Introduction To Linux: UN FOR ANY Reason Edistribute TO THE Neighbors Reedom TO Improve

INTRODUCTION TO LINUX
UNIX
1960 UNIX was originally developed at Bell Laboratories
1969 Ken Thompson from AT&TS Bell Telephone Labs wrote first version of UNIX
Operating System.
1973 Development of UNIX was rewriting of the kernel in C, by Ritchie & Thompson.
1975 First distribution of UNIX software was made by Berkeley groupknownas BSD.
1978 Seventh edition of operating system was released with support of many different
hardware architectures.
PRINCIPLES OF UNIX
EVERTHING IS FILE INCLUDING THE HARDWARE.
CONFIGRATION DATA IS STORED IN SIMPLE TEXT FILE.
SMALL & SINGLE PURPOSE PROGRAMMS
ABILITY TO CHAIN THE PROGRAM
IT IS OPEN SYSTEM. MEANS,

-
RUN FOR ANY REASON
REDISTRIBUTE TO THE NEIGHBORS
FREEDOM TO IMPROVE
MULTI-USER, MULTI-TASKING
NOTHING IS AUTO-EXCUTABLE
SYSTEM SECURITY.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux

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HOW ACTUALLY OPERATING WORKS?

As you know each operating system has minimum three parts which are hardware, Kernel &
shell.
HARDWARE: - All the peripherals which are present inside your system (Processor,
Motherboard, RAM, etc) all are comes under the hardware.
KERNEL: - UNIX kernel is the heart of the Operating system. It is the master program
which controls the computers resources, allots them to users and to different task.
SHELL: -UNIX shell is the command interpreter for the commands input by the user. Each
user has its own shell; multiple users may not be having the same shell.
FUNCTIONS OF SHELL
It acts as the command interpreter between the user & hardware (Kernel).
It expands the various meta characters used in file operations
It is responsible for the redirection output of one command as the input for the other.
It is responsible for executing the shell scripts which uses the programming language.
(Commands)
It is responsible to setting the environment for the user.
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TYPES OF SHELL
sh
-
Bourne shell
Original UNIX shell
Writtem by Steven Bourne
csh
-
C shell
Added features such as command completion, history and job control
Written by Bill Joy
ksh
-
Korn Shell
Written By David Korn
Command completion & history
tcsh
-
The Enhanced C Shell
More features like command-line editing and more sophisticated completion
bash
-
Bourne Again Shell
Features
Command completion
Command line editing
Use of various meta characters
History

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LINUX
THE FIRST KERNEL OF LINUX WAS FINNISHED BY COLLEGE

STUDENT.
STUDENT NAME WAS LINUS TORVALDS
LINUX WAS PUBLISHED BY NEWSGROUP IN AUG, 1991.
FEATURES OF LINUX
1. IT IS AN UNIX LIKE OPERATING SYSTEM

2. IT HAS WIDE HARDWARE SUPPORT
3. IT HAS SUPPORT FOR SMALL AS WELL AS LARGE APPLICATION
4. IT SUPPORTS MANY NETWORKING PROTOCOLS & CONFIGRATIONS
5. IT HAS SIX VIRTUAL CONSOLE (ALT+F(1-6)) & ONE GRAPHICAL
CONSOLE ON (ALT+F7)

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RED HAT ENTERPRISE LINUX 6.0
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 is the next generation of Red Hat's comprehensive suite of operating
systems, designed for mission-critical enterprise computing and certified by top enterprise
software and hardware vendors.
This release is available as a single kit on the following architectures:
o I386
o AMD64/Intel64
o System z
o IBM Power (64-bit)
In this release, Red Hat brings together improvements across the server, systems and the overall
Red Hat open source experience.
Local logins:
Text-mode at virtual console
Graphical login
Virtual Consoles
Multiple Non-GUI logins are possible through the use of Virtual Consoles
There are 6 by default available virtual consoles
Available through CTRL ALT F[1 6]
If X is running, it is available at CTRL ALT F7

