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The Human Body

Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
Black and white edition
By Bruce Wingerd

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Preface
A Note to Students
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
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THE HUMAN BODY

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology
Second Color Edition

Bruce Wingerd

Bruce Wingerd is Associate Dean of Biology at Broward Community College in

Florida and previously taught at San Diego State University for 25 years. He has
taught human anatomy, advanced human anatomy, medical terminology, and
anatomy and physiology. Between his numerous writing projects, he has run
workshops on teaching anatomy and physiology for the benefit of local high
school and junior high school teachers.

Copyright 2008 by Bruce Wingerd

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or using any other
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
First published in the United States of America in 2007 by University Readers
12 11 10 09 08
12345
Printed in the United States of America
The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology is a revised and condensed version of
The Human Body: Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology, first published by Brooks/Cole in 1994.
Illustration program provided courtesy of Thomson Learning and Jennifer Riggin.

ISBN: 978-1-934269-11-4 (paper)

A study guide along with full-color versions of all illustrations

are available to students enrolled in a class using this textbook.
Go to http://www.universityreaders/publish/wingerd/students

PREFACE

gling through the mountains of terminology in anatomy and

dents learn the essential information by using the process of
concept building. If a student is able to form a mental image
of a technical terms meaning or a process, learning becomes
easier and lasts longer due to the mental connections that
or literal description, the student is encouraged to visualize
course, some memorizing is unavoidable, but providing stu-

mation and technologies.

THE APPROACH AND

MAIN THEME
Human anatomy and physiology is a challenging topic for
introductory-level learners, and mastering the material requires an investment of time and effort. The second edition
of The Human Body meets this challenge by providing an approach that encourages learning. The approach includes three
the aid of concept-building tools, and using the process of

of learning, the result can lead to personal and professional

Integrating Structure and Function

The Human Body: Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology
to make the book an even better tool for learning. Many sug-

books main approach is to establish a comfortable balance of

structure and function for the beginning student. At the outtion of a particular system. The more detailed information

ideas have arisen from the changes that have occurred in sciterms needed to fully understand and communicate function
are provided. Then function is described, using the buildingan improved learning tool for students. It remains my hope
discussion, the functional importance of a structure is emphasized.

Learning with Concept-Building Tools

The books approach is also based on the notion that learn-

NEW TO THE SECOND

EDITION

complete if a conceptual foundation is provided. Numerous

concept-building tools are employed to establish this foundation. Each tool enables a student to establish a mental image
-

in the original text, in addition to recognizing opportunities

The conceptual foundation is reinforced by logical explanageneral, this second edition is a more balanced text that inmore reader-friendly style. The level of information has been
terms added and others deleted. Explanations of many physi-

information, and many high-quality illustrations that correspond directly to the text material.

ii

Preface

The Theme of Homeostasis

The main theme of the text is the bodys remarkable ability to
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despite changing conditions, the body components involved
in its maintenance, and the consequences of the bodys failXUHWRPDLQWDLQLWHIIHFWLYHO\DUHWRSLFVWKDWDUHLQWHUZRYHQ
throughout. In many chapters, the role of body tissues, organs, and systems in maintaining and supporting homeostasis
LVGLVFXVVHGDORQJZLWKWKHLURWKHUIXQFWLRQV7RHPSKDVL]H
the importance of homeostasis in the daily maintenance of
health, this vital body function is also presented as a separate
topic at the end of most chapters. This feature serves to conQHFWKRPHRVWDVLVZLWKWKHPDLQIXQFWLRQVRIWKHERG\V\VWHP
discussed in the chapter.

IMPROVED COVERAGE
Every chapter in the second edition of The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology includes improvements
WRERWKWKHWH[WDQGWKHDUWSURJUDPIROORZLQJWKHVXJJHVtions of colleagues and students, and in response to changing
WHFKQRORJLHV)LYHFKDSWHUVZHUHPRUHVXEVWDQWLDOO\UHYLVHG
than others.

Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis

of the Body
&KHPLVWU\LVDFRPPRQVWXPEOLQJJURXQGIRUEHJLQQLQJVWXdents, but it doesnt need to be if it is presented clearly. To
make the introduction of chemistry more accessible for stuGHQWVWKLVFKDSWHUZDVUHZULWWHQZLWKDQHPSKDVLVRQFODULW\
DQGUHDOZRUOGH[DPSOHVRIFKHPLFDOSULQFLSOHV

Chapter 3: Cells: The Basis of Life

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the past decade, mainly due to an increased understanding
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membrane function.

