Psychology of learning

The psychology of learning is a theoretical science.

Learning is a process that depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behavior
potential. Behavior potential designates the possible behavior of an individual, not actual behavior.
The main assumption behind all learning psychology is that the effects of the environment,
conditioning, reinforcement, etc. provide psychologists with the best information from which to
understand human behavior.
As opposed to short term changes in behavior potential (caused e.g. by fatigue) learning
implies long term changes. As opposed to long term changes caused by aging and development,
learning implies changes related directly to experience.
Learning theories try to better understand how the learning process works. Major research traditions
are behaviorism, cognitivism and self-regulated learning. Media psychology is a newer addition
among the learning theories because there is so much technology now included in the various types
of learning experiences. Neurosciences have provided important insights into learning, too, even
when using much simpler organisms than humans (Aplysia). Distance learning, eLearning, online
learning, blended learning, and media psychology are emerging dimensions of the field.

History[edit]

Socrates[edit]
Socrates (469-399 B.C.) introduced a method of learning that is now referred to as piloting. Piloting
refers to arriving at answers through one's own power of reasoning. This was used when Socrates
was teaching geometry to a young slave boy who knew math but nothing of geometry. He would ask
this boy to solve a problem like finding the area of a square. When the boy would get the answer
incorrect he would repeatedly question his reasoning by contradicting his logic. The notion that
knowledge comes from within was inspired by Socrates and his experiments. [1][2]

Ebbinghaus[edit]
In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus (18501909) continued the study of learning. Specifically he studied
memory in its "pure" form. "Pure" meaning free from meaningful associations. With himself as his
own experimental subject he exercised this form of memory with the use of meaningless syllables
and repetition. Ebbinghaus laid the way to another form of learning; becoming increasingly able to

recall something as a result of practice and repetition.[1] He was known for the discovery of
the learning curve and the forgetting curve.

Edward Thorndike[edit]
In 1898, Edward Thorndike (18741949), through his various real experiments and thought
experiments developed his theory of the "Law of Effect". The Law of Effect is a notion that not only
humans, but all animals will continue to attempt to find a solution to a problem, and once found will
continuously use the same solution in order to solve the same problem. The action that is done,
causes a positive effect (solving the problem).[3]

Pavlov and Watson[edit]

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (18491936) was a Russian physiologist in the early 1900s who also
contributed to research on learning. Knowing that a dog salivates when food is present, he
constructed a series of experiments that proved his thesis that he could make a dog salivate by just
the presentation of the sound of a bell. The process he used is now called classical conditioning.
John Broadus Watson (18781958) also used this method of learning to cause a young child, not
previously afraid of furry animals, to become frightened of them. Although the number of different
stimuli is limitless, the reactions that can be caused are limited to the natural reflexes we possess. [1]

Skinner[edit]
Burrhus F. Skinner (1904-1990) was the founder of operant conditioning which uses punishment and
reinforcement as learning tools. This learning method is not as limited as the previous learning form.
Operant conditioning is only limited by what can be used as reinforcement or punishment. [1]

Learning
Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing,
existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different
types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.
Progress over time tends to follow learning curve. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon
and is shaped by previous knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather
than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism
and the changes produced are relatively permanent.[1]
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may
be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part
of educational psychology, neuropsychology, learning theory, andpedagogy. Learning may occur as
a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more
complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.[2][3] Learning may
occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided
nor escaped is called learned helplessness.[4] There is evidence for human behavioral
learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation,
indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and
memory to occur very early on in development.[5]
Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children experiment with
the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotskyagrees that play is pivotal
for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing
educational games.

Types[edit]

Non-associative learning[edit]
Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a
single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus. Changes due to such factors as sensory
adaptation, fatigue, or injury do not qualify as non-associative learning." [6]

Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization.

Habituation[edit]
Main article: Habituation
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive
diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition stimulus. An animal first responds to a
stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses. One
example of this can be seen in small song birdsif a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the
cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less,
showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and reintroduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a
very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place).
Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive
plant Mimosa pudica[7] and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.[8]
Sensitization[edit]
Main article: Sensitization
Sensitisation is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a
response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995)[citation needed]. An everyday
example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a
person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will
eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the
peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. [clarification needed] Sensitisation is
thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.