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LINUX GRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Xfree86
GNOME
KDE
X Window System
Standard X Window System
Provides foundation for the graphical component linux
Blue curve theme

Easy navigation and configuration
Artistically designed look
GNOME
Graphical Network Object Model Environment
Desktop environment based on the GTK+ toolkit
Default desktop & Consistent, easy to use desktop
GNOME Office productivity applications

abiword
gnumeric
Games
Mozilla Firefox
KDE
K Desktop Environment
Desktop environment based on the Qt toolkit
KDE Office productivity applications

konsole graphical terminal
konqueror file manager and web browser

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kmail email client

GEBERAL PURPOSE COMMANDS: 1. ls - to see the list of the files & directories in that directory
Syntax: - ls
<options>
<directory>
-l
long listing
-a
all files including hidden files
-h
human readable (1MB=1024bytes)
-i
list with inode number
2. wc to count the lines, words & letters of the file

Syntax: - wc <filename with full path>
3. mkdir - to create a new directory
Syntax: mkdir <new directory name>
4. cd - to change the directory
Syntax: cd <directory name>
Syntax: cd . . <enter> to go to the parent directory
Syntax: cd
<enter>
to go to home directory from anywhere
5. cp to copy the files & directories

Syntax:cp <options> <destination full path> <source full path>
-r
recursively
-f
forcefully
6. mv - to move the files & directories

Syntax: mv <source> <destination>
Syntax: mv <old name> <new name> to rename the file.
7. date to see & modify the current date & time

Syntax: date to see
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Syntax: date <MMDDHMINYY> -to change the date & time
8. cal to see the current months calendar

Syntax: cal to see current month
Syntax: cal <month> <year> to see particuar month
Syntax: cal <year> to see whole year calendar
9. pwd to see the present working directory

Syntax: pwd
10. find to search the files and directories

Syntax: find <location> -name <filename>
11. who to see the information about the users logon to local machine
Syntax: who
12. who i am to see the information about yourself

Syntax: who i am
13. rmdir to remove an empty directory

Syntax: rmdir <directory name>
14. rm to remove a regular file

Syntax: rm <filename>
15. rm rf -to remove the directory with its content

Syntax: rm rf <directory name>
16. touch to modify date & time of file (creates empty file)
Syntax: touch
17. cat to create ,append & read file content

Syntax: cat > <filename> to create & write into new file
Syntax: cat >> <filename> to append existing file
Syntax: cat <filename> to read file content
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18. head to read first 10 lines of file content

Syntax: head
19. tail to read last 10 lines of file content

Syntax: tail
20. more to read file content in pagewise manner( One directional)

Syntax: more
21. less to read file content in pagewise manner( Both directional)

Syntax: less
22. logout
Syntax: logout
23. poweroff
Syntax: poweroff
24. reboot
Syntax: reboot
HELP COMMANDS
1. man <command>
2. info <command>
3. <command> --help
4. whatis <command>

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BROWSING THE FILESYSTEM

The Red Hat Enterprise Linux has the hierarchy structure for the file system.
In the RHEL each and every files address start from only the /.(slash )
/
: - Begins the filesystem structure called root
/boot
: - Kernel & booting related files
/bin
: - Binary files related to user
/dev
: - Device related files
/etc
: - Configuration files
/home
: - home directory for all the users
/lib
: - Library files
/media
: - By default mount point for the removable storage when you mount
from GUI mode
/misc
: - Miscellaneous files
/mnt, /opt : - Mount point for the removable storage

/proc
: - System information (Hardware)
/root
: - Home directory of user root (Administrator)
/sbin
: - Binary files related to system
/selinux : - Selinux related (Security enhanced Linux like firewall)

/srv
: - Data for services provided by this system
/tmp
: - Application & user buffer
/usr/bin : - User related binary files

