ofORTHODONTICS

AmericanJournal

Volume 77, Number 2

ORIGINAL

Beta titanium:

February, 1980

ARTICLES

A new orthodontic

alloy

Charles J. Burstone and A. Jon Goldberg

Farmington,

Corm.

Historically, few alloys have been used in the fabrication of orthodontic appliances.
This article reviews the gold-based, stainless steel, chrome-cobalt-nickel,
and nitinol
alloys, as well as beta titanium, a new material for orthodontics. Mechanical
properties and manipulative characteristics are summarized to develop a basis for the
selection of the proper alloy for a given clinical situation. The beta titanium wire has
a unique balance of low stiffness, high springback, formability,
and weldability which
indicates its use in a wide range of clinical applications. A number of such
applications are described.
Key words: beta, titanium,

resilient,

formable alloy

istorically, relatively few metallic alloys have been used in the fabrication of
orthodontic appliances. Although at one time gold was widely used for arch wires, in
recent years austenitic stainless steel has been the mainstay of orthodontic wires. It has
maintained its popularity because of a good balance of environmental stability, stiffness,
resilience, and formability. Economic factors no doubt play a role in its wide acceptance
in comparison to gold. Chrome-cobalt-nickel wires have also been used in appliance
therapy. Although the mechanical properties of Elgiloy and stainless steel are similar, the
From the Department of Orthodontics and the Department of Restorative Dentistry, University of
Connecticut School of Dental Medicine.

0002-9416/80/020121+12$01.20/0

@ 1980 The C. V. Mosby Co.

121

122

Burstone

rind

Goldberg

orthodontist can give the former a strengthening heat treatment which allows manipulation
of the wire in a softened state. This can be followed by a hardening heat treatment to
obtain the desired resilience. More recently Nitinol, a stoichiometric nickel-titanium
alloy, has been introduced. This alloy has excellent springback characteristics and a low
stiffness; unfortunately, its low formability limits applications where considerable bending of an appliance is required.
It has been our aim to develop an orthodontic alloy which offers an over-all balance in
superiority of properties over those that are currently in use. Although the properties
required in an orthodontic wire will vary, depending upon its application, generally three
characteristics
are important for a superior wire. First, it should be possible for the wire
to be deflected over long distances without permanent deformation; hence, a large
springback. This ensures that the clinician can activate his appliances without permanent
deformation, which assures better control over tooth movement and minimizes intervals
for adjustment. Second, the wire should have a stiffness that is lower than that of stainless
steel, which would allow wires to fill the bracket for control and at the same time produce
lighter forces. Third, the wire should be highly formable, that is, capable of being easily
shaped, bent, and formed into complicated configurations, such as loops, without
fracture.
It is the purpose of this article to present the clinical applications of a new orthodontic
alloy, beta titanium, a material which has an excellent balance of properties, including
high springback, low stiffness, and high formability. In addition, it is a material that
allows joining of components by direct welding without appreciably reducing the resilience of the material.
Characterization

of orthodontic

wires

To develop the perspective on the clinical applications of beta titanium, the characteristics of this wire will be compared to those of the other orthodontic alloys. This
analysis will develop the rationale for the selection of the most effective wire for a given
clinical situation, based on material properties per se and not aspects of the size and
geometry of the wires.
Orthodontic wires can be classified according to chemical composition, microstructure, or mechanical properties. The first two factors determine the third. It is important to
remember that composition alone does not predetermine properties, since the microstructural arrangement of the various components has a significant secondary
influence.
Numerous physical and mechanical properties can be used to describe orthodontic
wires. The intent of any such list is to characterize clinically significant parameters.
Therefore, yield strength (YS) and modulus of elasticity (E) are important, not only
because they are basic material properties which can be measured with standardized
laboratory procedures but also because they are closely associated with appliance properties. Springback, or maximum elastic deflection, is related to the ratio of YS/E. Higher
springback values allow increased activation, which is always desirable, unless other
properties such as formability are being sacrificed excessively. The force magnitude
delivered by an appliance is proportional to the modulus of elasticity itself. Formability
and resistance to fracture are important since most appliances require at least minor
modification by the practitioner and many situations demand extensive bending and wire

