Building Envelope

What is a Building Envelope?

Answer: Everything that separates the
interior of a building from the outside
environment
- Foundation or building slab

- Walls and ceilings

-Roof

-Doors

-Windows

- Insulation

R-2

Foundation or
Building Slab
Insulating foundations or bldg
slabs is important for energy
efficiency
For new construction, pre
insulated and pre-cast

foundation panels or

insulating concrete forms:

Minimize heat loss through the

foundation
- Protects the foundation from the

effects of the freeze-thaw cycle

in extreme climates

- Reduces the potential for

condensation on surfaces in the

basement

Interior basement insulation

Exterior basement
insulation

R-3

Wall I Ceiling Construction

Considerations
Advanced framing techniques help
to achieve E efficiency
Framing (of ceilings & walls) can
also be avoided entirely with
Structural Insulating Panels (SIPs):
Prefab panels sandwich a foam core
between two sheets of plywood
- Made to precise design specifications
SI<.i Lodge in Ganada.

istructea

c,

Insulated concrete forms, are now

also being used to form insulated
concrete walls
R-4

Wall/Ceiling Construction: Alternative

Building Materials
A wide variety of alternative materials is now
being used to construct buildings. Many have
energy efficiency as well as environmental
benefits. These materials include:
-

Adobe (clay and straw)

Straw Bale
Rammed earth
Tires and other recycled materials
Mixing mud and straw
in brick frames
R-5

Roof Considerations
White or reflective roofing
help reflect heat and keep
buildings cool
Ventilation should be
considered to avoid
moisture build-up
Studs, sills, and other
building components can
act as thermal bridges,
conducting heat past a
building1s insulation
R-6

White acrylic elastomeric roof

coating protects the roof of a
chemical manufacturing plant

Heat Loss Through Doors

Exterior doors generally comprise a small area of
the building envelope
Even thoug h most door types may not be very
well insulated, they usual1'( do not contribute
substantially to the overal heat transfer of the
envelope
The primary source of heat loss related to doors:
- is through air leakage due to poor fitting doors and
weatherstripping
- and through the door being physically opened for
building access
R-7

Overhead Doors
Overhead doors used for loading and unloading
material or vehicle access are often left open for
convenience
If used frequently, overhead doors can cause

excessive air leakage and result in substantial

heat loss or gain

This can lead to unnecessary cycling of heating

and c001ing systems as well as reduce comfort in
. surro\. jing areas
R 8

Overhead Doors
Evaluate loading schedules for frequency of overhead door use
and identify problem areas and retrofit potential
Loading dock curtains made of plastic strips can be installed to
reduce mixing of outside and conditioned air while permitting
access to the loading dock
Other alternatives include reducing the door size or installing air
curtains, radiant heating systems, conveyor belts, and controls
to lock out HVAC equipment when the doors are open
Overhead doors in conditioned areas should also be insulated
and weatherstripped to prevent heat loss when closed
R-9

Industrial Door Options

Roll-up Doors can effectively block air movement while
not slowing down production.
Rapid open / close options are available.
http://www.youtybe.com/watch 7v= XsLkoJIPymO
Vinyl strip doors and air curtains

R-10

Reducing Air Infiltration*

For the building envelope, air infiltration is often a major energy
drain that can be addressed during retrocommissioning. Outside air
can penetrate a building through a variety of places, most
commonly the windows, doors, walls, and roof.
In general, a building envelope should meet recommended
infiltration standards. A frequent result of infiltration problems is an
increase in building heating, cooling, and/or electrica loads (when,
for example, occupants may bring in space heaters or fans).
In addition, the escape of conditioned air forces the air-handling
system to work longer and harder to provide the required space
temperature .
. Th'$ sedan j.;cludes amt ' lt :::rovlded by the

L:.S,~:

of Energy be~gy Star Program.

Reducing Infiltration
To reduce air infiltration, take the following steps:
Tighten the existing building by locating all air leaks in the windows,
doors, walls, and roofs.
Seal with appropriate materials and techniques such as weather
stripping on doors; sealing and caulking on windows; and proper
insulation distribution in walls, ceilings, and roofing.
Encourage the use of revolving doors in buildings so equipped.
Revolving doors significantly reduce drafts and the loss of conditioned
air.
Calibrate automatic doors to minimize air loss from the building
envelope.
Reducing infiltration will result in a reduction in heating and cooling
loads. Typical sav:",gs for a large office building range up to 5 percent
of heating and cooling costs.