/usr/sbin : - System related binary files
/usr/share : -Sample configuration files
/var
: -Variable files
/var/log : -Contains log files for most of the services

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As you all know in Red Hat we do our maximum work on the console (command
prompt) so we do not have the icons and pictures from where we will know which one is file
or directory. For that we use the command ls l which gives us the output like,
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Oct 14 00:26 directory
-rw-r--r--
1 root root
40 Oct 14 00:50 file
In the above case you will some different characters at the starting, from where you will the
kind of file.
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-stand for ordinary file
-stand for directory file
-stand for link file
-stand for character file
-stand for block special file

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STANDERED I/O & PIPES

One of the most important features of Linux is the streaming nature of data known as
standard input, standard output & standard error. This allows the input from program to come
from any source and the output to go to any source.
Linux provides three I/O channels to processes
Standard input
: keyboard is default
Standard output : terminal window is default

Standard error
: terminal window is default
Common redirection operators: > Command
>
file
Directs standard output of command to file
>> Command
>
file
Appends standard output of command to file
< Command
<
file
Command receives the input from file
2> Command
2>
file
Error messages from command are directed
2>>
file
to file
2>>
Command
Error messages from command are
appended to file
PIPES: Two of the basic tenets of UNIX philosophy are make small programs that do thing well
and expect the output of every program to become the input to another.
Pipes (|) let you redirect output from one command to become input to another command.
Syntax
<Command1>
| < Command2>
Any command that writes to standard output can be used on left-hand side of a pipe.
Any command thats read from standard input can be used on the right-hand side.
Multiple commands can be chained together with pipes.
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VI editor: The vi is standard editor under Linux & Unix systems. And the newer vim editor is improved
editor, standard Red Hat editor.
To start vi,
vim <filename> If the filename exists, the file is opened the content are displayed, If file does
not exist it creates the file when the edits are saved for first time.
VI editor work in three modes,
1. Insert mode
2. Command mode
3. Ex mode
In Insert mode, your keystrokes are actually data entered into your document rather than
commands.
In command mode you will get to do the actions like cursor movement, change, delete,
yank(copy), put & search.
In final ex mode, you will going to do configuring, exiting, saving, search and replace.
Entering Insert Mode
a
append after the cursor
insert before the cursor
opens a new line below
append to end of line
Insert at beginning of line
opens a new line above
Leaving Insert mode :<esc>

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Command mode
Change
Delete Yank(copy)
Line
cc
dd
yy
Letter
cl
dl
yl
Word
cw
dw
yw
Use p or P to put (paste) copied or deleted data

p puts line data below the cursor
P puts line data above the cursor
ndd deletes the n number of lines, Any number can be precede any of the change, delete, and
yank or put commands.
Undoing changes
u
undoes most recent change
<ctrl-r>
redo last undone change
EX MODE: -
:w
to save the changes
:q
to quite without saving
:wq
to save & then quiet
:w!
to save changes forcefully
:wq!
to save & then quiet forcefully
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ADVANCE USES OF VI EDITOR
Multiple documents can be viewed in a single vim screen.

-
Ctrl+w, s
splits the screen horizontally
Ctrl+w, v
splits the screen vertically
Ctrl+w, arrow
moves between windows
Ctrl+w, +
Ctrl+w, -
:e
to change the file being edited in window
:qa
to quit all windows without saving
:set number
to see the line numbers
:set all
to see available other options
:set nonu to
unset the line numbers
:help
help topic
to increase the size

to decrease the size
To learn more about vim just go through command vimtutor.
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USER MANAGEMENT: -
User: -The application or service or resource which controls the system in efficient manner
with some authentication process is user. There are three types of user,
Administrator (root)
(UID=0)
Super
(UID 1 to 499)
Normal
(UID=500+)
Group: -If we want give the same permissions or rights to multiple user, we create a group of
that users, to decrease the administrator load.
There are two types of group
-
Primary
Secondary
useradd: -to create a new user