Volume 77
Number 2

Beta titanium

123

forming. The cold-bend test2 described in American Dental Association Specification 32

is indicative of a wires resistance to fracture during bending, but ease of forming is still
probably best described in terms of practical experience with representative orthodontic
pliers. The ability and ease of joining is an important clinical parameter, and, finally, the
corrosion resistance of such joints and the wires themselves should be satisfactory.
Gold alloys. The composition of the alloys used in gold orthodontic wires is similar to
the Type IV gold casting alloys, although there can be a wide variation between particular
materials, 3 These alloys may contain as little as 15 percent gold, although 55 to 65 percent
gold is more typical. The wires are alloyed with 11 to 18 percent copper, 10 to 25 percent
silver, 5 to 10 percent palladium, 5 to 10 percent platinum, and 1 to 2 percent nickel and
acquire additional strengthening through the cold-working incorporated during the wiredrawing process. These wires can potentially be strengthened with the proper heat treatment, although they are typically used in the as-drawn condition. The yield strength of
wrought-gold wires can range from 50,000 to 160,000 p.s.i., depending on the alloy and
condition, with corresponding elongations of 16 to 3 percent.3 The modulus of elasticity
of gold-copper alloys is approximately 15,000,OOO p.s.i. This combination of properties
makes gold very formable and capable of delivering lower forces than stainless steel.
These features are very desirable; however, the commercial products typically have yield
strengths in the lower end of the range, which limits springback. These wires are easily
joined by soldering, and the joints are very corrosion resistant. The gold-wires have
decreased usage in orthodontics because of their low yield strength and increasing cost.
Stainless steel. In the 1940s, austentic stainless steel began to displace gold as the
primary alloy for orthodontic wires. The most commonly used types are AISI 302 and 304
stainless steels, which contain approximately 18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel, and
less than 0.20 percent carbon.4 The type 304 stainless steel has a slightly lower carbon and
higher chromium specification. These alloys derive most of their strength from coldworking and carbon interstitial hardening. The microstructure demonstrates the typical
fibrous appearance associated with extensively elongated grains. This microstructure
can be altered by short exposures to high temperatures, which is why soldering procedures
have to be undertaken carefully. The only heat treatments used with this wire are for stress
relieving, which is typically done at 850 F. (454 C.) for less than 10 minutes.5 These
wires have very high yield strengths of 50,000 to 280,000 p.s.i. Slightly higher yield
strengths are possible; however, this can lead to brittleness. Reports of the modulus of
elasticity of orthodontic stainless steel wires range from 23,000,OOO to 29,000,OOO p.s.i.
with values closer to 23,000,OOO p.s.i. than to the higher values usually given.6 The high
modulus necessitates the use of smaller-diameter wires for alignment procedures where
lower forces are indicated. Unfortunately, decreased wire size results in poorer fit in the
bracket and loss of control. The ratio of yield strength to modulus indicates that stainless
steel wire can have slightly greater springback properties than gold. In general, stainless
steel has excellent formability, although the wires with higher yield strength may be
somewhat brittle. Stainless steel can be soldered, albeit the technique is moderately
demanding. Finally, these wires have good corrosion resistance, although the solder joints
do corrode in the oral cavity. Now this does not imply that stainless steel is unsatisfactory.
On the contrary, for particular treatment modalities, it may be the wire of choice. An
attempt is made, however, to recognize that all materials have limitations, and the criteria
for selection should be the over-all balance of properties and the specific clinical applica-

124

Burstone

and

Table I. Springback*
Mode t

Goldhrrg

of beta titanium
Stainless

A
B
C

and stainless steel wire (degrees)

steel $

Beta titanium

16.0
16.5
17.5

Percent

32.8
31.3
37.3

*0.017 by 0.025 inch wires, /4 inch span lengths, deflected

t Modes described by Lopez, Goldberg, and Burstone. I0
$Chrome alloys, Ormco Corp., Glendora, Calif.
TMA, Ormco Corp., Glendora, Calif.

to 60 degrees

increase

105%
90%
113%
and released.

