3
For example research suggests into arousal, attention and performance, has
found that at a low level of arousal the performer picks up both appropriate and
inappropriate cues. At this level, the performer has a broad attentional field,
and will not perform well. As arousal increases, the athletes attention narrows
and the irrelevant cues are ignored. This attentional narrowing enables the
athlete to focus on relevant cues and therefore performs well.
However if arousal continues, attention continues to narrow and performance will
deteriorate.
However we need to be aware that although the effects of narrowing creates a
handicap say for a footballer, who needs to be aware of all that is happening
around her, it is advantageous to the gymnast because a narrow attentional
focus enables him to shut out distractions.
Imagery
Imagery can be defined as the use of visualisation to imagine situations.
Two types of imagery have been identified internal imagery and external
imagery.
Internal imagery is when you imagine yourself doing something and thus
experience the sensations involved in carrying out that act, for example, athletes
preparing themselves for field events such as javelin.
External imagery is imagining seeing yourself doing something as though you are
watching yourself carrying out the act on film, for example, Formula 1 racing
drivers rehearsing the route before a race.
Narrow
External
Broad-external
Internal
Broad-internal
(would be used by
coaches and can be used
for planning tactics or
strategies)
Narrow-external
Narrow-internal
5
All of these attentional focuses can be useful on different occasions and relying
on only one can lead to problems. Therefore, ideally, a sports player should be
able to switch between the different attentional styles, depending on the
requirements of each particular situation.
Nideffer also introduced the notion of cognitive overload, which occurs when an
individual has too much information to process at any one time. He argues that
changes in arousal levels can lead to changes in attention and concentration.
Consequently, performance may be affected in a number of ways. For example,
the sports player scans the field less often and other players may then take that
player by surprise; a player may attend to the wrong cues, such as the crowd,
which will again lead to a decrease in performance.
Nideffer also classified people as either effective or ineffective attenders.
Effective attenders:
do not become overloaded
can deal with several pieces of information simultaneously
can easily switch between the different attentional styles.
Ineffective attenders:
do not concentrate well
tend to become overloaded and confused
cannot narrow their attention effectively, it is either narrowed too much or not
enough.
There are three main ways of measuring attention; behavioural observation,
physiological measures and self report methods.
1 Behavioural observation: where the measure used is generally reaction time
2 Physiological indicators: this would be carried out in the same way as the
measurement of arousal. For example, testing blood pressure, heart or
breathing rate.
3 Self-report measures: most commonly in the form of a questionnaire such as
Nideffers Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS).
Robert Nideffer, using college students as his subjects, developed a self-report
inventory called the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS).
This has 17 variables, of which six subscales measure attentional processes.
High scores on broad-external (BET), broad-internal (BIT) and narrow effective
focus (NAR) reflect positive attentional traits. High
scores on overload of external information (OET), overload of internal information
(OIT) and reduced attention (RED) reflect negative attentional traits.
8
players were also categorised according to their skill level in an attempt to
identify any link between skill level and imagery.
The general findings were that sports players used imagery extensively,
particularly in competitions, and that they visualized themselves winning, never
losing. They found that internal and external imagery were used equally among
all players. However, as skill level increased so did the use of imagery.
This study therefore illustrates that the use of imagery in sport is widespread and
possibly improves with practice, as the more skilful players used imagery more
frequently.
Research has shown that imagery skills can be improved through training
There are a number of ways that imagery skills can be developed, these include
the following:
Develop vivid images, using colour, and if possible draw on past experiences to
help develop the image.
Make use of as many senses as possible. Imagine seeing the ball, feeling the
shot, hearing the crowd.
Experiment with internal and external imagery and find which works best. It is
possible to use a combination of both.
Believe in the usefulness of imagery and it will be more effective.
Evaluate the use of imagery and, where necessary, make alterations to the
techniques.
Part A
1(a) Describe one way attention has been measured in sport. [6]
(b) Evaluate the methods used to measure attention in sport. [10]
Part B
2 (a) Outline what psychologists have learned about attention and imagery in
sport [10]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have learned about attention and imagery in
sport. [16]
(c) Suggest how imagery and mental practice could help high-jumpers
improve their own performance. Give reasons for your answer. [8]