Syntax:
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useradd
<options>
-d
home directory
-c
comment
-s
shell
-g
gid or primary group
-G
secondary group
-u
uid
<username>

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usermod: - to modify an existing user

Syntax:
usermod
<options>
-d
home directory
-c
comment
-s
shell
-g
gid or primary group
-G
secondary group
-u
uid
-l
login name
<exist username>
passwd: - to change the user password

Syntax:
passwd <username>
Syntax:
passwd
--only for the user root
cat /etc/passwd: -to see the total information about all the system users. The entry will be,
root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
Where root is username, x stand for the link to shadow file, 0 is stand for UID, 0 is stand
for GID, root is stand for the comment, /root is the home directory, /bin/bash is the shell of
that user.
cat /etc/shadow: - to see the encrypted password for the entire user.
root :< encrypted password>
Where root is username, after colon (:) everything is encrypted password.
userdel: -to delete a particular user.
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Syntax:
userdel
Syntax:
userdel
<username>
-r
<username>
to delete the user with its home directory.

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groupadd: - to add a new group.

Syntax:
groupadd <group name>
groupmod: -to modify the existing group

Syntax:
groupmod
<options>
<existing group name>
-g gid
-n to change the group name
groupdel: -to delete the group.
Syntax:
groupdel
<exist group name>
cat /etc/group: - to see the list of all groups on that local machine with all the members.
group: x:503:usera, userb
Where group is group name, x is the link to the shadow file, 503 is gid and
usera & userb are the members of that group.
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Users, groups & permissions
As all you know is, Linux has one of the most powerful features as secure operating system.
So to keep that, we need to implement some permission on files & directories. There are
three modes of file accessing,
Read only
Write
Execute
And there are three categories to divide the permissions,

User or owner
Group owner
Other
You can see the permissions of files with the help of command ls -l
You will get output like,
-rw-r--r--
1 root root
40 Oct 14 00:50 file
By default permission for any file or directory in Linux is,

File rw-rw-rw & for directory drwxrwxrwx.
But as you know Linux is secured operating system so you have to give permissions as per
requirement & as per the security concern. So in Linux, by default we need to remove
permissions from file & directory. For that we set user mask to assign by default permission,
umask is the command with you can see the user mask of particular user & also you can set
the user mask.
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By default umask of user root is 0022 & for normal user it is 0002.
So now default permission for any file or directory will be,
Default permissions
- umask.
1. ls l : - to see the permissions for file.

rw-r--r--
1 root root
40 Oct 14 00:50 file
In this example you are getting 10 permissions which you have to divide in 4 categories
which will be like follows
d
rwx
special
owner
r-x
group
r-x
other
chmod: - to change the permissions

Syntax :
path>
chmod <permissions which you have to assign in nos>
<filename with full
there are two methods to change the permission,

1. Numerical
In numeric methods permissions are assigned with help of nos.

Read=4
Write=2
Execute=1
Special permissions=0
EX. chmod
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0777 /home/user1/test/

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2. Symbolic
In symbolic method you have to assign the permissions with the help of characters.
User or owner =u
Read=r
Group owner=g
Write=w
Other=o
Execute=x
To change the permission we require giving the command in the following syntax
EX. chmod u+w,g+w,o+r
/home/user1/test
is used to add the permission
is used to remove the permission
is used to assign the permission
chown: - to change owner of file or directory.

Syntax:
chown <new owner name> <filename with full path>
chgrp: - to change the group owner of file or directory.