tion. The combined adequate springback, good formability, and moderate cost account for
the popularity of stainless steel as an orthodontic arch wire.
Efgiloy. * Elgiloy, a cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy, offers the potential for significant
changes in mechanical properties with the appropriate heat treatment. This alloy, with a
nominal composition of 40 percent cobalt, 20 percent chromium, 15 percent nickel, 7
percent molybdenum, and 16 percent iron, has excellent formability in the soft condition
and can be heated to 480 C. to obtain strength properties comparable to stainless steel.7
The modulus of elasticity of these wires is 28500,000 to 30,000,OOO p.s.i. Thus, the
eventual spring characteristics can be similar to those of a stainless steel appliance. In
addition to solid solution hardening and cold working, these systems are amenable to
precipitation hardening, which is the mechanism responsible for effective heat treatment.
Elgiloy can be soldered, but, as with stainless steel, the technique is demanding. Corrosion resistance of the wire is excellent.
Nitinol. t Several years ago a stoichiometric nickel-titanium alloy was introduced for
orthodontic application.* Nitinol is approximately 52 percent nickel, 45 percent titanium,
and 3 percent cobalt. Solid-state solution hardening and cold working are the basic
strengthening mechanisms employed with this alloy. With proper heat treatment, the alloy
demonstrates significant changes in mechanical properties and crystallographic arrangement. The latter phenomenon is responsible for the noted memory effect of this
material; however, such transformations are currently not employed in clinical practice.
Because of a low modulus of elasticity of 4,800,OOO p.s.i., combined with a tensile
strength of 240,000 p.s.i., this wire can sustain large elastic deflections, as reflected in its
very high springback characteristics.g This feature makes the wire desirable for applications where large deflections and low forces are required. Nitinol has limited formability,
which contraindicates its use for situations where bends with a small radius are required.
Furthermore, springback properties are decreased after bending. lo Nitinol is not amenable
to joining operations. Sarkar and associates reported that nitinol is somewhat less CO~TOsion resistant than the other orthodontic wires, although the clinical significance of this
difference has not yet been established.
Beta titanium. Beta titanium is the newest alloy to be introduced to the orthodontic
profession. Titanium has been used as structural metal since 1952, and its possible use in
orthodontics has been suggested periodically. The lack of success of such an application
until now can be explained by the springback characteristics and chronologic development
*Rocky
tUnitek

Mountain Orthodontics,
Corporation,
Monrovia,

Denver,
Calif.

Cola.

Volume 71
Number 2

Beta

titanium

125

Fig. 1. Beta titanium

arch wire used for detailed

alignment
of upper arch. Ductility
allows placing of
bends and tie-back
loop. Cross section
0.018 by 0.025 inch. Force produced
is less than half that of
stainless
steel, allowing
light and oriented
forces for finishing.

of titanium metallurgy. To compete with stainless steel, a wire must possess at least
comparable formability and springback, which is proportional to the ratio of yield strength
to modulus of elasticity (YS/E). This ratio for typical stainless steel orthodontic wire is
approximately 1.1 x 10m2, as it is for some of the gold-based and cobalt-chromiumnickel alloys. The early industrial applications of titanium employed commercially pure
material (99.2 percent titanium). At temperatures below 1,625 F. this metal has a hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal form, with room-temperature modulus and yield
strength values of 15.5 x lo6 p.s.i. and 55 x IO3 p.s.i., respectively.* The ratio of these
values is 0.35 x IO-, which would imply that an appliance constructed from pure
titanium would have only one third the maximum elastic deflection of a comparable
stainless steel appliance. The second phase of titaniums chronology saw the development
of titanium alloys, but still based on the HCP structure. Ti-6Al-4V, a representative
commercial alloy, has a YS/E ratio of 0.87 x lo-*, still below stainless steel. In the
1960s an entirely different high-temperature form of titanium alloy became available.
At temperatures above 1,625 F. pure titanium rearranges into a body-centered cubic
(BCC) lattice, referred to as the beta phase. With the addition of such elements as
molybdenum or columbium, a titanium-based alloy can maintain its beta structure even
when cooled to room temperature. Such alloys are referred to as beta-stabilized titaniums.
The alloying and body-centered cubic structure impart a unique set of properties.
Goldberg and Burstone13 demonstrated that, with the proper processing of an 11
percent molybdenum, 6 percent zirconium, and 4 percent tin beta titanium alloy, it is
possible to develop an orthodontic wire with a modulus of elasticity of 9,400,OOO p.s.i.
and yield strength of 170,000 p.s.i. The resulting YS/E ratio of 1.8 x IO-* is superior to
1.1 X lo-* for stainless steel.
TO demonstrate springback characteristics, a usage test was performed using a Tinius
Olsen stiffness tester.* Wires of % inch span were deflected 60 degrees and the amount of
springback was measured. Three modes were tested: (1) straight wires, (2) wires with a 35
*Tinius