R 12

Tightening the Envelope

The building envelope includes windows, doors, walls, the roof, and the
foundation. Heat always flows from the warmer side of the building shell to
the colder side. The most commonly discussed parameters of heat flow
through the building envelope, in or out, are conduction, infiltration, and
solar radiation.

Conduction is heat flow through a material from hot to cold. This

phenomenon explains why the handle on a stove pot becomes hot, and why
people insulate walls.
Infiltration is a form of convection in which heat flows via air movement.
This phenomenon explains why occupants feel cold when the door is open
on a winter day, and why caulking small cracks around windows improves
comfort.
Radiation is heat flow over a distance from hot to cold, the way the Sun's
heat reaches Earth. Building occupants use window shades to block
radiation.
R

Windows
Conduction (roof, walls,
windows). Conductivity
depends on the materials
used in the building shell.
Insulation slows, but does
not stop, heat flow through
walls and roofs. R-value
indicates how well an
insulation barrier impedes
heat flow-the larger the R
value, the less heat flows
through a wall or roof by
conduction in a given amount
of time. Windows typically
have a very low R-value

Infiltration
In older buildings, heat often leaks through breaks in insulation or
around windows. This infiltration can greatly reduce the insulation's
effectiveness, so R-values alone do not fully describe the energy
efficiency of a wall or roof.
All buildings allow some level of uncontrolled airflow through the
building envelope. Infiltration paths include seals around operable
windows, cracks or seams in exterior panels, doorjambs, and shell
penetrations'such as holes for wiring or roof curbs for HVAC
equipment.
Air flowing into or out of these leakage paths is driven by pressure
differences caused by HVAC eqUipment between the inside and outside
of the building, between windward and leeward sides of the building,
and between upper and lower floors (natural convection, commonly
called the chimney effect)

R -15

Radiation
Solar Radiation. Solar radiation can have an enormous influence
on heating and cooling requirements.
The sun often makes perimeter spaces uncomfortably hot, creates
glare, and fades fabrics. Handled properly, however, this incoming
solar radiation can reduce lighting loads.
Reducing solar gain (heating caused by solar radiation) without
sacrificing all of the light available for daylighting offers very
profitable opportunities for cooling-load reductions and energy
savings.
Window films, window shading, and high-performance windows can
reduce heat flow through a building's windows.
R-16

Effective Building Shading

Interior shading. Venetian
blinds and other operable
shades are low-cost and
effective solutions for
keeping out sunlight. Shades
can be installed between two
panes of window glazing to
automatically open and close
shades in response to light.
Low-emissivity (low-e)
coatings Low-e coatings
insulate better than bare
windows, while allowing as
much solar heat gain as
possible.
R -17

Window Films
Window films are thin
layers of polyester,
metallic coatings, and
adhesives that save energy
by limiting both the
amount of solar radiation
passing through the
window and the amount of
internal heat escaping.
Window films can be
retrofitted to existing
windows to reduce heat
gain and provide low-cost
cooling load reduction and
generally last 5 to 15
years.
R 18

Window Options
Spectrally selective glass. This type of glass can maximize or minimize solar
gain and shading depending on the chosen selectivity.
Double-glazed, low-e systems. Layers of low-e film are stretched across the
interior air space between glass panes! and windows with this feature offer
R-values as high as 8.
Gas filled windows. Using argon or krypton gas between glass panes! this
technology minimizes the convection currents and conduction through the
gas-filled space, reducing overall heat transfer through the window.
Electrochromic windows. When integrated with a daylighting control
system, these windows can preserve the view outside while varying their
tint to modulate transmitted light, glare, and solar heat gain. Sensors that
adjust tint can automatically balance comfortable lighting with energy
efficiency.

Window Film Heating Reduction

Performance of window films are measured by a shading
coefficient, Sc.
- SC = 0 means no heat passes.

- SC = 1 means it does nothing to stop heat.

Therefore, the fractional heat flow reduction due to the

window film is given by (i-SC).

