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h one
c a n n o t c o n t r o l by l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s .
04
d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t i n g t o be l i k e someone e l s e ( w h i c h
i n c l u d e s h a v i n g " t h i n g s " h e / s h e has o r h a v i n g
p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , e t c . ) which i s i n h e r e n t l y a
futile desire.
05
an" e m o t i o n
06
t h e most h o r r i b l e p r e - o c c u p y i n g e m o t i o n t o
experience.
T h e r e i s no c u r e o r way o u t .
07
a p h y s i c a l or emotional r e a c t i o n i n response to a
f e a r o f l o s i n g your l o v e r ( e t c . ) t o someone e l s e .
You c a n a l s o be e n v i o u s o r ( i . e . ) j e a l o u s of
m a t e r i a l t h i n g s someone e l s e h a s .
08
f e e l i n g i n s e c u r e o r t h r e a t e n e d by t h e l o s s o f
someone o r s o m e t h i n g , hence p o s s e s s i v e and w a n t i n g
t o hang on, have a l l to-- one's- s e l f .
09
an i r r a t i o n a l , p a i n f u l , c r i p p l i n g e m o t i o n w h i c h
c r e a t e s i n me deep f e e l i n g s o f d e s p a i r and
powerlessness.
I t only e x i s t s in r e l a t i o n s h i p to a
man I have d e c i d e d t o l o v e , s u r r e n d e r e d t o , and t h e n
been b e t r a y e d o r a b a n d o n e d .
10
a n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t o someone o r some
s i t u a t i o n i n which you f e e l d e p r i v e d .
11
an e m o t i o n t h a t b r i n g s on f r u s t r a t i o n , a n g e r , and
retaliation.
The e m o t i o n i s c a u s e d by b a s i c
d i s t r u s t i n my c a s e a c t u a t e d by a more s u c c e s s f u l
r ival.
12
the f e e l i n g
response
based
f o l l o w e d by a
on p a r a n o i a and
aroused
particular
insecurity.
226
s o m e t h i n g d e a r t o one's s e l f
anything to regain i t .
13
i s wanting
else.
affection
14
the d e s i r e
t o be
15
the
16
17
18
reaction
that
of
is helpless
to
do
i s b e i n g g i v e n t o someone
something
to loss
and
you
are
not.
affection.
-a s e v e r e amount of i n d i g n a t i o n a r i s i n g
r i v a l r y w i t h someone c l o s e t o m y s e l f .
f e l t j e a l o u s o f p e o p l e I d o n ' t know.)
through
(I have
never
e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e b r o u g h t t o s u r f a c e by i n n e r m o s t
t h o u g h t s and i d e a l s of what i s r i g h t a n d / o r
a c c e p t a b l e t o one's s e l f .
. i n a n s w e r i n g , I have c o n c e n t r a t e d ~ o n t h e s e x u a l
a s p e c t of j e a l o u s y , not on n o n - s e x u a l r i v a l r y o r
coveting.
T h e r e f o r e , my d e f i n i t i o n of s p e c i f i c
j e a l o u s y i s f e a r of c o m p e t i t i o n f o r someone's
a f f e c t i o n , sexual a t t e n t i o n .
19
an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e u s u a l l y i n t e n s e and p a i n f u l
an i m a g i n e d o r r e a l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g y o u r
m a t e / s e x u a l p a r t n e r and a n o t h e r p e r s o n .
20
a horrid
21
d o u b t / c o n c e r n / c o n f u s i o n a b o u t one's own p o s i t i o n
h e l d i n r e s p e c t t o t h a t of a n o t h e r w h e t h e r i t be
concerning material/maternal matters.
22
23
envious
24
a f e e l i n g of b e i n g l e f t
w i t h someone you l o v e .
25
a r e a c t i o n of h u r t and b e t r a y a l t o an
i n s e n s i t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f a p e r s o n
d e a l about.
awful
feeling.
of a n o t h e r ' s
i s what
you
person.
out
of a p l e a s a n t
insecurity.
27
fear
28
n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n t o b e i n g e x c l u d e d from an
p a r t of a p e r s o n ' s l i f e whom you had t r i e d
someone you
situation
a c t i o n of
I care a great
26
of l o s i n g
to
l o v e t o someone
else.
intimate
to share
227
29
a desire
30
envy of a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s s i t u a t i o n s , r e l a t i o n s , o r
p o s s e s s i o n s ; but whereas envy i s not u s u a l l y
n e g a t i v e , j e a l o u s y d e f i n i t e l y i s n e g a t i v e , and o f t e n
c a n become a p r o b l e m f o r a l l c o n c e r n e d .
