A THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION

BY G. J. KYNCH
Department of Mathematical Physics, The University, Birmingham
Received 22nd May, 1951 ; in fimZ form, 6th September, 1951
The theory assumes that the speed of fall of particles in a dispersion is determined by
the local particle density only. The relationship between the two can be deduced from
observations on the fall of the top of the dispersion. It is shown that discontinuous
changes in the particle density can occur under stated conditions.

1. INnioDumoN.--The
process of sedimentation of particles dispersed in
a fluid is one of great practical importance, but it has always proved extremely
difficultto examine it theoretically. The hydrodynamical problem of one particle
falling through a fluid has been solved (Stokes' law), and a formula has been
obtained by Einstein,l Smoluchowski and many others when the density of
particles is very small and their distance apart is much greater than their size.
This formula states that the speed of fall is
v = u(l - orp)
(1)
where a = 2.5 for hard spheres, u is the Stokes' velocity, and p is the volume
concentration. The same problem has never been satisfactorily solved when
the density of particles is great. In fact no theory has yet been given which even
suggests how to interpret the experimental results when the concentrations are
relatively large.
In this paper it is hoped to remedy this particular omission by showing that
a considerable amount can be learned by the single main assumption that at any
point in a dispersion the velocity of fall of a particle depends only on the local
concentration of particles. The settling process is then determined entirely from
a continuity equation, without knowing the details of the forces on the particles.
We find that the theory then predicts the existence of an upper surface to the dispersion in the liquid and that the motion of this surface together with a knowledge
of the initial distribution of particles is sufficient to determine the variation of
the velocity of fall with density for that particular dispersion.
A complication which is dealt with fully, as far as fairly uniform initial distributions are concerned, is that due to the formation and existence of layers
where the density suddenly changes its value. Observations of dispersions
suggest that these do occur in dilute solutions, and it is satisfactory that the
theory not only predicts their occurrence but gives in addition the necessary
conditions to be satisfied. Using these results we are able to suggest various
quite different modes of settling which may occur. It is fortunate that we can
handle the discontinuities without knowing the precise mechanism by which
they are maintained. This mechanism is indeed a subject for further examination. This aspect of the process is also discussed in detail because the mathematical technique of using the characteristics of a partial differential equation,
as the density lines are technically called, is not one which is generally known
to chemists.
The assumption that the local conditions determine the settling process is by no
means necessary. Changes in particle density are propagated through a dispersion
just as sound is propagated through air, and it is only if either the speed of
propagation is relatively slow or the damping is great that our assumption can
166

167

G . J. KYNCH

be justified. Until the details of the forces on the particles can be specified it is
impossible to state when our hypothesis is valid, even for a dispersion of identical
particles. It is probably true for dilute or concentrated ones but not for those
of intermediate concentrations. Nevertheless the theory is a first step in the
analysis of experimental data. The velocity against concentration curve deduced
from one experiment by this theory is a property of that particular dispersion.
Unless the dispersion can be accurately reproduced it may not be obtained again
in exactly the same form, but the character of each curve could be a guide to a
more detailed knowledge of the types of particle which occur in the dispersion
or to the physical and chemical processes which occur, when a comparison between
a number of curves can be made.
We leave further discussion of this and of other assumptions made in this
paper and the lines on which extensions to the theory might be made, until the
last section, when the method of treating the problem has been outlined on detail.
2. CONTINUITY EQUATION AND LINES OF CONSTANT CONCENTRATION.-we
consider the settling of a dispersion of similar particles. It is assumed that the
velocity v of any particle is a function only of the local concentration p of particles
in its immediate neighbourhood. The concentration here means the number of
particles per unit volume of the dispersion. As the particles have the same size
and shape it is proportional to the volume fraction. It is convenient to introduce
the particle flux

s = pv,

(2)

which is the number of particles crossing a horizontal section per unit area per
unit of time. It is assumed everywhere that the concentration is the same across
any horizontal layer. The particle flux S therefore at any level determines, or
is determinzd by, the particle concentration. As p increases from zero to its
maximum value pm the velocity v of fall presumably decreases continuously from
a finite value u to zero. The variation of S is more complicated, but a simple variation is assumed in the following sections for convenience of exposition.
Let x be the height of any level above the bottom of the column of dispersed
particles. If S varies with x the concentration must vary as well and, in a region
where the variation is continuous, the relation between the two is called the
continuity equation. Consider two layers at x and x
dx. In time dt the accumulation of particles between the two is the difference between the flow of
particles S(x dx) in through the upper layer and the flow S(x) out through the
lower layer, per unit area.