R20

Shading Coefficient Example

Savings from window films can be found using (1 - SC).
The annual solar heat gain for windows facing west in a
building has been calculated to be165,000 Btu/ft2. If a
shading film with shading coefficient 0.6 can be applied to
these windows at a cost of $2.00 per square foot,
calculate the simple payback. The COP of the air
conditioner is 2.7 and electricity costs $0.06 per kWh.

R - 21

Reduced heat gain = (Oo4)x 165,000 Btu/sq ft/yr

Find EER = COP x 3412 = 9212 Btu/kWh
Use Railroad Track Method to solve for the cost to
remove this reduced heat gain
Reduced q = reduced heat gain * energy $ / EER

004/165,000 Btu
sq ft/yr

I $0.06 i
kWh

Finally, solve for SPP

$2.00 sq ft
$0043 sq ftjyr

kWh
9212 Btu

= 4.7 yrs

R 22

= $0043/sq ftjyr

Roofing Options

Measures that can be employed

to reduce heat flow into and out
of a building through the roof
include roof insulation, cool roofs,
and green roofs.

Much of a building's heat losses

and gains occur through the roof,
so there are often significant
energy-savings opportunities
related to roof efficiency.

R - 23

Coo/Roofs
Cool roofs feature a highly reflective outer surface that reduces the amount
of heat conducted through the roof. On a sunny day, ENERGY STAR-labeled
cool roof products typically lower the roof surface temperature by 50 0 to 70 0
Fahrenheit (F), thereby decreasing the amount of heat transferred into a
building.
Benefits of cool roofs include:
Downsized air-conditioning equipment. A cool roof can reduce peak cooling
demand by up to 40 percent in warm climates
Extended roof life. Cool roofs tend to last longer because they are less
susceptible to thermal expansion and contraction.
Reduced heat island effect. Nonreflective roofs can heat the air around them
in a process known as the heat island effect. This can raise the cooling
demands of buildings contributing to smog, elevated ambient temperatures,
and associated health problems.

R - 24

Cool Case Study

Installing a reflective roof membrane on a 100,000-square-foot Target
retail store in Austin, Texas, reduced the average summer daily
maximum roof-surface temperature from 1680 to 1260 Fahrenheit.
This temperature reduction cut the building's total air-conditioning
energy use by 11 percent and peak air-conditioning demand by 14
percent. Researchers estimate that this cool roof installation will save
about $65,000 over the course of its useful life.
According to the building manager! the difference in labor and materials
costs for installing a white thermoplastic roof instead of a black rubber
roof was negligible, so that the payback for this system was immediate.

R" 25

.~

Heat Loss and Gain

26

Heat Loss and Gain

Heat is lost and gained through walls and
ceilings.
Consider a three-quarter inch plywood wall.

T in

air

film

outside
air film
R - 27

Basic Heat Flow

Equations
Conduction heat losses through walls and ceilings

q =

Ax~T

LR

[Btu/hr]

Heat loss is proportional to the area A and the

temperature difference 8T between inSide and outside.
2:R is the sum of the resistances of everything that
resists heat flow.

h.ft 2 . P
[ Btu
O

LR

= R inside air film + R plywood + R outside air film

R - 28

Basic Heat Flow

Equations
The equation often is written

[hBtU]

q=UxAXLlT

where U is the overall thermal conductance.

U ~~ R: [h .!;~.

",
o

R 29

Surface Air Film

Resistance (Buildings)*

Direction of
Rs
2
heat flow
. (hrft .oF/Btu)

Wall or roof
position
I

Still air
Horizontal

0.61

Horizontal

:up
down

Vertical

horizontal

0.68

All

0.17

0.92

Moving air
15 mph (Winter)

7.5 mph (summer) i All

0.25

'Data from ~QQ1j\.!?HRAE Fundam"ntals Handbook. American Society of Heating. Refrigerating

and AIrConditloning Engineers, Inc .. Atlanta, Georgia. p. 25,2.
R 30

Wall and Insulation

Resistances

R can be obtained from the conductance C, given for

a specified thickness of material,

R=~
C

Note that C and U are the same. C = U

If the conductivity k is given, R can be calculated
knowing k and the material thickness t in inches.