31
an
32
33
a f e e l i n g of r e s e n t m e n t
f e e l they pose a t h r e a t
34
c o n d i t i o n e d emotion
self-esteem.
35
i n a b i l i t y to t r u l y accept
situations/relationships.
36
37
38
anger
39
(no
40
b e i n g t o o p r o t e c t i v e of t h e
ca-re for- has' w.ith^ others*.
41
f e a r of
envy of
42
43
a very
helped
44
t h e f e a r of (and
something h i g h l y
45
a f e e l i n g of
held in high
envy of
another
f e e l i n g of
at
things/
to
situations etc.
p e r s o n ' s p o s i t i o n or a t t r i b u t e s .
inadequacy.
injustice
towards another p e r s o n .
t o you i n some
way.
b a s e d on
of
not
i n s e c u r i t y and
You
low
certain
being
loved
and
their
enough.
response)
contacts
someone
you
l o s i n g my h u s b a n d t o a more b e a u t i f u l woman;
a n o t h e r g i r l ' s good l o o k s .
i n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l h u r t w h i c h can u s u a l l y
by d i s c u s s i n g i t w i t h a c l o s e p e r s o n .
reaction
valued.
having
regard
to)
l o s i n g someone
l o s t the a t t e n t i o n
or e s t e e m .
of
be
or
someone
228
Male S u b j e c t s '
Responses
46
p o s s e s s i v e n e s s , and a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t . o n e ' s
p o s s e s s o r y i n t e r e s t i s c h a l l e n g e d ; or a d e s i r e t o
a q u i r e s o m e t h i n g or someone i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n of
another.
47
f e a r i n g complete l o s s
very p o s i t i v e about.
48
r i v a l r y , s e n s e of ( p o s s i b l e ) l o s s ,
b e i n g a l o n e or i n f e r i o r .
49
f e a r of l o s s
one
(wife).
50
s e p a r a t i o n a n x i e t y based
my c a s e .
51
f e e l i n g e n v i o u s of o t h e r p e r s o n s b e i n g
s i t u a t i o n I would l i k e t o be i n . .
52
(no
53
a h o s t i l e e m o t i o n t o w a r d one who I,
at the
f e e l t o have an a d v a n t a g e o v e r me.
I. have
e x p e r i e n c e d j e a l o u s y i n an i n t r a - p e r s o n a l
experience.
54
built-in
55
an i r r a t i o n a l
person.
56
r e s e n t f u l and e n v i o u s f e e l i n g s a n d / o r b e h a v i o r ; a
f e a r f u l n e s s of l o s i n g a f f e c t i o n ; c o v e t o u s n e s s or
g u a r d e d a t t i t u d e t o w a r d someone's a t t a i n m e n t s / some
p e r s o n , w i t h p o s s i b l e c o r o l l a r y of p e r c e i v e d
rivalry.
57
feeling
58
e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o an u n f a i r d e c e p t i o n or
i n t e r f e r e n c e - being forced to play with h a l f
deck.
of a c o n t a c t
(to another
person
was
envy,
feeling
fear
of
or p u r s u i t ) of
loved
on m o t h e r ' s a f f e c t i o n s
in
in a
response)
possessive
59
somewhat
envy.
60
sickness.
instinct.
feeling
t h a t you're
irrational
time,
never
of p o s s e s s i v e n e s s
not
good
- f o r me
of
another
enough.
a real
gut
feeling
of
229
61
t h e f e e l i n g y o u g e t when someone e l s e
p o s i t i o n ( s ) you p r i z e .
62
envy w i t h
63
64
emotional
emotional
65
an e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n ( o f t e n m a n i f e s t e d p h y s i c a l l y
(e.g.) s t r e s s response) t o the r e a l or p e r c e i v e d
f e a r of l o s s of a f f e c t i o n .
66
a manifestation
67
t h e f e e l i n g " o f i n s e c u r i t y and" p a i n i n d u c e d by t h e
t h o u g h t t h a t someone e l s e has a g r e a t e r a t t r a c t i o n
t o one's p a r t n e r t h a n o n e s e l f , even when r a t i o n a l l y ,
t h a t a t t r a c t i o n c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d .