Olsen

Testing

Machine

Company,

Philadelphia,

Pa.

126

Burstonc

and

Goldberg

Fig. 2. Alignment
7

loops

loops in 0.016 inch beta titanium

and vertical
loop tie-back.

continuous

arch.

A, L

vertical

and helical

loops.

B,

degrees bend, and (3) wires which were overbent to 90 degrees and then bent back to 35
degrees. The three modes of testing were reported in detail previously.iO Data comparing
0.017 by 0.025 inch steel and beta titanium* are found in Table I. Note that beta titanium
in straight-wire applications can be deflected 105 percent more than stainless steel without
permanent deformation. In applications where bends are placed, if overbending is done
the increase is 113 percent.
The modulus of elasticity of beta titanium is approximately twice that of nitinol and
less than one half that of stainless steel. Its stiffness makes it ideal in applications where
less force than steel is required but where lower modulus materials would be inadequate to
develop required force magnitudes.
It has been shown that the formability of the beta titanium orthodontic wire, as
measured by the ADA cold-bend test, is similar to that of stainless steel.13 However, the
titanium alloy cannot be bent over as sharp a radius as stainless steel, so that some care in
the selection of pliers and bending procedures is required. The beta titanium wire can be
joined by welding alone and has good corrosion resistance.
In summary, the beta titanium wire possessesa unique balance of high springback and
formability with low stiffness, making it particularly suitable for a number of treatment
modalities as explained below.
*TMA,

Ormco

Corporation,

Glendora,

Calif.

Volume 77
Number 2

Beta

titanium

127

IFig.3. Vertical loop segment formed in 0.0175 by 0.025 inch wire. Large deflection and low forces are
Iused to rotate and change premolar axial inclination.

Clinical application
Because of its unique and balanced properties, beta titanium wire can be used in a
number of clinical applications. Ideal edgewise arches fabricated of titanium have significant superiority over stainless steel. They can be deflected approximately twice as far
without permanent deformation, which allows a greater range of action for either initial
tooth alignment or finishing arches. The forces that are produced are approximately 0.4
that of steel, producing a more gentle delivery of forces with an edgewise wire; for
example, an 0.018 by 0.025 inch wire in beta titanium delivers about the same force as an
0.014 by 0.020 inch steel wire when activated in a second-order direction. Furthermore, it
would have the advantage of full bracket engagement and third order or torque control if
used in an 0.018 inch slot bracket. Beta titanium is ductile, which allows for placement of
tie-back loops or complicated bends. Springback properties are not lost during the bending
operation, and complicated configurations can be placed if needed.
In Fig. 1, an 0.018 by 0.025 inch beta titanium arch has been placed in brackets with
0.022 inch slots for the purpose of finishing. The use of an undersized wire in an 0.022
inch slot allows some degree of freedom, particularly in a third-order direction, which can
be highly desirable because of the ease of fabrication of the arch and its efficiency of
action. The high ductility and formability of the titanium allowed the placement of a
vertical loop tie-back mesial to the first molar as well as finishing bends with the arch.
The high ductility of beta titanium allows it to be formed into arches or segments with
complicated loop configurations. A continuous arch with T, vertical, helical, and L
loops, formed in a small round wire, is shown in Fig. 2. In many applications, loop
placement can better deliver the desired force system without side effects than straight
continuous wires. One of the advantages of beta titanium, as used in loop configuration,
lies with loop incorporation in larger cross sections of edgewise wire which allow the loop
tlo be positively oriented within the brackets. In Fig. 3, an 0.018 by 0.025 inch wire with a
vertical loop formed into a buccal segment is being used to rotate the premolar and change
its axial inclination; note the large activation possible as low forces are produced without
loss of orientation of the wire within the brackets. A more complicated configuration is

loop with helices to rotate distal aspect of canine buccally.