R=i
k

Building Envelope 22

Conductances (C=U) and Conductivities (k)

Tahle 11~2"
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Building Envelope 23

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Basic Heat Flow Problem

What is the rate of heat loss through a three-quarter inch
plywood wall if the inside temperature is 60F and the outside
temperature is 30F and windy? The area of the wall is 100
square
Include surface films.
The C value for 3J4 inch P/W is 1.07. R=l/C =
Summation of R = Rfilmin + Rpw + Rfilmout =

q = A x delta T/sum R

R - 35

Basic Heat Flow Equations

How could we reduce the heat flow?
Often the answer is insulation-a simple and
inexpensive way of adding more resistance to the
denominator of the equation

R - 36

Composite Wall Example

A 160 ft2 wall is exposed to an inside temperature of 75 of
and an outside winter temperature of 40 of in windy
weather. The wall consists of 11z" plywood, 3 V2" of
fiberglass board insulation, and liz" gypsum board. How
much heat is lost through the wall? Include surface films.

'c-i-- "

R37

Basic Heat Flow Equations

Temperature varies with time of day and season, so we
often resort to this heat conduction equation

Q = UxAxDDx24

BtU]
[
~

where DD can be HOD or COD. Annual units are

yr

UxA is also known as the conduction part of the overall

Building Load Coefficient BLC. Other parts include
infiltration, ventilation, and slab-on-grade factor.

R-38

".

Degree Days Example

For three days the outside temperature
averages 50 of each day.
The nUITlber of HDD for this three-day
period is:
HDD = (65 OF - 50 OF) x 3 days
45 degree days
R - 39

Example
A wall has an area of 100 ft2 and has a thermal conductance of 0.25
Btu/ft2hoF. If there are 3000 degree-days in the annual heating
season, what is the total amount of heat that must be supplied by
the heating system?

= (0.25 Btu/ft2h

F)

* (100 ft2) * (3000 degree-days/yr) *

(24 h/day)

= 1.8 MMBTU/yr
= 1.8 million

Btu for the annual heating season (not a rate like

Btu/h)

Building Envelope - 29

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Air and Water Heat

Flow Problems

Btu

ril~h

h
Btu

=mCp~T

m =
~h

Cp =
~T

General
Sensible heat only

Mass Flow Rate (Ib/h)

Enthalpy Difference (Btu/lb)
Heat Capacity (Btu/lboF)
Temperature Difference (OF)

P,41

Air and Water Heat

Flow Problems
Air:

Sensible Heat Only - The ASHRAE method

= [CFMX 0.0751b x 60 ffiill]X[0.24

ft 3

hr

BtU]X~T

lb OF

CFMx1.08xL'>T [B:]

,. ,{

Sensible heat only

R-42

dr,'
'1 ~
t

Air and Water Heat

Flow Problems

General

Air:

_ [CFMX 0.0751b x 60 min xilh

fe
hr

q -CFMx4.5x~h

[ BhtrU]

where!:::.h = enthalpy in Btu/lb (combined sensible

and latent heat for moist air)

R- 43

Duct Loss Example

10,000 CFM of air leaves an air handler at 50 of. It is delivered to a

room at 65 OF. There was no air volume loss due to duct air leaks.

No moisture was added, or taken away from the air in the duct.

How many Btujh heat gain occurred because of heat transfer by

conduction?

(A) 162,000 Btujh

(;:.i:, 75,000 Btujh

(C)126,000 Btujh

(D) 256,000 Btujh

(E) 10,000 Btujh

R44

Duct Loss Example

10,000 CFM of air leaves an air handler at 50 of. It is delivered
to a room at 65 of. There was no air volume loss due to duct air
leaks. No moisture was added, or taken away from the air in the
duct. How many Btu/h heat gain occurred because of heat
tra~fer by conduction?
CA) 162,.000 Btu/h
75,000 Btu/h
CC)126,000 Btu/h
10,000 CFM * 1.08 * 15 of
CD) 256,000 Btu/h
CE) 10,000 Btu/h

Building Envelope

Water: Sensible

Heat only

q = GPMx 8.341b x 60 min lx(l BtUJXilT

"
gal
hr) IboF
q = GPMx500xilT
Sensible heat only

R 46

[B:]

Chilled Water Flow Example

A chiller supplies cold water with a ilT of 10 of.

How many GPM of this water is needed to provide one

ton of air conditioning?