68
an e m o t i o n a l s t a t e i n i t i a t e d by a f e e l i n g o f
i n a d e q u a c y o r h o p e l e s s n e s s c o u p l e d w i t h someone
e l s e ' s a b i l i t y t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e
situation.
69
f e e l i n g of i n s e c u r i t y a r i s i n g from s i t u a t i o n s where
an i m p e n d i n g l o s s o f an i n t i m a t e p a r t n e r i s
p e r c e i v e d (be i t r e a l o r i m a g i n a r y ) and t h e
a g g r e s s i v e r e a c t i o n s w h i c h stem from t h e f e e l i n g s o f
insecurity.
70
feeling
71
t h e e x t r e m e o f l o v e o r c a r e f o r somebody o r
something i s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of j e a l o u s y .
72
f e a r o f d i m i n u t i o n o r l o s s o f someone o r s o m e t h i n g ' s
r e l a t i o n s h i p r e l a t i v e t o me.
73
a lack
regard
to another's
i s i n the
affection.
d i s e a s e common i n p e o p l e w i t h narrow
e x p e r i e n c e and f e e l i n g s o f i n s e c u r i t y .
o f one's own
self
esteem.
of p o s s e s s i v e n e s s .
of t r u s t
i n your
partner.
230
APPENDIX "F
R e s p o n s e s t o Item
123
231
The f o l l o w i n g a r e s u b j e c t s ' v e r b a t i m
q u e s t i o n n a i r e item
123:
responses
to
O t h e r i n s i g h t s / t h o u g h t s / e x p e r i e n c e s I have had w i t h / a b o u t
j e a l o u s y and w i s h t o s h a r e a t t h i s t i m e . D i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , l i n g u i s t i c or any o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s
w i l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
I f , f o r example, you a r e aware
of a few or s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t words f o r j e a l o u s y i n o t h e r
l a n g u a g e s p l e a s e p r e s e n t them and e x p l a i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i o n .
Subject
Female S u b j e c t s '
Responses
02
most
now
03
04
05
J e a l o u s y i s b a s e d on an i n s e c u r e c l i n g i n g a t t i t u d e .
I t p l a c e s a q u a n t i t a t i v e q u a l i t y on l o v e i . e . " i f
you l o v e him t h e n you must t h e r e f o r e l o v e me l e s s " .
T h i s i s f a u l t y t h i n k i n g , but common!
When I l o o k t o
my mate f o r a p p r o v a l , I i n t e r p r e t h i s " a p r o v a l " of
a n o t h e r woman ( e s p e c i a l l y one t h a t I am a t t r a c t e d
t o ) as a r e j e c t i o n of me.
Result?
-- r a g e ,
i n d i g n a t i o n , f e e l i n g s of i n f e r i o r i t y and
humiliation.
I can a c c e p t h i s f l i r t a t i o n s i f I f e e l
s t r o n g , a t t r a c t i v e and " n o t i c e d " .
If I feel ugly,
weak and i n s e c u r e , I c a n n o t t o l e r a t e even m i l d
f l i r t a t i o n s on h i s p a r t .
06
232
through at
the
time.
08
09
I r e a l i z e now t h a t I d o n ' t f e e l j e a l o u s b e c a u s e I
a v o i d , a t g r e a t c o s t s , t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s which would
b r i n g j e a l o u s y (by my d e f i n i t i o n ) a b o u t .
I have y e t
t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h the f e e l i n g .
This i s ,
a c t u a l l y , a thought provoking
questionnaire.
12
My f i r s t h u s b a n d had a f f a i r s c o n s t a n t l y d u r i n g t h e 6
y e a r s we were l i v i n g t o g e t h e r .
I came t o e x p e c t
t h i s as commonplace i n our r e l a t i o n s h i p , and
j e a l o u s y became a v e r y s e c o n d a r y i s s u e .to me n e x t t o
h o n e s t y ( w h i c h I f e l t was t o t a l l y l a c k i n g ) .
I find
i t d i f f i c u l t t o get j e a l o u s when; I f e e l t h e r e i s
l o v e b e i n g m a n i f e s t e d between two p e o p l e
my
j e a l o u s y i s u s u a l l y a r o u s e d when I p e r c i e v e ( w r o n g l y
or r i g h t l y ) a l o t of s e c o n d a r y m o t i v e s
e.g.
revenge, wanting to i n f l i c t p a i n , f l i g h t , avoidance,
e t c . and I f e e l c a u g h t up i n t h e c e n t r e of i t .
