Attractiveness and self-esteem:

A test of sociometer theory

by

Chris Bale

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire.

September 2010

Student Declaration

Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards

I declare that while registered for the research degree, I was with the Universitys
specific permission, an enrolled student for the following award:
Postgraduate Certifcate in Professional Development (Higher Education Practise):
University of Huddersfield, 2009.

Material submitted for another award

I declare that the following material contained in the thesis formed part of a
submission for the award of
MSc Research Methods in Psychology, University of Liverpool, 2004.
(state award and awarding body and list the material below):
Some data for Study 1, together with some written material for Chapters 1 & 2.

Collaboration
Where a candidates research programme is part of a collaborative project, the
thesis must indcate in addition clearly the candidates individual contribution and
the extent of the collaboration. Please state below:

Signature of Candidate

Type of Award PhDABSTRACT

Sociometer theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) proposes that self-esteem is an evolutionary adaptation which
functions to monitor the quality and quantity of peoples interpersonal relationships together with their eligibility
for these, and to motivate adaptive behaviour in response to these assessments. The present work describes a
series of studies designed to systematically test hypotheses concerning relationships between self-perceptions
of physical attractiveness, self-esteem and relationship behaviour, derived from sociometer theory. Study 1
extended previous research by employing a novel measure of self-perceived attractiveness and showing that
this significantly and positively correlated with both global and multidimensional measures of self-esteem in both
women and men. Studies 2 and 3 tested the hypothesis, derived from sociometer theory, that using a social
comparison manipulation of self-perceived physical attractiveness should causally affect self-esteem in women.
The results of these studies did not support this hypothesis and challenged previous findings in the literature:
Women exposed to images of highly attractive others did not report significantly lower subsequent levels of selfesteem than those exposed to unattractive others. Study 4 examined whether exposing women to an implicit
manipulation of self-esteem would affect their subsequent self-perceptions of attractiveness. The results showed
that women exposed to a negative priming condition reported significantly lower levels of self-esteem and selfperceived physical attractiveness than those in the positive condition. These results constitute the first empirical
demonstration that implicit manipulations of self- esteem can exert causal effects on specific self-perceptions.
Study 5 examined the previously untested prediction that self-perceptions of desirability and self- esteem would
correlate with self reports of romantic relational behaviour in women. The results indicated that although selfperceptions of desirability significantly correlated with relational behaviour, self-esteem did not. These results,
together with previous research in self-esteem are discussed in relation to sociometer theory, and a novel
modification of the theory is proposed.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1:
General Introduction
1.1

Approaches to Self-Esteem

1.2

Sociometer Theory

1.3

Domain Specificity of the Sociometer

1.4

The Importance of Sex

1.5

Desirability as Market Value

11

1.6

Overall Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem

15

1.7

Specific Aspects of Attractiveness

20

1.8

Attractiveness for its Own Sake

25

1.9

Self-Esteem and Specific Aspects of Attractiveness

27

1.10 Outline of the Present Research

32

CHAPTER 2:
Study 1: The Relationship between Physical Attractiveness and Self- Esteem

2.1

Introduction

34

2.1.1 Aims of Study 1

34

2.1.2 Limitations of Previous Research

34

2.1.3 Predicted Relationships between Attractiveness

and Self-Esteem

38

Predicted Relationships between Global and Specific 39 Aspects of Self-Estee

m
2.1.4

2.3

2.2.1 Participants

44

2.2.2 Materials

44

2.2.3 Procedure

49

Results

52

2.3.1 Reliability and Validity of Study Measures

52

2.3.2 Relationships Between Physical Attractiveness and

53

Self-Esteem
2.3.3 Relationships Between Global and Dimensions of

59

Self-Esteem

2.4

2.3.4 Specific Physical Predictors of Self-Esteem

62

Discussion

63

CHAPTER 3:
Study 2: Does Manipulating Self-Perceptions of Attractiveness Affect

Self-Esteem?
3.1

Introduction

76

3.1.1 Manipulations of Social Inclusion AffectSelf-Esteem

76

3.1.2 Manipulating Self-Perceived Attractiveness

81

3.2

3.1.3 Media Effects on Body Image

87

3.1.4 Limitations of Previous Research

89

Method

93

3.2.1 Design

93

3.2.2 Participants

93

2.2

44

Materials 4.3.7 Effects of Contingent Self-Esteem

3.2.3
3.2.4 Procedure

94
131