Syntax:
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chgrp <new group owner name> <filename with full path>

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* IMPORTANT NOTE
1. EACH USERS HOME DIRECTORY HAS PERMISSION 0700.(EXCEPT root)
2. IF YOU WANT TO DO SOME WORK ON ANY DIRECTORY YOU
SHOULD HAV MINIMUM READ & EXECUTE PERMISSION.
3. BYDEFAULT WHENER YOU CREATE A FILE OR DIRECTORY ITS
GROUPOWNER IS PRIMARY GROUP OF THAT OWNER.
FOR PRACTICE: -
groupadd group
useradd -G group user1
useradd -G group user2
useradd user3
passwd user1
passwd user2
passwd user3
login with users user1,user2 & user3 on different console

(F1=root, F2=user1, F3=user2, F4=user3)
On F1,
-
mkdir /share
chmod 0777 /share
On F2
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mkdir /share/user1
ls l /share
chgrp group /share/user1
ls l /share
cat
> /share/user1/file

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ls -l /share/user1/file
chgrp
ls l /share/user1/
group /share/user1/file
On F3
-
cat /share/user1/file
cat >>
/share/user1/file
(READ)
(WRITE)
On F4
-
(READ)
cat >>
(Permission Denied)
/share/user1/file
On F2
-
chmod 0646
ls l /share/user1/
/share/user1/file
On F3
-
cat /share/user1/test
cat >>
/share/user1/file
(READ)
(Permission Denied)
On F4
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cat >>
/share/user1/file
(READ)
(WRITE)

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LINUX FILESYSTEM IN-DEPTH
Disk drives are divided into partitions

Partitions are formatted with filesystems, allowing users to store there data
Default filesystem ext4 (Fourth Extended Linux Filesystem)
Other
o ext3
o ext2
o iso9660 (CD)
o msdos
INODES: -
ext2 & ext3 file systems keep a list of the files they contain in a table called an inode
table.
An in individual entry in inode table is inode.
An inode table contains a list of all files in an ext2 & ext3 filesystems
An inode table contains information about file (the metadata): -
file type, permissions, UID & GID
link count (count of path names pointing to this file)
the file size with modification date & time
pointers to the files data blocks on disk
other data about the file
DIRECTORIES: - We commonly think of a directory as a container for files & other

directories, in fact directories is a mapping between the file names that humans use to
reference files and inode numbers
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cp & inode
Allocates a free inode number, placing a new entry in a inode table
Copies data into a new file
EXAMPLE: -
cat > /root/file1
ls il /root/file1
cp /root/file1 /
ls il /file1
Inode no will different from the original file.

mv & inode
Creates a new entry with a new file name
Deletes the old entry with old fil name
EXAMPLE: -
cat > /root/file2
ls il /root/file2
mv /root/file2 /
ls il /file2
ls il /root
Inode no will same, and original fill will not present.
rm & inode
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Decrements the link count, thus freeing the inode number to be reused
EXAMPLE
-
cd /root
touch filea fileb filec
ls il /root
rm rf filea fileb filec
ls il
touch file1 file2 file3
ls il
Inode no of files file1, file2 & file3 will be same as the inode no of filea, fileb & filec.
Hard link & inode

One physical file on the filesystem. Each link references the files inode.
Cannot span drives or artitions
Syntax:
ln <filename> <linkname>
EXAMPLE: -
cat > /root/file
mkdir /root/dir
ln /root/file /root/dir/file
ls il /root
ls il /root/dir
Inode no will same for both files, because they are hard linked to each other.
Soft link & inode
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A soft link points to another file.

Syntax:
ln s
<filenmae>
<linkname>
EXAMPLE: -
cat > /root/file1
mkdir /root/dir1
ln s /root/file1 /root/dir1/file1
ls il /root
ls il /root/dir1
Checking Free Space

df
Reports disk space usage

Syntax:
df
<options>
human readable
print file system type
<filesystem>
Mounting Removable media

-
Floopy
mount /dev/fd0
/mnt
CD
mount /dev/cdrom
/opt
USB
fdisk
-l
mount /dev/sda1
/opt
Formatting a Floppy
mkfs.vfat
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/dev/fd0