13
I u s u a l l y t r y t o a v o i d s i t u a t i o n s where j e a l o u s y
could occur.
I t h i n k I u s u a l l y t r y to turn i t
a r o u n d so I d o n ' t f e e l j e a l o u s .
I t ' s j u s t too
frustrating.
16
B r i t i s h upper m i d d l e c l a s s -- j e a l o u s y i s d e f i n i t e l y
a no-no.
One must not g i v e way t o a l l t h o s e
feelings
and so I t e n d e d t o make up a more
a c c e p t a b l e e m o t i o n t o a c c o u n t f o r my b e h a v i o u r -l i k e tiredness-.
19
21
My e x p e r i e n c e s of b e i n g j e a l o u s have g e n e r a l l y been
very mild.
Most o c c a s i o n s t h a t I have been j e a l o u s
have been t h o s e i n w h i c h I m i s u n d e r s t o o d my
b o y f r i e n d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g i r l -he f a i l e d t o e x p l a i n t h e s i t u a t i o n t h o r o u g h l y .
22
I f e e l j e a l o u s y i s a p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n and
i f d e a l t w i t h p r o p e r l y , i t can h e l p you u n d e r s t a n d
y o u r s e l f a whole l o t b e t t e r .
233
24
My p r e s e n t companion communicates h i s f e e l i n g s
w i t h i n a day or two of t h e i r a r r i v a l .
I t h e l p s me
t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s i n s e c u r i t i e s and g i v e s me
c o n f i d e n c e t h a t he w i l l a l s o u n d e r s t a n d my f e e l i n g s
of j e a l o u s y when t h e y s u r f a c e .
26
In my o p i n i o n , j e a l u o s y i s j u s t a symptom of
insecurity.
At t h i s t i m e i n my l i f e , I do not f e e l
j e a l o u s y b e c a u s e I am i n a v e r y s e c u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p
and f e e l v e r y c o n f i d e n t re my own l i f e
(education,
self-esteem, e t c . ) .
27
I f e e l i n my y o u n g e r d a y s t h a t
j e a l o u s when w i t h someone, but
to my i n s e c u r i t y .
I no l o n g e r
s e c u r e w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p I
31
33
J e a l o u s y seems t o be a r e s u l t of a f e e l i n g of
inadequacy i n one's s e l f .
I t h i n k p e o p l e who
are
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r own s e l f , t e n d t o be l e s s
jealous.
T h i s i n c l u d e s knowing what you a r e , and
e i t h e r a c c e p t i n g what you a r e , or making an e f f o r t
to improve y o u r s e l f .
T h e r e i s no need t o be j e a l o u s
of o t h e r s , i f t h e q u a l i t i e s t h e y p o s s e s a r e not what
you d e s i r e anyway.
34
35
As I g e t - o l d e r , j e a l o u s y a f f e c t s me' f a r less-,
the c a u s e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y
different.
36
37
I f i n d j e a l o u s y t o be the o p p o s i t e of l o v e .
When I
f e e l one I c a n n o t f e e l the o t h e r a t t h e same t i m e .
H a t e and l o v e can l i v e t o g e t h e r t h o u g h .
Therefore,
i f I am f e e l i n g j e a l o u s , I am not l o v i n g t h e o t h e r
p e r s o n and t h a t i s m_ p r o b l e m and I can a c t on t h a t .
I t may be t h a t when I f i n d my l o v e f e e l i n g s a g a i n I
f i n d t h a t I m i g h t a l s o need t o do s o m e t h i n g o t h e r
t h a n what I wanted -- l i k e get busy d o i n g s o m e t h i n g
I was e x t r e m e l y
I f e e l t h i s was
due
f e e l t h i s as I f e e l
have.
and
234
on my own i n s t e a d o f s h a r i n g an e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h a t
other person.
Often I fear l o s i n g the shared
e x p e r i e n c e and i n d e e d t h e f e a r i s r e a l and w e l l
f o u n d e d and what I must a c c e p t i s l o s i n g an i m a g i n e d
or a n t i c i p a t e d e x p e r i e n c e .
39
40
41
I am c o n v i n c e d t h a t I v a l u e p h y s i c a l b e a u t y a s much
a I do b e c a u s e my mother was c o n s i d e r e d t o be v e r y
good-looking i n her c u l t u r e (Yugoslavs l i k e sturdy
d a r k women w i t h a l a r g e bosom).
