GENERAL ZOOLOGY MID-TERM

REVIEWER

*Integumentary SystemComposed of skin.

*Integument Skin- ( meaning to
Cover)
- The Largest organ of the body
- Skin is made up of different
tissues.
*Stratified keratinized tissue(stratified derived by the latin
word Stratum/stratu meaning
layer.) it is one of the tissue that
you can found in the skin.
*Keratinized- is the process to
produced Keratinocytes.
*Keratinocytes- produce keratin
*Keratin- a fibrous protein.
- It can only found in epidermis
- WATERPROOF
*Skin- the largest organ of the
body it helps regulate body
temperature, and permits the
sensation of touch, heat and cold
Function of the Skin
1. Protection- anatomical
barrier from pathogens and
damage.
2. Sensation- Contain of variety
of nerve endings.
3. Thermoregulation- aids heat
loss, reduce cutaneous blood flow
and conserve heat.
4. Storage and Synthesis- acts
as a storage center for lipids and
water.
2 Major layers of the skin
1. Epidermis- (came from the

Greek word EPI meaning

upon/over) is the outer layer of
our skin it consist of a number of
level, the deepest level of our
Epidermis are extremely Active
and Divide Constantly to make
more & more new cells.
Structure of epidermis
> Epidermis is avascular,
nourished almost exclusively by
diffused oxygen from the
surrounding air.
> It is 95% keratinocytes.
( 5 Layers of the Epidermis )
1. Stratum CorneumThickest of all the layers of
Epidermis. And the outermost
layer of epidermis
- Composed of 20-30 all
layers thick .
- Accounts for about or
75% the thickness of your skin.
- Cornified/horny cells
completely filled with keratin
- Consist of Dead skin
(corneocytes)
2. Stratum Lucidum( Greek word
Lucidus meaning Clear)
- only found in thick skin.
-Hairless
- Contains Eleiden
(Intermediate form or immature
form of keratin)
- it has a translucent
appearance under the
microscope.
3. Stratum Granulosum-

(Granular Layer) compose of

granules of fats/lipids.
- 3-5 layers thick
- dark staining granules called
Keratohyalin (precursor of
keratin)
4. Stratum Spinosum- (Prickle
Layer)
- 8-10 layers of polyhedral
cells that fit together.
- Cells are covered with spine.
- Spine join the cells together
to strengthen the skin from the
different factors of environment.
5. Stratum
Basal/Germinativum- (Basal
Layer)
- it is the deepest layer of the
Epidermis that closest to the
dermis.
- Continuous layer of the cell.
- generate/ proliferate through
cell division.
- stratum basal have 4
different kind of cells.
> Keratinocytes- protein
> Melanocytes- melanin
> Langerhans- immune cells
> Merkel- (Merkel-ranvier
cell) Touch receptors
*Merkel cell carcinoma- skin
tumor.
*Melanin- produce by
melanocytes. It activate every
time your exposed to sun.
- produce brown pigment
(TANNING PROCESS)
- the concentrated melanin will

become mole/freckles.
*Nerve Ending- because of this
you can feel different sensation to
your body.
6 Different Nerve Endings
1. Free Nerve Endings- Pain
2. Rufinnis CorpuscleHeat/Warmth
3. Krauses CorpuscleColdness
4. Paccinian Corpuscle- Deep
Pressure
5. Meisners Corpuscle- Light
touches
6. Merkels Disc- Light Touches
Dermis- The 2nd Layer of the
skin. It consist of connective
tissue and cushions the body from
stress and strain. It is divided into
2 layers. The papillary and
reticular Region.
2 layers of Dermis
1. Papillary Region- it is the
uppermost layer of dermis. It
intertwines with the rete ridges of
epidermis. It is composed of fine
and loosely arranged collagen
fibers. It also consist of areolar
tissue.
- Vascular
- free nerve endings pain
- can found many capillary.
2. Reticular Regions- is the
lower layer of the dermis, it is
located under the papillary
dermis, it composed of dense
irregular connective tissue
featuring densely packed collagen