We know q for 1 ton of AC is 12,000 Btu/hr, solve for GPM

12,000/ (500

* 10) =

2.4 GPM

R 47

Fan Laws - or Affinity Laws

Review

Flow and Speed

Pressure (Head) and Speed

Power and Speed

HPl
HP2

R - 48

~~ (~~~}

( CFMl
l CFM2

Practice Example
ACE Industries presently has a 5 hp ventilating fan that
draws warm air from a production area. The motor
recently failed, and they have determined the amount of
ventilation can be reduced .bx one-third.
What size motor is needed now?

5hp 1(I.5f

= 1.48hp

R 49

The Psychrometric Chart

The Psychrometric Chart graphically represents the steam tables
for moisture in air at conditions we encounter in HVAC work.
The Psych Chart allows complex problems to be worked out
easily, and provides a feel for common HVAC processes that we
are interested in.
The standard ASHRAE Psych Chart has a horizontal axis for dry
bulb temperature l and a vertical axis for humidity ratio in pounds
of moisture per pound of dry air.
Other parameters on the chart are: relative humidityl wet bulb
temperature, enthalpy, specific volume, and saturation
temperature.

R 50

Common HVAC

Processes
M~'~~

HumlOdylff,J 00'/1

B 1-1_"'9 W><l IJuml<1iNlng

C ~'" "".otir>; <mIt

CNimi(:;a' WIJ<lmlO,n,.

~)J..~i~yk~ otUy
C.w!I",} lIUlK,l "*,,,,,,km'f<1\1

ti

z;.,"s<bkl =lUig 0fi!1

E'

H E'''P.''''",,,,,,,!::OOlmg (l<>l)'

DRY-BULB TEMPERATUF'!E

R - 51

Heating Example
For air,

q =CFMx4.5xAh

I~l;]

Air at 69F dry bulb and 50% relabve humidity flows at

6750 cubic feet per minute and is heated to 90F dry bulb
and humidified to 40% RH. How many Btu/h is required in
this process?
(A) 50,000 Btu/hr
(B) 100,000 Btu/hr
~ 150,000 Btu/hr

~300,000 Btu/hr

Cooling Example
How many tons of air conditioning is required to cool
1000 CFM of air at 90 OF and 60 % relative humidity
(RH) to 60 OF and 100 % RH?
42

27 Btujlb

q = 1000ft 3 / min* 4.5 * 15Btu / lb = 67,500Btu / lir

Now divide by 12,000 Btujton-hr = 5.63 tons

R 55

PSYCHROM~TRiC

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Thermally Light and

Thermally Heavy

Thermally light - A building whose heating and cooling

requirements are proportional to the weather driven
outside temperatures, e.g., homes, shopping centers,
and commercial office buildings
Thermally heavy - A building whose indoor
temperature remains fairly constant in the face of
significant changes in the outdoor temperature, e.g.,
plastic injection molding facility or building with a high
heat generating device or area inside.
Q. Most of our homes and apartments are thermally light
buildings.

a) True
b) False

R 57

Practice Problems
These are additional Building Envelope
practice problems for you from the Sample
CEM Test in Section J. We will most likely
not have time to work them while
covering the 0 section. These are for you
to practice on.
Solutions are given at the end of the J
Sectio
Building Envelope ~ 46

CEM Review Problems

An absorption chiller with a COP of 0.8 is powered by hot
water that enters at 200F and exits at 180F at a rate of
25 gpm. The chilled water operates on a 10F
temperature difference. Calculate the chilled water flow
rate. Solution of this problem does not require a
knowledge of how absorption chillers work internally.
(A) 10 gpm
(8) 20 gpm
(C) 40 gpm
(D) 45 gpm
(E) 30 gpm
R - 59

Solution
See answer to question 10, Section J

R 60

CEM Review Problems

The conduction part of the Building Load Coefficient (U*A)
for a building is 5000 Btu/h per degree F. Estimate the
seasonal energy consumption for heating if the heating
season has 3,500 degree days. The heating unit efficiency
is 80%. Find the answer in MCF/yr.

(A)625
(8)350
(C)420
(D)656
(E) 525

MCF/yr

MCF/yr

MCF/yr

MCF/yr

MCF/yr
R61

Solution
See answer to question 14, Section J

FI- 62