She had a n i c e
f i g u r e , a p r e t t y f a c e , b e a u t i f u l s t r a i g h t white
t e e t h , l o v e l y legs-.
A l t h o u g h she g o t f a t a f t e r I
was b o r n , h e r image a s b e i n g b e a u t i f u l ( s e l f - i m a g e
and view of p e o p l e a r o u n d h e r ) p e r s i s t e d .
I was a
s i c k l y c h i l d and n o t h i n g was done t o d i s p e l l my
s e l f - i m a g e o f b e i n g a r u n t who u n f o r t u n a t e l y grew up
t o be f l a t - c h e s t e d a s w e l l , w i t h c r o o k e d t e e t h and
an u n f l a t t e r i n g n o s e .
A l t h o u g h I have s i n c e come t o
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t I'm p r o b a b l y n o t much w o r s e l o o k i n g t h a n my mom ( s t i l l s l i m a f t e r two c h i l d r e n ,
with l e g s l i k e hers, n i c e h a i r , impressive eyes)
what has been p l a n t e d i n my c h i l d h o o d s t i l l p a i n s me
when I f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by a t r u l y b e a u t i f u l " w e l l d e v e l o p e d " woman. U n l e s s a mother c a n p a s s on t o
her daughter t h a t the p h y s i c a l appearance of her
c h i l d i s d e f i n i t e l y a t t r a c t i v e but not r e a l l y t h a t
i m p o r t a n t t h a t c h i l d may have p r o b l e m s i n t h e
jealousy area.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y I f i n d t h a t I am
235
a l r e a d y r e p e a t i n g some of my m o t h e r ' s m i s t a k e s .
My
own d a u g h t e r i s an a t t r a c t i v e c h i l d b u t I w o u l d n ' t
c a l l her gorgeous.
I c a t c h myself saying " l i t t l e
f a t t y " and r e f e r r i n g t o t h e w i d t h o f h e r n o s e .
This
q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a s made me more aware o f t h e f a c t
t h a t I have t o watch what I'm s a y i n g t o and a b o u t
her.
I do t e l l h e r she has b e a u t i f u l h a i r and
b e a u t i f u l eyes.
E i f e r s u c h t (German f o r j e a l o u s y )
d e f i n e d i n t h e German B r o c k h a u s d i c t i o n a r y a s "a
passionate s t r i v i n g f o r s o l e possession with a fear
of e v e r y
competitor".
L j u b o s u m n o s t S l o v e n i a n ( Y u g o s l a v i a n ) -- l i t e r a l l y
" s u s p i c i o n o f l o v e " ( i . e . , a s u s p e c t i n g of y o u r
l o v e r ' s l o v e f o r someone e l s e ) .
44
45
J e a l o u s y i s v e r y c o n t e x t u a l and t h e q u e s t i o n s
a d d r e s s t h e v a r y i n g c o n t e x t s -- ( e . g . , i n a
mentoring c o n t e x t ) .
Male S u b j e c t s '
do n o t
Responses
48
Re #28 -- w h i l e t h e e v e n t d e s c r i b e d was a p r o f o u n d
i n s t a n c e of j e a l o u s y i n adulthood, t h e r e i s another
a n e c d o t e t h a t comes t o mind.
When I was i n g r a d e 8
(aged 13) I t o o k a g i r l t o t h e s c h o o l prom.
When
another f e l l o w " c u t i n " d u r i n g a dance, I walked
o u t s i d e w i t h a few f r i e n d s a n d a f t e r
complaining
about t h i s " r i v a l " , I p l a c e d a k i c k a g a i n s t t h e
s c h o o l w a l l , a s o r t o f r i t u a l / m o c k d i s p l a y of
a g g r e s s i o n a n d p o s s e s s i o n a g a i n s t my r i v a l
dancing
'inside.
K i c k i n g , y o u s e e , was a l a r g e p a r t o f the--" h a r d r o c k " o r i e n t a t i o n ... where I was r a i s e d .
And so was t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a d v e r t i s i n g y o u r r i g h t s
o v e r "your g i r l " a g a i n s t c o m p e t i t o r s .
Generally, I
do b e l i e v e t h a t j e a l o u s y i s e l e m e n t a l and t h e r e f o r e
not u n n a t u r a l .