Fig. ,4. Rectangular
of canine rotation.
B,l ried in place. Loop shown following completion

Fig. 5. Intrusive
inate

arch. A, Passive.
B, Activated
to produce
the need for placing
helices mesial to the molar

60 grams.
tube.

The

A, Pas si ve configuration.

propertie

!S

of beta

titanium

Volume 71
Number 2

Fig. 6. Canine root spring with

without permanent
deformation.

Beta

helices.

A, Passive.

6, Active.

Spring

can

be activated

titanium

129

180 degrees

shown in Fig. 4, where helices have been placed at the anterior end of a rectangular loop
for rotation and alignment of a canine. Ninety degrees of rotation has been built into the
loop relative to the canine bracket in its rotated position.
Specialized springs or auxiliaries fabricated from beta titanium allow for simplification
in design in achieving identical force delivery. For example, with a base arch used for
intrusion, helices can be placed immediately mesial to an auxiliary tube at the first molar
to lower the load-deflection rate. A base arch of beta titanium is shown in Fig. 5. The low
load-deflection rate produced by the low modulus of elasticity and the high springback
allows a 12 mm. activation to produce 60 Gm. of force in the midline without the
placement of helices posteriorly, thereby simplifying the design.
A root spring incorporating helices identical in design to steel but fabricated of
titanium has almost 180 degrees of activation, in comparison to 90 degrees, which ensures
a more constant delivery of the moment moving the root distally on the canine (Fig. 6). If
a straight wire were used for root movement, although not as efficient as the foregoing
mechanism, 120 degrees of activation could be incorporated in an 0.018 by 0.025 inch
wire before permanent deformation would occur. Two wire segments, one of steel and the
other of beta titanium, were fitted within a 13 mm. distance between an auxiliary tube on
the first molar and the canine bracket. As seen in Fig. 7, after removal, no permanent
deformation is seen in the beta titanium wire, whereas the steel wire has been deformed 62
degrees.

Fig. 7. Canine

root

spring

without

helices.

between
the first molar and the canine.
deformation.
Lower beta titanium
exhibited

Fig. 6. High formability

delivered

are less than

An activation

of 120 degrees

Upper
steel wire demonstrated
negligible
deformation.

of beta titanium
allows
one half those of steel.

fabrication

of closing

loops

was

placed

62 degrees

of intricate

and

then

tied

of permanent

design.

Forces

The high formability of titanium allows the fabrication of closing loops with or
without helices. The low stiffness of the material and its high springback improve a loop
of any given design or allow for the maintenance of a given force system with simpler
designs, as in the elimination of helices or loops. Some typical closing loops are shown in
Fig. 8.
Beta titanium is unique in comparison to commonly used orthodontic wire in that it
allows direct welding of auxiliaries to an arch wire without reinforcement by soldering.
Using a light-capacitance weld, a smaller cross section of titanium can be welded directly
to the main arch-on-arch segment. An 0.014 inch tie-back and intermaxillary hook are
shown in Fig. 9. Finger springs and other auxiliaries of an active nature can also be
welded directly to an arch wire. Fig. 10 shows a helical finger spring which can be used to
erupt an impacted canine. The distal portion of the spring has been folded upon itself to
increase the welding area, and a light-capacitance weld was used. The welding has not
appreciably altered the mechanical properties of the spring, and it can be activated a full
90 degrees without any permanent deformation. Welding should be performed with care.

Volume 77
Number 2

Beta

Fig.

9. Hooks

and tie-backs

can

be directly

welded

without

solder

titanium

131

reinforcement.

Fig. 10. Helical finger spring, 0.014 inch round, welded directly to 0.018 by 0.025 inch continuous
arch.
No solder is needed. Weld does not soften the spring wire as with stainless
steel. A, Passive.
6, Active.