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Archiving files: Archiving files is the process of incorporating a copy of those files into a single archive file.
These makes easier to back up, store & transfer.
The tar command is used to archive.
Synatx:
tar <options>
<filename to create>
-c
create
-f
filename
-v
verbose
-x
extract
<filenames to archive>
Example: -
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cd /root
vi a
vi b
vi c
tar cvf
ls
rm rf a b
ls
tar -xvf backup.tar
(Insert some data)

(Insert some data)
(Insert some data)
backup.tar
a b c

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Compressing file: Compression is used to make the file size less, and used save the hard-disk size.The gzip
& bzip2 commands are used to compress.
Syntax:
gzip
<filename to compress>
Syntax:
bzip2
<option>
-k
<filename to compress>
to keep original file unchanged
Example: -
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cd /root
vi test
ls l
gzip test
ls l
gunzip test.gz
bzip2
ls l
bunzip2
ls l
bzip2
ls l
(Add some large data)
test
test.bz2
-k
test

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INTRODUCTION TO STRING PROCESSING

1
head
-n <x=no of lines to see>
<filename>
To see first x no lines of file.
2. tail
-n <x=no of lines to see>
<filename>
To see last x no of lines of file.
3. wc
to count no of lines, words & letter
If we want to see individually we have options,

-l
for no of lines
-w
for no of words
-c
for no of letters or characters
4. sort
<options>
<filename>
-r
reverse
-n
numeric
-f
ignores case
to sort in order.
5. uniq
reports & omits the duplicate line
6. cut
remove section from each line of files
Example
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1. cut f7 -d:
/etc/passwd
2. cut -f7 -d:
/etc/passwd | uniq
3. cut -f7 -d:
/etc/passwd | uniq | sort
4. cut -f7 -d:
/etc/passwd | uniq | sort r

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7. aspell -c <filename> to check the spelling mistakes in a particular

file
8. grep
<options>
print lines matching a pattern
-n shows no of line
-v not containing pattern
9. locate <filename>
10. find
to search a file with filename
<location> <string> <matching pattern>

-name
-size
-user
To find files in GUI mode, you will get tab in start/system/Search for
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INVESTING & MANAGING PROCESSES
1. ps
<options>
report a snapshot of the current processes
-a
all process status
-u
process status with username
-x
processes from all terminals
A process can be in one of the many states
R Runnable
S Sleeping
T Stopped
D Uninterruptable
In the output you will get the information like,

USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
2. kill -9 <PID>
3. pstree
to kill the particular process
to see the process tree of all processes
4.top
displays Linux tasks
5. jobs
Displays all processes running in background
6. fg
Suspended jobs brought back to the foreground
Scheduling the task

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1. at:
Scheduling a Process To execute Later

Syntax:
at <time>
<command> ctrl+z
atq
displays scheduled jobs
atrm <jobId>
removes scheduled job
2. cron To schedule a particular task for the user, we have make the entry of that task in
file which is opens after the command crontab e. The entry in crontab is not removed
after the execution of command that entry has to be removed by the user itself.
crontab e
: to edit the scheduler task file, Entry should be
Min
(0-59)
hours
<command>
DOM Month DOW
(0-11) (0-30) (0-11) (0-6)

0=Sunday
crontab l to see the scheduled task for that user
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BASH SHELL
As you know the role of shell in system, you also know that every user has its own shell.
There are many shells present in your system like,
/bin/bash, /bin/ksh, /bin/csh, /sbin/nologin, etc.
But the most of the work is done on the Bash shell & it is also the by default shell.
Features of Bash shell
1. Command completion
2. Command line editing
3. Use of various meta characters
4. History
Configuring the bash shell: To configure bash shell we have some variables through which we can
configure our shell. There are two types of variables: -
Local : Used only by the shell
Environmental: Passed onto other commands
Some common LOCAL variables: 1. HISTFILESIZE: Determines how many commands to be saved in the history file on
logout.
2. COLUMNS: Sets the width of the terminal
3. LINES: Sets the height of the terminal
4. PS1: Sets the prompt
To configure the prompt we have the command: -PS1= []
PS1=
\h hostname
\u username
\d date
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\t time
\w working directory
\! No of history commands
Example
To look your bash shell like follows;
[root@server~]
you should give command;
PS1=[\u@\h\w]
To make changes permanent save the upper line in file ~/.bash_profile
5. Aliases: Aliases let you assign single letters to commands.