- (pdx)dt =

S(X dx)dt - S(x)dt.

at
Dividing by dxdt, we derive the continuity equation

-JP_-- 3s

(3)

3t
ax'
On account of the relation (2) this is written as

2
+ V@)-JP
at

3X

0,

(4)

where
V(p) = - dS/dp.
(5)
This equation is interpreted in the following way. On a graph where position x
is plotted against time t, curves are drawn through points with the same value of
the concentration. The co-ordinates (x, t ) and ( x dx, t
dt) of two adjacent
points on such a curve are related by the equation
P(X dx, t dt) = p ( ~t),
,

i.e.

3P
-dx
ax

3P
+ -dt
at

0.

168

T H E O R Y OF S E D I M E N T A T I O N

Combining eqn. (4) and (6) the slope of such a curve is given by

(7)
dx/dt = V(p).
As p, and therefore V, is a constant along the curve, it must be a straight line.
Therefore, on an x against t diagram, the concentration is constant along straight
lines whose slope V depends only on the value of the concentration. One such
line passes through every point in the diagram below the top of the dispersion,
and in a region where the density is continuous the correct pattern of lines is such
that no two lines intersect. This simple result forms the basis of our analysis
of the settling process using this diagram. It can be expressed in another form,
which is discussed more fully in $ 4 . This states that a particular value of the concentration is propagated upwards through the dispersion with a velocity V given
by eqn. (5).
3. THESEDIMENTATION OF A DISPERSION.-In this section we describe the sedimentation process in detail for a dispersion where the initial concentration increases towards the bottom and V decreases with increasing p in the concentration
range covered during the settling. The reasons for these limitations appear later.
The x against t diagram, together with lines of constant concentration for
such a process. is shown in fig. l(a). These lines have been drawn according
to the following arguments. The initial values of the concentration determine p
along the x-axis. Then a line KP of constant concentration has a slope dx/dt = V
determined by p at the point K where it intersects the x-axis. If the top of the
dispersion is at x = H, and the concentration increases from p = pa at x = H
to p = p b where x = 0 in a known manner, then all the lines crossing the x-axis
can be drawn. Since V decreases with increasing p they diverge as they leave the
x-axis. The line OB in fig. l(a) is the line of concentration pb. The equation of
any line KP, which crosses the x-axis at XO, the value of x where the concentration
is p at t= 0, is
x = xo VG)t
(84
if pa < p < pb. Since xg is a known function of p this equation gives the concentration at any point x in the dispersion at time t, provided that (x,t) lies in
the region AOB.
We now calculate where these lines of constant concentration terminate, that
is to say, the position of the curve AB representing the fall of the top of the dispersion. At any point P, since the speed of fall of the surface is that of the particles in it, then along AB
(dxldt) = - ~ ( p ) .
(9)
Expressing p in terms of x and t by means of eqn. (8a) we obtain a differential
equation for x in terms of t which can be integrated to give the curve of fall.
However, the following method leads to the integral in a more direct manner.
The line KP represents the rise through the dispersion with velocity V of a
level, across which particles of concentration p fall with velocity ~ ( p downwards.
)
In time t from the start the number of particles which have crossed this level
is p ( V v)t per unit area. The level reaches the surface at the point P when this
number equals the total number of particles It originally above the level K. Using
the initial distribution of particles this is

n(xo>=

pdxo.

(1 0 4

xo

We thus derive the equation

n(xo) = p . (V v)t,
( 1 la)
where n can be expressed as a function of p. To determine the co-ordinates of
P(x, t) in the surface we now have two equations (8a) and (lla).*
* The fall of any other layer of particles not at the top can be found in the same way,
using instead of n the amount of material above the levelxo and below the given layer.