Unlike steel, where too much heat will produce softness in the wire, overheating of
titanium could lead to brittleness of an energy-imparting finger spring.
Summary
Beta titanium is a new orthodontic alloy with unique properties and an excellent
balance of properties suitable for many orthodontic applications. For a given cross section, it can be deflected approximately twice as far as stainless steel wire without permanent deformation. It delivers force values less than half that of stainless steel, which
allows the orthodontist to fabricate arch wires which fill the bracket and yet deliver forces
associated with smaller cross sections of stainless steel. Beta titanium is highly ductile,
which allows it to be formed into complicated configurations when required. Wires can be
directly welded together without appreciable lossess in mechanical properties, which
simplifies the placement of stops, intermaxillary hooks, and active auxiliaries such as

finger springs. For many years stainless steel or chrome-cobalt (Elgiloy) were the two
major arch wire materials used in orthodontics. Both of these materials have approximately the same modulus of elasticity; hence, identical configurations with the same
activation would deliver approximately identical forces. As new alloys, such as nitinol
and now beta titanium, are being introduced into orthodontics, the clinician should be
aware of the differences in the modulus of elasticity between the alloys. Wire materials are
no longer interchangeable. If one selects a high-springback alloy, such as beta titanium, a
larger cross section is needed to deliver identical forces using the same activation and
configuration. For common applications, edgewise steel wires invariably deliver more
force than is required; hence, replacement of steel edgewise wires with beta titanium
should improve the force system. On the other hand, if small round wires are used in
alignment procedures, it would be advisable to use larger cross sections of titanium so that
optimal force magnitudes are produced and the play between arch wire and bracket is
reduced.
Beta titanium not only offers an improvement in the properties of presently designed
orthodontic appliances with its increased springback, reduced force magnitudes, good
ductility, and weldability, but its excellent balance of properties should permit the design
of future appliances which deliver superior force systems with simplified configuration.
REFERENCES
1. Burstone,
C.J.: Application
of bioengineering
to clinical orthodontics.
In Graber, T.M. (editor): Current
orthodontic
concepts and techniques.
I, ed. 2, Philadelphia,
1975, W.B. Saunders Company,
pp. 23-258.
2. Council on Dental Materials and Devices, American Dental Association:
Specification
No. 32 for orthodontic wires not containing
precious metals, I. Am. Dent, Assoc. 95: 1169-l 171, 1977.
3. Craig, R.G., and Peyton, F.A. (editors):
Restorative
dental materials,
ed.5, St. Louis.
1975. The C.V.
Mosby Company,
pp. 298-340.
4. Phillips, R.W.: Science of dental materials,
ed. 7, Philadelphia,
1973, W.B. Saunders Company,
p. 643.
5. Marcotte,
M.R.: Optimum
time and temperatures
for stress relief heat treatments of stainless steel wire, J.
Dent. Bes. 52: 1171-1175,
1973.
6. Goldberg,
A.J., Vanderby,
R., Jr., and Burstone, C.J.: Reduction
in the modulus of elasticity in orthodontic wires, J. Dent. Res. 56: 1227-1231,
1977.
7. Elgiloy, Rocky Mountain
Orthodontics
Brochure,
Denver, Colo., 1977.
8. Anreasen,
G.F., and Hilleman,
T.B.: An evaluation
of 55 cobalt substituted
nitinol wire for use in
orthodontics,
J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 82: 1373-1375,
1971.
9. Andreasen,
G.F., and Morrow,
R.E.: Laboratory
and clinical analyses of nitinol wire, AM. J. ORTHOD. 73:
142-151, 1978.
10. Lopez, I., Goldberg,
J., and Burstone,
C. J.: Bending characteristics
of nitinol wire, AM. J. ORTHOD. 75:
569-575,
1979.
11. Sarkar, N.K., Redmond,
W., Schwaninger,
B.M., and Goldberg,
A.J.: The chloridecorrosion
behavior of
four orthodontic
wires, J. Dent. Res. 58: A98, 1979.
12. Titanium and titanium alloys. In Metals Handbook,
ed. 8, Metals Park, Ohio, 1975, American Society for
Metals, vol. 1, pp. 1147-1156.
13. Goldberg,
A.J., and Burstone,
C.J.: An evaluation of beta titanium alloys for use in orthodontic
appliances,
J. Dent. Res. 58: 593-600,
1979.