I hope y o u r s t u d y t a p s i n t o t h e
c u l t u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f j e a l o u s y a s w e l l a s ways i n
w h i c h e x t r a o r d i n a r y j e a l o u s y c a n be a l t e r e d .
F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h I've responded i n terms of s e x u a l
j e a l o u s y ( r e a l or imagined) i t i s important t o
r e a l i z e t h a t j e a l o u s y emerges i n a h o s t o f o t h e r
situations (intelligence, drive, nurturing
a b i l i t i e s , w i t , ad i n f i n i t u m ) .
50
236
54
German t r a n s l a t i o n :
jealousy?
55
56
J e a l o u s y i s s o m e t h i n g I d e f i n i t e l y know I e x p e r i e n c e
l e s s t h a n most p e o p l e .
I've oten caught p a r t i c u l a r
h e l l f o r n o t f e e l i n g j e a l o u s about o t h e r m a l e s '
a d v a n c e s toward t h e women i n my l i f e , f o r e x a m p l e .
I'm t o o s e l f - a b s o r b e d and f i e r c e l y
independent.
Competition i s u s u a l l y with myself.
I ' v e thrown
away o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t would be more m a t e r i a l l y
l u c r a t i v e t h a n my o b s e s s i o n w i t h w r i t i n g a n d ,
consequently, the c l o s e s t I u s u a l l y get to jealousy
i s envy o f m a t e r i a l g a i n w h i c h I t h e n pooh pooh w i t h
some t h o u g h t o f fame o r o t h e r e g o - b l a s t .
T h a t ' s my
game.
I j u s t d o n ' t g i v e a goddamn a b o u t most o f t h e
t h i n g s most p e o p l e g e t j e a l o u s a b o u t f o r t h e s i m p l e
r e a s o n t h a t I'm a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d t o l o s e most o f
them c h a s i n g my w i l l - o - t h e - w i s p .
Self-imposed
m a r t y r d o m I s u p p o s e y o u ' d have t o c a l l i t . I a l w a y s
j o k e a b o u t t h a t . . I'm a s u r v i v o r .
I g e t angry and
self-righteous frequently; rarely jealous.
I'm t o o
pompous f o r t h a t .
58
I b e l i e v e a v a r i e d l i f e w i t h a m o d e r a t e number of
d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a s a l l o w e d me t o out-grow a
y o u t h f u l tendency t o j e a l o u s y .
63
Urayamashii
64
J e a l o u s y seems t o be a c o m p o s i t e o f many d i f f e r e n t
(emotions) (responses) anger, p a i n , a l l the p h y s i c a l
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s l i s t e d .
T h r u e x p e r i e n c e one
l e a r n s t h e i r way o u t o f s u c h an u n h e r o i c e m o t i o n .
We a r e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s , d e f i n i t i o n s and p r i n c i p l e s
whereby we a r e e x p e c t e d t o l i v e o u r l i f e a n d a c h i e v e
happiness.
T h r u e x p e r i e n c e we l e a r n t h a t t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n we have been g i v e n i s t o o n a r r o w , i s
e r r o n e o u s , does n o t a p p l y t o u s , i s s i l l y a n d we c a n
b e g i n t o form a t r u e r more p e r s o n a l a n d more
i n t u i t i v e p i c t u r e of the u n i v e r s e .
I think that
j e a l o u s y i s j u s t a symptom of a g r e a t e r p r o b l e m .
Insecurity.
Which i s j u s t a symptom o f h u m a n i t y ' s
g r e a t e s t enemy -- f e a r .
We must come t o t e r m s w i t h
f e a r and assume t h a t h a p p i n e s s a n d h e a l t h i s o u r s .
68
I d o n ' t become j e a l o u s i n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r
r o m a n t i c r e a s o n s , i f t h e woman I am s e e i n g c h o o s e s
t o be w i t h someone e l s e t h e n I a c c e p t t h a t a n d end
-- envy,
eifersuchtig
jealousy
f o r envy o r
Undesirable
Japanese.
237
the
relationship,
I do n o t a c c e p t
this
feeling,
compromise.
70
T r y t o overcome
i t is a
killer.
71
J e a l o u s y a t a v e r y h i g h l e v e l i s a l m o s t a must o f a
man's mind c h a r a c t e r i n t h e m i d d l e e a s t c o u n t r i e s ,
and i s known and p r a c t i c e d
i n the t r a d i t i o n a l
culture.