169

G . J. KYNCH

We have now to consider the lines of constant concentration starting from the
t-axis, which cover the region in the diagram below the line OB. It is worth
noting at this point that these lines are determined in position only by the end
conditions at x = 0 at the bottom of the container, and not by the initial conditions in the suspension. The initial conditions determine what happens above
OB. Similarly the fall of the surface is determined by the initial conditions only
down to the point B.
A physically reasonable assumption about conditions along the t-axis is that
near 0 there is a continuous but extremely rapid increase of concentration from pb
to the maximum possible concentration p and that, subsequently,
the concentration remains at pm.
Since V decreases with increasing
p the lines crossing the t-axis near
0 form a spray of lines, as shown
in fig. la, between OB corresponding to concentration pb and OC
corresponding to concentration pm.
The line OC and other parallel
lines starting from the t-axis at later
times all have slopes Vm = V(p,).
The equations of these lines between OB and OC are clearly
x

V(p)t,

(86)

where
pb < p < pm.
To find the curve of fall BC of
the surface we use the same argument as before. The number of
particles crossed by each level of
constant density is now the total
number N of particles in the dispersion, where

of surface of dispersion, showing

N = pdxo,
(lob)
lines of density propagation (dV/dp > 0).
0
(a) when initial density increases from top to
bottom.
and
N = p . (v
V ) . t. (llb)
(b) when initial density is uniform.
Combining (8b) and (lob) we find
that for this part of the fall since u and V are functions of p alone, that
N = t .f(x/t).
(12)
where f represents some function depending on the law of fall.
Below OC the concentration is pmand hence along CD the whole suspension
has settled to its maximum concentration and is no longer moving. Its depth is
now h where
N = pmh.
(13)
These equations can now be used to discuss a problem of more immediate
practical importance, where it is required to deduce the properties of a dispersion
from observations of the settling. Thus assuming that the velocity of fall is a
function only of the concentration, we wish to find the relation between S and p
given that the initial concentration increases in a known manner from po to pb
as x decreases from H to 0, and given the law of fall of the surface ABCD from
its initial height x = H.
We do this by using our equations to calculate the values of p and 'u at points
on the curve ABC. At any point P on this curve the value of v is given, according
to eqn. (9), by the slope of the curve at P. Moreover, if P lies close to A we assume
H

FIG. 1.-Fall

1 70

THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION

that the three equations (84, (9) and (lla) are valid and, eliminating
between them, we find
dx

and V

Now p and n can be expressed as functions of xo using the initial distribution of

particles, a n d the left-hand side can be determined from the curve. Thus the
value of xo corresponding to P is determined, and from this the value of p, and hence

s = pv.

When the concentration values so obtained approach pb the point B has been
reached. For the rest of the curve of fall BC the equations (6) should be used,
and instead of (14) the equation
dx N
x-t-=dt
p'

TABLE1
(hours)

4.2

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50

j0.4 q'6

Fro. 2.-S against p curve deduced

from data given in table 1.

(x

cm)

25.0

22.0
205
19.2
18.0
17.0
16.0
14-6
13-4
11.6
10.5
9.9
9.7
9-6
9.5
9.5

The left-hand side of these equations has a simple graphical interpretation,

(see fig. l(a)). If the tangent at P cuts the x-axis at T then a simple calculation
shows that

OT = x -

dx

*a

Eqn. (8) remains as a check on the working. When the S against p curve
has been constructed the values of V derived from it using eqn. ( 5 ) should agree
with those obtained by using (8).*
Probably the simplest initial state of a dispersion is one where the initial concentration is uniform, say p = pl. This leads to a simpler analysis and to a type
of density line diagram shown in fig. l(b). In the sector AOB on the diagram
the concentration is everywhere p1 and the curve of fall AB starts as a straight
line. At B the changes propagated from the bottom have just reached the surface
and the concentration begins to increase. In the sector BOC the eqn. (8b), (9)
and (1 lb) apply and in the sector COD, p = p,,, exactly as before.
In fig. 2 we show the results f of applying our method to some experimental
results obtained with a dispersion believed to have a uniform concentration

* It would be very convenient to solve this problem without using tangents to the curve
of fall or another curve derived from it, but so far no way of doing this has been found.
-f For these results I am grateful to Dr. Nutt of the Department of Chemical Engineering in this University. They refer to a disperson of graphite in toluene.