Chapter 4: Tissues
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illustrations.

Chapter 8: Organization of the

Nervous System
The nervous system is an extremely complex body system.
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teach and learn. To make this task more reasonable, the chapWHUZDVUHZULWWHQWRLPSURYHXSRQLWVFODULW\RISUHVHQWDWLRQ
ORJLFDORZRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGDSSURSULDWHOHYHORILQIRUPDtion for beginning students.

Chapter 13: The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system has been studied intensively for
GHFDGHVUHVXOWLQJLQDQH[SORVLRQRIQHZLQIRUPDWLRQRQQRUmal structure and function, and also on pathology and medical treatment of cardiovascular disease. In an effort to bring
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CONCEPT-BUILDING TOOLS
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incorporated into the text to assist student learning.

Chapter Openers
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introductory paragraphs summarize and integrate the main
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JLYLQJWKHPDYLVLRQRIZKDWLVWRFRPH

Concepts and Concepts Checks

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concept statements are provided. The concept statement idenWLHVWKHNH\LGHDWREHGLVFXVVHGWHOOLQJWKHVWXGHQWWKHHVsential information that should be learned. For each chapter
there is a list of questions called Concepts Check. The questions are designed to engage the student in thinking about the
key points in the section in order to extend a helping hand
in learning. The questions are located in the free online stuGHQWUHVRXUFHVDWKWWSZZZXQLYHUVLW\UHDGHUVFRPSXEOLVK
ZLQJHUGVWXGHQWV

Tables and Figures

Tables concisely organize and summarize large blocks of inIRUPDWLRQDQGWKH\VHUYHDVDXVHIXOUHYLHZWRRO$QDEXQGDQWQXPEHURIJXUHVLVSURYLGHG(DFKJXUHOHJHQGLVDFcompanied by a question that challenges the student to take
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legend questions are provided in the free online student resources.

Preface

Health Clinic and Sports Clinic

6HOHFWHGWRSLFVLQELRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKDQGPHGLFLQHDUHSURvided in special boxes called Health Clinic in every chapter.
7KHVH WRSLFV KDYH EHHQ UHZULWWHQ ZLWK XSGDWHG LQIRUPDWLRQ
in the second edition. In each case, they are based on recent
information from research publications, such as The New
England Journal of Medicine, 6FLHQWLF $PHULFDQ, Nature,
and Science. Also, selected topics that relate text material to
sports activities are provided in special boxes called Sports
Clinic. This information has also been updated. The careful
selection and placement of Health Clinic and Sports Clinic
topics in the text serve to reinforce the concepts, and also
may spark further interest in the learning material. Additional
Clinics are located in the free online student resources.

Pronunciation Guides and

Word Part Origins
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,QWKHWH[WSURQXQFLDWLRQJXLGHVIROORZPDQ\QHZWHUPVLQ
parentheses. The learning process is also strengthened if students are informed of the actual meaning of terms, based on
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ZLWKLQWKHWH[WZKHUHDSSURSULDWH

Chapter Review Questions

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FULWLFDO WKLQNLQJ TXHVWLRQV ZLWK WKHLU DQVZHUV DUH SURYLGHG
in the online student resource guide. Additionally, the online
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Glossary
A Glossary is provided in the online student resources. It contains all of the terms emphasized in boldface and italic type
in the text.

iii

iv

Preface

Note to the Student

A NOTE TO THE STUDENT

A NOTE TO THE STUDENT

The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
Second Edition, contains a number of features that are defrom these features you must be able to recognize them and
the material.
-

same body organ or to the same condition often share the

card = heart + itis =
card = heart + ology
derma = skin + itis
epi = outer + dermis

sources for students at:

that usually appears in the text after the term in parentheses.

If a pronunciation cannot be found, look up the term in the
Glossary in the online resources. Pronunciation guides are
goals of the chapter. It is best to return to this list after study-

the Glossary.

primary learning goals and learn if you have achieved them.