alias command is used to see the set aliases.
alias c=clear
After this command you does not require to type whole command to clear the screen just say
c.
To make the aliases permanent we have to make the entry of aliases into file ~/.bashrc which
is present in users home directory.
Some common ENVIRONMENT variables: 1. HOME: Path to users home directory

2. PWD: Users current home directory
3. EDITOR: For text editing
4. TERM: Set terminal type
5. PATH: Colon separated list of locations where commands can be found
6. which: Shows path of executable
36

Bhushan
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Startup Scripts: Order of Execution
Login Shells
/etc/profile
/etc/profile.d
~/.bash_profile
~/.bashrc
/etc/bashrc
Non-login Shells
~/.bashrc
/etc/bashrc
/etc/profile.d
/etc/profile
-
System wide startup scipt
Parsed by all users with shells like bash & sh
Usually sets default PATH variable, user limits
/etc/profile.d
-
Some application-specific startup scripts in this directory
Scripts set up variables and run initialization procedures
~/.bash_profile and ~/.bashrc
37
For user-specific settings
Aliases

Bhushan
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Introduction To Linux: UN FOR ANY Reason Edistribute TO THE Neighbors Reedom TO Improve

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Introduction To Linux: UN FOR ANY Reason Edistribute TO THE Neighbors Reedom TO Improve

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INTRODUCTION TO LINUX

1960 UNIX was originally developed at Bell Laboratories

EVERTHING IS FILE INCLUDING THE HARDWARE.

CONFIGRATION DATA IS STORED IN SIMPLE TEXT FILE.

SMALL & SINGLE PURPOSE PROGRAMMS

ABILITY TO CHAIN THE PROGRAM

IT IS OPEN SYSTEM. MEANS,

RUN FOR ANY REASON

REDISTRIBUTE TO THE NEIGHBORS

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

HOW ACTUALLY OPERATING WORKS?

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Original UNIX shell

Writtem by Steven Bourne

Added features such as command completion, history and job control

Written by Bill Joy

Written By David Korn

Command completion & history

The Enhanced C Shell

More features like command-line editing and more sophisticated completion

Bourne Again Shell

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

THE FIRST KERNEL OF LINUX WAS FINNISHED BY COLLEGE

STUDENT NAME WAS LINUS TORVALDS

LINUX WAS PUBLISHED BY NEWSGROUP IN AUG, 1991.

1. IT IS AN UNIX LIKE OPERATING SYSTEM

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

RED HAT ENTERPRISE LINUX 6.0

Text-mode at virtual console

There are 6 by default available virtual consoles

Available through CTRL ALT F[1 6]

If X is running, it is available at CTRL ALT F7

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

LINUX GRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENTS

Standard X Window System

Provides foundation for the graphical component linux

Blue curve theme

Graphical Network Object Model Environment

Desktop environment based on the GTK+ toolkit

Default desktop & Consistent, easy to use desktop

GNOME Office productivity applications

Desktop environment based on the Qt toolkit

KDE Office productivity applications

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

kmail email client

all files including hidden files

human readable (1MB=1024bytes)

list with inode number

2. wc to count the lines, words & letters of the file

to go to home directory from anywhere

5. cp to copy the files & directories

6. mv - to move the files & directories

7. date to see & modify the current date & time

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Syntax: date <MMDDHMINYY> -to change the date & time

8. cal to see the current months calendar

9. pwd to see the present working directory

10. find to search the files and directories

12. who i am to see the information about yourself

13. rmdir to remove an empty directory

14. rm to remove a regular file

15. rm rf -to remove the directory with its content