G . J. K Y N C H

171

initially. The experimental results are given in table 1. This should not be taken
to mean that our assumptions are necessarily valid for this suspension, as further
experiments are necessary to verify this. In this example, the initial constant
rate of fall only exists for a very short time, which would mean that the speed of
propagation of density changes, V = dS/dp, is initially large.
4. DISCONTINUTI~ES
OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDERS.-Adiscontinuity of the first
kind in the particle concentration is a sudden finite change of concentration at
a certain level. The differential equation of continuity (eqn. (2)) no longer applies.
It is replaced by an equation stating that the flow of particles into one side of the
layer equals the flow out on the other side. If the suffix 1 denotes the layer above
the discontinuity and the suffix 2 the layer below, and U is the upwards velocity
of the discontinuity, this equation is

+w

(16)
Plh
= p2@2
u).
This makes it clear that in general the discontinuity is not at rest but moves through
the dispersion with a velocity

u=- Sl - s2
p2 - P I ,

(17)

where S = pv. On an S against p diagram the speed U is the slope of the line
joining the points (pl, S l ) and (p2, 5'2).
A discontinuity of the second kind is a very small change in the particle concentration. If p2 - p1 = dp is small, the expression for U reduces to

U = - dS/dp= V@).
(18)
The velocity Vintroduced in 9 2 now appears as the velocity of a discontinuity
between concentrations p and p dp. A small change dp, if maintained, is propagated through a dispersion of concentration p with velocity Y just as sound is
propagated through air with a definite velocity. A line of constant concentration
in the x against t diagram therefore describes the motion of a boundary between
dispersions of density p and p dp so that its slope is necessarily equal to this
velocity V. The whole adjustment of concentration which occurs when a dispersion settles (fig. l(a), (b)) can be described as a series of small discontinuities
propagated through the fluid.
The final settling of a dispersion into a layer of maximum concentration pm
is an interesting application of these results. The velocity U is now that rate
of increase of the thickness of the deposit. If there is a sudden change of concentration U is given by eqn, (17) with p2 = pmand S2 = 0 on the lower side : if
there is no sudden change then U = V,.
5 . STABILITY
OF DIsco"rmurrm.-The
possibility of discontinuities having
been demonstrated, it remains to explain why a dispersion of any concentration
does not always settle discontinuously into a layer of maximum concentration.
A discussion of the formation and stability of these sudden changes shows that
this is indeed possible, but is not necessary.
For dispersions where the concentration increases downwards towards the
bottom the condition for the formation of a first-order discontinuity can be
expressed in the following equivalent ways :
(a) the lines of constant concentration in the x against t diagram, if continued
away from the x-axis, would intersect ;
(6) the propagation velocity Y increases with concentration ;
(c) the S against p curve is concave to the p-axis.
If these conditions are not satisfied a first-order discontinuity is not formed.*
This assertion can be proved in terms of second-order discontinuities. If
V increases with p small concentration changes from the denser regions below
* The first of these three is the most general.

172

THEORY OF S E D I M E N T A T I O N

move faster upwards than those in the less dense regions above, and overtake
them. This means that the concentration gradient increases until a first-order
discontinuity is formed. If V decreases with p the reverse takes place, the concentration gradient decreases and any discontinuity is dispersed.
The construction of concentration-line diagrams for a few selected problems
is sufficient to show that these arguments can be made quantitative. Thus fig. 3a
shows that when V increases with p, intersection of the lines can be prevented only
by stopping them at a discontinuity. Moreover the diagram shows how this is
gradually built up along the envelope of the concentration lines. This envelope,

FIG. 3.-Production

and stability of discontinuities.

V increases with p : initially p varies continuously.

(b) V increases with p : p increases suddenly at A.
(c) instability when V decreases with increasing p.
(a)

( d ) physically impossible solution with same initial conditions as (c).

(e) V increases then decreases with increasing p.

therefore, is the curve whose equation is needed to determine precisely the concentration variations.
If the initial region of varying concentration is sufficiently small, there is
effectively an initial discontinuity on the x-axis which is propagated along the
line AE (fig. 3b) with a speed determined by eqn. (17). In both of these examples
the discontinuity is stable and is " fed " by the lines running into it.
In contrast to these two, both fig. 3c and 3d have been drawn to fit the initial
conditions that p = p1 above A and p = p2 below A with a dispersion in which
V decreases with increasing concentration. In (c) it has been assumed that the
sudden alteration at A is the limit of a very rapid change. No such assumption
has been made in Cd).