Associative learning[edit]
Associative learning is the process by which an association between two stimuli or a behavior and a
stimulus is learned. The two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning. In
the former a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with a reflex eliciting stimuli
until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a response on its own. In operant conditioning a certain
behavior is either reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the behavior will
happen again. Honeybees display associative learning through the proboscis extension
reflex paradigm.[9]
Operant conditioning[edit]
Main article: Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of
behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that operant
conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment to alter an action-outcome association. In contrast
Pavlovian conditioning involves strengthening of the stimulus-outcome association.
Elemental theories of associative learning argue that concurrent stimuli tend to be perceived as
separate units rather than 'holistically' (i.e. as a single unit)[10]
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that seeks to alter behavior by arranging the environment
to elicit successful changes and to arrange consequences to maintain or diminish a behavior.
Behaviorists study behaviors that can be measured and changed by the environment. However, they
do not deny that there are thought processes that interact with those behaviors (see Relational
Frame Theory for more information).
Delayed discounting is the process of devaluing rewards based on the delay of time they are
presented. This process is thought to be tied to impulsivity. Impulsivity is a core process for many
behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, problematic gambling, OCD). Making decisions is an important
part of everyday functioning. How we make those decisions is based on what we perceive to be the
most valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined by what we find to be the most reinforcing
stimuli. So when teaching an individual a response, you need to find the most potent reinforcer for
that person. This may be a larger reinforcer at a later time or a smaller immediate reinforcer.
Classical conditioning[edit]
Main article: Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus
(which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does
not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the
unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned
stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic
example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder naturally will make a dog salivate when it is put into a
dog's mouth; salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Then Pavlov
rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral
stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to
salivate. After numerous pairings of the bell and the food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal
that the food was about to come and began to salivate when the bell was rung. Once this occurred,
the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned
response (CR).

Another influential person in the world of Classical Conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work
was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism
(and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud. Watson's view was that Freud's
introspective method was too subjective, and that we should limit the study of human development
to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a
science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment, "Little Albert", where he
demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical
conditioning principles.
Imprinting is the special type of learning in which young animals, particularly birds, make a strong
association with another individual or in some cases, an object. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist
Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds will follow and form a bond with a moving object shortly
after hatching. Under normal conditions, the object is the mother. Thus imprinting has a survival
value because it ensures that the young birds will not wander off away from their mother's protection.
Under experimental conditions, however, the young hatchling will imprint on just about any moving
object (even human beings), particularly if the object makes sounds.

Play[edit]
Main article: Play (activity)
Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in
similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is
mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which
gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other
members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught.
Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk
of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits
associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a
link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for
example improving physical fitness.
Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a childs learning and development.
Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop
emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form
of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children. [11]
There are five types of play:

1. sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by repetition of activity

2. role play occurs from 3 to 15 years of age
3. rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
4. construction play involves experimentation and building
5. movement play aka physical play[11]
These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problemsolving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.[12] Specific
activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan.
Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation[edit]
Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the values and behaviors that are appropriate
or necessary in the culture by which he or she is surrounded. [13] Parents, other adults, and peers
shape the individual's understanding of these values.[13] If successful, enculturation results in
competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture.[13] This is different from acculturation,
where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.
Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the
Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities
contributed to enculturation which is rooted in nonverbal social experience. [14] As the children
participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The
collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural
practice known as being acomedido.[15] Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving
constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.[16]

Episodic learning[edit]
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event. [17] For example, a fear
of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named
because events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit
learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory andsemantic memory.[18]

Multimedia learning[edit]
Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information
(Mayer 2001). This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).

E-learning and augmented learning[edit]

Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. A
specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different
mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.
When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. By
adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the
learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio
(music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve
learning performance for a lifetime.[19] See also Minimally Invasive Education.
Moore (1989)[20] purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective
online learning:

learner-learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher
present),

learner-instructor (i.e. student teacher communication), and

learner-content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners
understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).

In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)[21] contented that structure and interaction or
dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical
distances (known as transactional distance).

Rote learning[edit]
Main article: Rote learning
Rote learning is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it
was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the
idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly
processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it

has been criticized by some educators, rote learning is a necessary precursor to meaningful
learning.

Meaningful learning[edit]
Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the
extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning
in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other
hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned. [22]

Informal learning[edit]
Main article: Informal learning
Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would
learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where
one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, play, exploring, etc.

Formal learning[edit]
Main article: Education

A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, theUniversity of Bologna, Italy

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school
system. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the
way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the
goals and objectives of the learning.[23]

Nonformal learning[edit]
Main article: Nonformal learning

Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning
by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in
(international) youth organizations, workshops.

Nonformal learning and combined approaches[edit]

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning
methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some
schools students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in
informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and
training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can prove this offered valuable
new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.
In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at
once:

Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's Cube.

Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and
therefore speed.

Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future
attempts.

The Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.

Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.

Tangential learning[edit]
Tangential learning is the process by which people will self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a
context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people
may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references
Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. [24] Self-education can be
improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning
training has proven to be an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases
of learning.[25]

Dialogic learning[edit]
Main article: Dialogic learning

Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning[edit]
This type of learning is not planned by either the instructor or the student but occurs as a byproduct
of another activity, which may be an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique
event or common routine task. Learning which happens in addition to or apart from the instructors
plans and the students expectations.
Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods
of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a
product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research
implies that there are un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning which challenge the
equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct
advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in
three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the
implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.[26]

Domains[edit]

Future school (1901 or 1910).

Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning:

Cognitive To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.

Psychomotor To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.

Affective To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person will
have to learn the rules of the game (cognitive domain); but he also has to learn how to set up the

chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to properly hold and move a chess piece
(psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself,
value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).[27]

Transfer[edit]
Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem
or situation. which happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning
transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." [28] and has sought to
clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.
Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is
speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to
solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve novel
problem presented in a different context.[29] Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that
positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer
occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or thirdlanguage learning.[30] Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in
the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a
particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". [31] Finally, Schwarz,
Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ
from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may
both be frequent and challenging to promote.[32]
A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which
transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of
attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points
of view", "a careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for
promoting transfer.[33] To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend
aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging
learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current
content.[30]

Active learning[edit]
Main article: Active learning
Active learning occurs when a person takes control of their learning experience. Since
understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what
they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects.

Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they are verbalizing their
understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies
within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at
a stronger level as a result.[34] In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have
control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.[35]

Evolution[edit]
There are two ways in which animals can gain knowledge. The first of these two ways is learning.
This is when an animal gathers information about its surrounding environment and then proceeds to
use this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it may learn
not to eat this again. The second way that an animal can acquire knowledge is through innate
knowledge. This knowledge is genetically inherited. The animal automatically knows it without any
prior experience. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse
has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it.[36] In some scenarios, innate knowledge is
more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true - animals
must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these
situations, learning evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge[edit]

In a changing environment, an animal must constantly be gaining new information in order to
survive. However, in a stable environment this same individual need only to gather the information it
needs once and rely on it for the duration of its life. Therefore, there are different scenarios in which
learning or innate knowledge is better suited. Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge
versus the benefit of already having it determined whether an animal evolved to learn in a given
situation or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighed
the benefit of having it, then the individual would not have evolved to learn in this scenario; instead,
non-learning would evolve. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighed the cost
of obtaining it, then the animal would be far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information. [36]
Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does
not or rarely occurs then learning would simply be unnecessary. Because there is no need for
learning in this scenario and because learning could prove to be disadvantageous due to the time
it took to learn the information non-learning evolves. However, if an environment were in a
constant state of change then learning would also prove to be disadvantageous. Anything learned
would immediately become irrelevant because of the changing environment. [36] The learned
information would no longer apply. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a
guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning would evolve. In fact, it was shown in a study

of Drosophila melanogaster that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly
because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories
gained from the new learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning. [37]
However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant,
learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal
can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat
extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to
guessing.[36] An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change.
In these environments learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific
spatial cues where they live.[38]

Machine learning[edit]
Robots can learn to cooperate.

Main article: Machine learning

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the construction and study of systems
that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email
messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages.

A Brief History of the Computer

Computers and computer applications are on almost every aspect of our daily lives. As
like many ordinary objects around us, we may need clearer understanding of what
they are. You may ask "What is a computer?" or "What is a software", or "What is a
programming language?" First, let's examine the history.
1. The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago
in Babylonia (Mesopotamia), at the birth of the abacus, a
wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on
them.

2. Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital

computer in 1642. It added numbers entered with dials and
was made to help his father, a tax collector.
The basic principle of his calculator is still used today in water
meters and modern-day odometers. Instead of having a
carriage wheel turn the gear, he made each ten-teeth wheel
accessible to be turned directly by a person's hand (later
inventors added keys and a crank), with the result that when
the wheels were turned in the proper sequences, a series of
numbers was entered and a cumulative sum was obtained. The
gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the answer
that is obtained by using arithmetic.

This first mechanical calculator, called the

Pascaline, had several disadvantages.
Although it did offer a substantial improvement over manual
calculations, only Pascal himself could repair the device and it
cost more than the people it replaced! In addition, the first
signs of technophobia emerged with mathematicians fearing
the loss of their jobs due to progress.
3. A step towards automated computing was the development
of punched cards, which were first successfully used with
computers in 1890 by Herman Hollerith and James Powers, who
worked for the US. Census Bureau. They developed devices
that could read the information that had been punched into the
cards automatically, without human help. Because of this,
reading errors were reduced dramatically, work flow increased,
and, most importantly, stacks of punched cards could be used
as easily accessible memory of almost unlimited size.
Furthermore, different problems could be stored on different
stacks of cards and accessed when needed.