fibers. It is the primary location of

dermal elastic fibers. It contain
most of the accessory structure.
-All blood vessels can be seen.
a. Phagocytes- A type of
Leukocytes which undergo the
process of Phagocytosis.
b. Collagen- the skin Strength
c. Elastin- Protein that gives
the skin elasticity & flexible.
*Tension lines/ lines of
cleavage- -where surgeon use to
make incisions because this is the
area where wounds heal quickly.
*LINEA ALBA- Cesarean cut. It
have many collegen.
*Dermal Papillae- (is came from
the latin word Papula meaning
pimple.)it is a small, nipple-like
extension of the dermis into the
epidermis.
*Subcutaneous
tissue/HYPODERMIS(subcutaneous is the latin
word Beneath the skin) it is the
lowermost layer of the
Integumentary system in
vertebrates. It ued mainly for
Fat/lipid storage.
* Unicellular Glands- produce
mucus. It made of only one
Glandular Epithelium cell; called
Intraepithelial Cells it consist only
one cells.
* Multicellular Glands- Goblets
cells are the only human
example. It consist more than one
cell.

Method of Secretion
1. Merocrine/Eccrine Glands- it
is a SUDORIFEROUS GLAND. it is
the most abundant Glands of the
body except : Genitalia and lips.
2. Apocrine/Scent Gland- it is a
SUDORIFEROUS GLAND. It
releases Sweat with an odor.
Example of Apocrine Sweat
Glands. >Ceruminous Gland- Ear
Sweat. It Produces Cerumen.
>Mammary Gland- (Milk Gland) it
only Active in Lactating Mother
(OXYTOCIN- Love Hormone)
>Circuminal Region- Present on
Vaginal Orifice. Produce the
natural Mucus of girls.
>Axillary Gland- Natural sweat of
armpit.
3. Holocrine- (SEBACEOUS
GLANDS) it is the most damaging
type of secretion
2 types of Skin Glands.
> Sudoriferous Gland- (Sweat
Glands) secrete sweat by the
process of perspiration which
regulates the body temperature.
> Sebaceous Gland- (Oil Gland)
lubricate and protect the skin by
secreting sebum. It can found all
over the body except in palms
and soles.
*Sebum- natural oil of the body. it
is a mixture of oily substance and
fragmented cells produce.
Function of Sebum
> Keeps the skin Moist.
> Prevents the hair for becoming

brittles.
> Kills bacteria
Skin Disease due to the Infection
of Sebaceous Gland,
1. White Heads- Due to the
blockage of sebum in the ducts of
Sebaceous Gland.
2. Black Heads- the blocked
sebum undergoes the process of
OXIDATION.
3. Acne- Infection of oil Glands
Accompanies of the Proliferation
of pimples.
3 colors of Skin Pigments.
1.Melanin- Brown Pigments.
2. Carotene- yellow orange
Pigments
3. Cyanosis- Bluish Discoloration
due to the decreased oxygen in
the HEMOGLOBAR (Globular
protein that makes the blood red)
2 types of membrane
>Epithelial membrane- These
membranes serve as linings and
covering for various body
structures, and they also form
glands.
> Cutaneous Membrane- The
cutaneous membrane is the soft
outer covering of vertebrates, and
guards the underlying muscles,
bones, ligaments, and internal
organs.
*Scales- is a small rigid plate that
grows out of an animals skin to
provide protection.
Different types of fish scales:
a. Cycloid Scales- they are

CONCENTRIC RIDGES (Milkfish)

appear to be the inner layer of
ganoid or cosmoid.
b. Ctenoid Scales- It has Spine.
Have a toothed outer with tiny
teeth called CTENII. The scales
increases in size as the fish grow.
c. Placoid Scales- Found in
Cartilaginous Fishes (Sharks &
rays) also called Dermal
Denticles. Placoid scales do not
grow in size but rather more
scales are added as the fish
increases size. It spines directed
caudally.
d. Cosmoid Scales- also called
Armored fishes. Found in several
ancient fishes or extinct
fishes(Lobed-finned fishes
SARCOPTERRGII) it also
composed of a layer of dense
lamellar bone called ISOPEDINE.
e. Ganoid Scales- It is a
diamond or rhomboid in shape.
Found in sturgeons, paddle-fishes,
gars bowfin and bichirs. Derived
from cosmoid scales.
SKIN OF JAWLESS FISHES
- they have relatively thick skin.
- of the several types of
epidermal glandular cells, one
secretes the protective cuticle.
- Multicellular Slime glands
secrete large amount of mucous
to cover the body surface for
protection.
SKIN OF CATILAGINOUS FISHES
- Multilayered and contains

mucus and sensory cells.