PRONUNCIATION KEY

Concepts

vided in parentheses next to the term. To pronounce the term

properly, read the phonetic spelling literally and out loud if

Concepts Check
questions immediately after reading the section. If youre

mind.
vided in the online resource pertaining to each chapter of the
text, giving you an opportunity to quiz yourself after read-

Concepts Check boxes in the online resources.

examples:
oo as in blue
oh as in boat
air as in fair
oy as in oil
ah as in father (FAH-ther)
ture of the human bodys incredible design of structure and
tools that are intended to give you a helping hand. But suc-

vi

Note to the Student

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my personal experience, and the experience of thousands of
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Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction to the Human Body

Introduction

Basic Terminology
The Body Plan
Homeostasis

Chapter 2. The Chemical Basis of the Body

Introduction

Chapter 3. Cells: The Basis of Life

Introduction

The Extracellular Environment

The Intracellular Environment

The Nucleus
Interphase

39

17

vii

viii

Contents

Chapter 4. Tissues



































63

Introduction
Epithelial Tissue

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Glandular Epithelium
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Bone
Blood-Forming Tissue and Blood
Muscle Tissue

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Nervous Tissue
Membranes

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Mucous Membranes

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Chapter 5. The Integumentary System




































Introduction
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Epidermis

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Hair

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Nails

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Hypodermis
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Chapter 6. The Skeletal System



Introduction
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Types of Bone
Parts of a Long Bone

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105

93

Contents








































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Intramembranous Bones
Endochondral Bones

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Joints
Fibrous Joints

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Homeostasis

Chapter 7. The Muscular System

















































143

Introduction
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Production of Movement

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Muscles of the Head and Neck
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Homeostasis

ix

Contents

Chapter 8. Organization of the Nervous System

































179

Introduction
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Nervous Tissue
Neuroglia
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The Brain
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Homeostasis

Chapter 9. Special Senses and Other Functional Aspects

of the Nervous System
























Introduction
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Integrative Functions

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Thought and Memory

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213

Contents

Chapter 10. The Endocrine System



Introduction
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Hormones
Hormonal Action

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The Endocrine Glands
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Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Gonads
Pineal Gland
Thymus
Homeostasis

Chapter 11. The Blood










263

Introduction
Functions of Blood
Properties of Blood
Plasma
Plasma Proteins

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Formed Elements
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets
Hemostasis

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Blood Groups

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Homeostasis and the Blood

239

xi

xii

Contents

Chapter 12. The Cardiovascular System





































Introduction
The Heart

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Heart Valves

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Heart Physiology
Blood Vessels
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Blood Pressure
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Homeostasis

Chapter 13. The Lymphatic System






















281

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Introduction
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Innate Immunity
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Contents

Chapter 14. The Respiratory System


















Introduction
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Larynx
Trachea
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Lungs
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Chapter 15. The Digestive System






















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Introduction

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Liver
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Large intestine
Homeostasis: Nutrition and metabolism

xiii

xiv

Contents

Chapter 16. The Urinary System



389

Introduction
Kidneys

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Kidney Functions
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Micturition
Homeostasis

Chapter 17. The Reproductive System















407

Introduction
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Testes

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Neural Mechanisms
Hormonal Mechanisms
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Chapter 18. Human Development and Inheritance










Introduction
Prenatal development
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Parturition
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Lactation

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Genetic Inheritance

429

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to the
Human Body

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

Introduction

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

Movement
Growth
Reproduction
Basic Terminology
Directional Terms
Body Planes
The Body Plan
Body Regions
Body Cavities
Homeostasis: The Balance of Life
Process of Homeostasis

Health and Disease

Chapter 1

Introduction

Anatomy

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Knowledge of normal structure and function is essential for
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This chapter begins your study of human body structure
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Anatomy and
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Concept: The study of the human body is an interdisciplinary
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at many levels.
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Chemical Level

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the body obtains and manages the use of energy in order to
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Structural Levels of
Organization
Concepts: Body structure is organized by a series of building block components, going from simple to complex. Health
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Chapter 1

System Level

combined function is the digestion of food into nutrients that

A system
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7DEOHThe Eleven Systems of the Body
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Chapter 1