4. These advantages were seen by commercial companies and

soon led to the development of improved punch-card using
computers created by International Business Machines (IBM),
Remington (yes, the same people that make shavers),
Burroughs, and other corporations. These computers used
electromechanical devices in which electrical power provided
mechanical motion -- like turning the wheels of an adding
machine. Such systems included features to:
o feed in a specified number of cards automatically
o add, multiply, and sort
o feed out cards with punched results
5. The start of World War II produced a large need for computer
capacity, especially for the military. New weapons were made
for which trajectory tables and other essential data were
needed. In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their
associates at the Moore school of Electrical Engineering of
University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high - speed
electronic computer to do the job. This machine became known
as ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator)

Two men (in uniform) being trained to

maintain the ENIAC computer. The two
women in the photo were programmers.
The ENIAC occupied the entire thirty by
fifty feet room.

6. The size of ENIACs numerical "word" was 10 decimal digits,

and it could multiply two of these numbers at a rate of 300 per
second, by finding the value of each product from a
multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was therefore
about 1,000 times faster then the previous generation of relay

computers. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, about 1,800

square feet of floor space, and consumed about 180,000 watts
of electrical power. It had punched card I/O, 1 multiplier, 1
divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring
counters, which served as adders and also as quick-access
(.0002 seconds) read-write register storage. The executable
instructions making up a program were embodied in the
separate "units" of ENIAC, which were plugged together to
form a "route" for the flow of information.
7. Early in the 50s two important engineering discoveries
changed the image of the electronic - computer field, from one
of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of relatively high
reliability and even more capability. These discoveries were
the magnetic core memory and the Transistor - Circuit
Element.
These technical discoveries quickly found their way into new
models of digital computers. RAM capacities increased from
8,000 to 64,000 words in commercially available machines by
the 1960s, with access times of 2 to 3 MS (Milliseconds).
These machines were very expensive to purchase or even to
rent and were particularly expensive to operate because of the
cost of expanding programming. Such computers were mostly
found in large computer centers operated by industry,
government, and private laboratories - staffed with many
programmers and support personnel. This situation led to
modes of operation enabling the sharing of the high potential
available.
8. Many companies, such as Apple Computer and Radio Shack,
introduced very successful PCs in the 1970's, encouraged in
part by a fad in computer (video) games. In the 1980's some
friction occurred in the crowded PC field, with Apple and IBM
keeping strong. In the manufacturing of semiconductor chips,
the Intel and Motorola Corporations were very competitive into
the 1980s, although Japanese firms were making strong
economic advances, especially in the area of memory chips. By
the late 1980s, some personal computers were run by
microprocessors that, handling 32 bits of data at a time, could
process about 4,000,000 instructions per second.

Computer
A computer is a general-purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set
of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations can be readily
changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central
processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic
and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in
response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external
source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.
Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the
medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog computers were used
for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first
electronic digital computers were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room,
consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1]
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than
the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Computers are small enough to fit
into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers
in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people consider as
computers. However, theembedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter
aircraft and from electronic toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
Capabilities:

1.

Speed: With a speed reaching up to fifty million operations per second, a

computer can process data faster than any other machine designed to perform a
similar task. That is, adding two numbers is considered as one operation.
2.
Repetitiveness: A computer can perform the same operation a million times in
exactly the same way. The various operations are executed automatically by way of
stored computer programs.
3.
Accuracy: High-speed processing by a computer is accompanied by highaccuracy results. A computer can be considered 100% accurate. The electronic
circuitry of computers is such that, when the machines are fed with correct
instructions or data and when the incoming data is error-free, the accuracy of the
output is relatively assured.
a.
Determining if a certain statement is true or false.
b.
Based on the result of the first step, choosing one or the other course of
action out of the alternatives provided in the computer program.
2. Logical operations: The computer can make a decision based on alternative courses
of action. The decisions of a computer are, however, dependent on the programs
prepared for it by the programmer. A decision consists of two steps, namely:
3. Compact Storage: A computer has the ability to store large amounts of data in
compact and easily retrievable form. It can store data at a very high speed.
4. Discipline: Discipline means that a computer can self-check and self-operate. A
computer self-checks when it verifies the accuracy of its won work by means of a
parity check. In a parity check, the computer counts the number of characters it has
stored to make sure that there will be no loss of data during processing. In selfoperation, a computer is capable of executing instructions on its own, without human
intervention, once the program and the data re fed into the computer's memory.

Limitations:
1.
A computer cannot generate information on its own. While it is true that a
computer has the capacity to put together information from many sources, it can only
do this if it has been programmed by man to do so.
2.
A computer cannot correct wrong instruction. If a computer is fed with incorrect
instructions or data, whether intentionally or unintentionally, it does not have the
capability to detect mistakes and correct them. In computer language, this is known
as GIGO (garbage in garbage out). This means that a computer that has been fed with
a wrong set of instructions or data will similarly produce wrong information and wrong
decisions. Therefore, any corrections must be done by the programmer.
3.
A computer can only do what you tell it to do.