- the dermis contains bones in
form of placoid scales called
denticles.
- denticles contain blood vessels
and is very familiar to vertebrate
teeth.
SKIN OF BONY FISHES
- They contain Scales.
- A thin layer of dermal tissue
overlaid the superficial epidermis
normally covers the scales.
- their skin are permeable and
can be used in gas exchange.
- they grow at the margins and
over the lower surface.
*BIRDS- integumentary system
consist of the skin, the feathers
and the appendages (Claws and
beak)
The Fowls Skin is divided into a
number of Separate areas.
> The feathered skin
> The scale covered skin on the
lower legs and feet.
> The hard, horny areas of the
beak and toenails.
> The pad of the foot (or
Plantar)
> the skin of the comb and
wattles
*Pterylae- the areas where
feathers are grow.
*Apteria- the areas where
feathers do not grow.
Structure of a Cross-section bird
skin
- the skin is composed in the main

2 different tissues.
-Connective tissue of the dermis
and hypodermis where the cells
are widely spaced.
- Cellular outer layer of the skin
and forms the feather.
a. Epidermis- connect with air
sacs of the respiratory system
thus enhancing the ability to fly.
Different skin types contain
different amounts and distribution
of special compounds mainly
Collagen, elastin and keratin.
> The flattened, horny cell
layer- the outermost layer.
> the transitional layer- Joins
the outer layer to the inner layer.
It is here that the cells formed in
the third innermost layer are
transformed into the hard, horny
type found in the outermost layer.
> The columnar Cell layer- this
is the innermost layer of the
epidermis and is the germinative
layer where the cells of the
epidermis are formed.
b. Dermis- it is relatively thin
and shows a uniform, microscopic
structure. The main component of
the dermis is collagen with a
small amount of elastin.
*Hypodermis- contains fewer cells
and is more loosely arranged than
the dermis. Fat is stored here in
special adipose cell(Adipose
tissue is fat tissue)
*Feathers- the lightness and
stiffness of keratin is also a key to

bird flight.it provides the large

airfoils necessary for flapping and
gliding flight. In another form the
light fluffy down feathers also
made of keratin, are some of the
best natural insulator.
1. Contour feathers- are large
feathers that cover the body,
wing and tail. They have an
expanded vane that provides the
smooth, continuous surface that
is required for effective flight.
2. Down feathers- are the only
feather covering a chick and form
the main insulation layer under
the contour feathers of the adult.
They have no shaft but consist of
a spray of simple, slender
branches.
3. Pin or filoplumes feather- pin
feathers have a slender hair-like
shaft often with tiny tuft of barbs
on the end.
4. Plumules- found beneath the
contour feathers where they form
a soft, downy undercoat. They
have a short shaft with radiating,
free barbs and barbules. They
play large part in trapping the air
and holding it still-thus improving
their ability to conserve warmth.
5. Bristles- are found around the
mouth and eyes of chickens and
are thought to be primarily used
to aid the sensory ability of birds
and protect sensitive ares.
*Reptiles- their skin reflects their

greater commitment to terrestrial

existence.
-Reptile skin has two principal
layers: The Dermis, which is the
deeper layer of connective tissue
with a rich supply of blood vessels
and nerves. And the Epidermis
which in reptiles consist of up to
seven sub-layers or strata of
closely packed cells, forming the
bodys outer protective coating.
- dermis is provided with
Chromatophores, color bearing
cells that give many lizards and
snakes their colorful hues
- the characteristic Scales of
reptiles are formed largely of
Keratin.
7 epidermal layers of a reptiles
1. The stratum germinativum- the
deepest layer of living cells which
have the capacity for rapid cell
division.
2-3. The Clear layer and Lacunar
Layer- which mature in the old
skin layer as the new skin in
growing beneath
4-6. The