The Complete Organism

The organismLVFRPSRVHGRIPDQ\V\VWHPVHDFKRIZKLFK
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that of a building?
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The Characteristics
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Concept: All living cells are capable of organization, metabolism, movement, excitability, growth, and reproduction.
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something that is alive and something that is not? Biologists
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Metabolism
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either used immediately by the cell or is stored within moleFXOHVIRUODWHUXVH(QHUJ\LVXVHGWRSRZHUDOORIOLIHVDFWLYLWLHVLQFOXGLQJWKHV\QWKHVLVRIQHZPDWHULDOVWKHPRYHPHQW
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and tissues from simple molecules; it is the process of growth
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that are necessary ingredients for anabolic and catabolic proFHVVHVPXVWEHSURYLGHGFRQWLQXRXVO\LIWKHFHOOLVWRVXUYLYH
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Excitability
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maintain the body in a stable state despite changes that occur
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or tissue that is due to the increased number of cells is called
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Basic Terminology
Concept: The language used to describe the human body is
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and is in general use in universities and hospitals around the
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are descriptive of the body part or function that they are used
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Directional Terms
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that you will be using throughout your study are presented
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Chapter 1

7DEOHDescriptive Terms
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Superior (cranial)

 

Toward the head end or

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The heart is superior to

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Inferior (caudal)

 

 

Away from the head end or

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The chest is inferior

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anterior side of the
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down the posterior
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Deep (internal)

 

Away from the surface of the

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The heart lies deep

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Sectional Planes
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three-dimensional bodies is partly solved by the use of
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The frontal planeH[WHQGVWKURXJKWKHORQJD[LVRIWKH

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The sagittal planeDOVRH[WHQGVWKURXJKWKHERG\VORQJ
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called parasagittalSDUDPHDQVDZD\IURPQRUPDO

Introduction to the Human Body

10

Chapter 1

Body Regions
able are called regions
trunk
upper appendages
thorax,
pelvis.
simply called the back

transverse plane
cross
section
Concepts Check
ing the location of body parts instead of more common
on top of below
to the side?
tures?

The Body Plan

Concept: The human body is divided into regions. Some regions contain spaces called cavities that house organs.

head, the neck

lower appendages.
abdomen, and

Introduction to the Human Body

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Body Cavities
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membrane covers the outer surface of organs that are conWDLQHG ZLWKLQ WKH FDYLW\ ,Q JHQHUDO WKH RXWHU PHPEUDQH LV
referred to as the parietal layer while the inner membrane
is called the visceral layer7KHWHUPSDULHWDOPHDQVZDOO
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7DEOH Body Regions

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11

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Brachium (upper arm)
(OERZ
Antebrachium (forearm)
Carpus (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Palm
Digits
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Femoral (thigh)
Knee
Crus (leg)
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Pes (foot)
Sole
Digits

12

Chapter 1

The larger ventral cavity is in the anterior (ventral) side

thoracic
cavity and a lower portion called the abdominopelvic
cavity. The two are
diaphragm
The thoracic cavity is bordered on its anterior side by

collectively referred to as the mediastinum

-

vic cavity is divided into two main cavities that are separated

The bones of the ribcage and vertebral column provide the

abdominal cavity
attached to the thoracic wall (the parietal pleura) and the

pelvic cavity
lies below the iliac crests and is in the shape of a bowl that
-

This narrow cavity is called the pleural (PLOO-ral) cavity

membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity include the large
between an outer membrane (the parietal pericardium) and an
pericardial (pair-ih-KARdee-al) cavity.

the peritoneal cavity

Introduction to the Human Body

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided yet further into

ternal body parts and in relating sources of pain on the sur-

Concepts Check

cavities does each contain in turn?

separated by invisible lines that are similar to the latitudinal
may be further divided into smaller regions?

quadrants

13

14

Chapter 1

Homeostasis:
The Balance of Life

vided by the contraction of small groups of muscles that are

Concept: Homeostasis is the process by which the internal environment of the body is kept relatively stable despite
changes in the world around us.

isms that are well-suited for invading our cells and destroying
How are we able to survive in this world of changing envi-

is called homeostasis
The term also refers
to the process by which the body maintains a stable internal
-

The Process of Homeostasis

functions are of vital importance because a failure in any one
of them can lead to disease or even death within a relatively

, functions as a thermothermostat in your house: when the temperature is perceived

. This reduces the

amount of heat that is normally lost through the surface of the

Introduction to the Human Body

15

The process of homeostasis is also active when the body

volume of heat-carrying blood from the deeper regions of the
homeostatic mechanisms are performed in one of two ways:

Negative Feedback
negative feedback

Positive Feedback
Positive feedback mechanisms are quite rare in the healthy
your house is wired so that an increase in room temperature

Health and Disease

steady state demands that all body systems are operating efprovides the individual with a level of physical health and

16

Chapter 1

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