173

G . J. KYNCH

Of the two, (c) is physically more reasonable and is the one which should be
chosen; but both satisfy the initial conditions and are mathematically correct.
The dficulty is that the initial conditions are only sufficient to determine the
solution between the x-axis and the lines at A and B, but they are not sufficient
to determine the solution between the two. This difficulty and the stability
problem associated with it have never been solved mathematically, although
the correct procedure is clear physically.
Finally in fig. 3(e) a diagram has been drawn for a dispersion with the property
that Vat first increases to a maximum and then decreases, as the concentration
increases from p1 to p2. The discussion of the previous paragraphs suggests that
the increase of Vnear p1 requires the formation of a discontinuity AB, whereas the
subsequent decrease near p2 requires a spray of lines BAC. A more careful examination shows that one discontinuity from p1 to a concentration p3 can be formed,
followed by a continuous increase of concentration to pz. Just below AB the
concentration is everywhere p3 so that this line is also the concentration line
(a)

cc>

FIG. 4.-Modes of sedimentation distinguished by S agajnst p curves.

through A for this density. This condition, expressed in the following equation,
determines the value of .p3- :

u = - - s1
- -- s3-

&
!(;

P3 - P1

i.e. on an S against p diagram the chord joining the points (pl, S1) and (p3, S3)
is a tangent to the curve at the latter point.
6. MODESOF SEDIMENTATION.-The examples and calculations of the previous
sections have shown the main settling processes and the construction and use
of lines of constant concentration. It is now possible to compare the modes of
sedimentation of dilute and concentrated dispersions initially of a constant and
uniform concentration p1. The modes depend entirely on the form of the S against
p curve.
The simplest S against p curve (fig. 4(4) is everywhere concave downwards,
i.e. it has a maximum and no point of inflexion. According to the discussion of
0 4, the concentration during the sedimentation process changes suddenly to p m
whatever the value of p l , as shown in the diagram by the line P1 N. A concentrated
layer of Concentration p n , is built up on the bottom of the contain.=r.
In fig. 4(b) a point of inflexion has been introduced in the curve at C after the
maximum, and the curve is made to touch the axis at N. Provided p1 < p c a
tangent can be drawn to the curve from the point PI, touching the curve at Pz.
6*

174

T H E O R Y OF S E D I M E N T A T I O N

The situation is that discussed at the end of 5 4. The bottom of the dispersion
settles discontinuously into a layer rising from the bottom with a speed given by
the slope of the chord PlP2. Immediately below this layer the concentration is
p 2 and it increases continuously to p m on the bottom. As v = 0 at p = pnt this
final settling is relatively slow. However, if p1 > p c there is no discontinuity in
concentration and a continuous settling takes place.
In fig. 4(c) there is still one point of inflexion but the curves come to the
point N at an angle so that V'm, the final layer rate, is not zero, as in (b). The
tangent at N meets the curve at T where the density is PT. There are now three
possible modes :
(a) p1 < pT: sudden increase of concentration to p m ;
(6) p e < p1 < p : sudden increase of concentration to p2 followed by a continuous increase to p ;
(c) p o < pi < p m : continuous increase to pn,.
A more complicated curve which is still within the bounds of possibility is shown
in fig. 4(d). If the preceding methods are applied three modes of settling are to
be found.
It may well be asked why, in (c) there is not a discontinuous change directly
from p1 to pm rather than the change to p2 followed by a continuous increase to
pm. The answer can be seen from the S against p curve. The line PIN cuts this
curve at p 3 . The sudden change pp -+pm could therefore be regarded as two
changes p1 +p3 and p 3 -+pnL, moving upwards together through the dispersion
with the same speed. The second would immediately begin to decay and in the
subsequent adjustment the other discont~uitywould alter from p1 -+ p 3 to p1 -+ p2.
It might be expected that dispersions would normally behave as shown in
(a) or (c). If they behave as in (b) the velocities of fall near maximum concentration
are very small indeed, corresponding to some anomalous properties of the fluid
at such large concentrations. Experimentally, of course, it may be hardly possible
to distinguish between (a)and (b) if dilute dispersions are used. Even when settling
is complete the concentrated layer is very thin and it is doubtful whether any
detailed structure could be observed except in the most favourable circumstances.
A difference between (a) and (b) would only be noticed if the initial concentration
were an appreciable fraction of pa. If (d) were in operation conditions might be
better, as two discontinuities would occur. The x against t diagram shows that
these will be well separated and therefore more easily visible.
7. C o N c L u s r o N . - I n this presentation of our theory we have made assumptions
of two types. The first type is made in order to ensure a simple mathematical
presentation. The second type can be removed only by a development in the
underlying physical theory.
Assumptions of the first type are.:
(a) the particle concentration is uniform across any horizontal layer ;
(b) the initial concentration increases towards the bottom of the dispersion ;
(c) the velocity v tends to zero as p + p,, i.e. end effects.
Assumption (a) is not to be confused with wall effects, which we discuss below.
If our main hypothesis were granted, a continuity equation can be set up even
when (a) is not true. The mathematics is very much more complicated, however,
and solutions with appropriate boundary conditions very difficult to obtain.
If (6) is not true and the initial concentration fluctuates a complete analysis
is still possible using our equations. It is very complicated because (as shown in
earlier sections) discontinuities are set up and dispersed during the sedimentation
process. Since small fluctuations do occur we may well ask whether small
fluctuations alter in any essential way a theoretical result based on the assumption
of uniform density. In fact they do not and the reason is that small discontinuities can always be ignored without appreciable error. This can easily be proved,
but we shall not attempt a proof here.

G. J. KYNCH

175

This result has another application. We have seen that discontinuities are
produced for certain types of S against p curve. A large discontinuity can be
observed experimentally but a small one may be missed. If only the top layer
of the dispersion is under observation the discontinuity is observed as a sudden
change in the rate of fall of this layer, and an observed small change of this type
may be also due to small errors in observation. The result mentioned, however,
shows that an S against p curve, deduced ignoring a small discontinuity which
actually exists (or conversely, assuming that one exists when in fact it does not)
does not lead to a curve markedly in error.
The last assumption (c) of the three given above cannot always be true in so
far as a thick layer of density po above a layer of pure liquid must gradually fall
through it or disperse. This is not an important difficulty as we can assume that
z! tends to a small but finite value vo as p -+po and then decreases suddenly to zero
because of the bottom of the container containing the dispersion. If vo were
sufficientlysmall the resulting discontinuity in S can generally be ignored. Alternatively we can assert that the maximum concentration attainable during settling
on the bottom of the container is slightly greater than that possible in other
circumstances. In either case, however, provided any discontinuity in S is
smoothed out we can still apply our previous analysis.
The assumptions of the second type are
( d ) the velocity of fall depends only on the local particle density;
(e) wall effects can be ignored;
(f) the particles are of the same size and shape.
The wall effects (e) are difficult to estimate. It is clear that the greater stress
near the walls results in a decrease of particle density there but we hope that it
is not effective at a considerable distance from the walls.
The assumption (f) is unsatisfactory at low but not necessarily so at large
concentrations. When the density is small, the small particles fall more slowly
than big ones, so that the velocity z! has no definite meaning. When the density
is large, however, it is very probable that all the particles fall with the same speed
whatever their size, owing to the close packing. This means that the dispersion
does not change its constitution appreciably during the fall, and the velocity er
of the dispersion can be introduced.
The character of the S against p curve near maximum concentration can be
determined approximately. The settling process is then analogous to the squeezing
of liquid through a porous material. Now the mean speed of flow of liquid
through a porous material is u = CP/p, where p is the effective viscosity of the
liquid, C is a shape factor and P the pressure gradient. In our problem P is the
pressure pushing the liquid upwards, i.e. the difference between the actual hydrostatic pressure and that due to the liquid alone. It is therefore proportional to p.
The shape factor C decreases as p increases, but in an unknown fashion. Owing to
the spaces left between the particles it is likely to tend to a constant value as
p --t po. The viscosity of the liquid may show anomalous behaviour due, for
example, to electrochemical effects; in the absence of these it can be assumed
constant.
The velocity of the dispersion downwards is

so that
S = p2(po - PI.
Although this result is in agreement with the experimental curves so far analyzed,
it is not entirely satisfactory, and it is unwise to draw definite conclusions at this
stage.
Further developments of the theory would seem to lie in an attempt to remove
assumptions (e) and (f). Tests of the present theory can be made with reproducible

176

M E M B R A N E PROCESSES

dispersions which are initially of uniform density. The density line diagram
(fig. l(b)) then has a particularly simple form. Apart from the fall of the top
surface of the dispersion our theory predicts the variation of density with time at
a given level and the relation between the types of fall in different containers
through the eqn. (15) which states that the concentration is a function only of
the ratio x/t.

I should like to express my gratitude to Dr. Nutt for many interesting discussions on this work, and to Prof. Peierls for his advice in its presentation.
1 Einstein, Ann.

Physik., 1911, 34, 591.