EHVAC

1
Introduction to EHV AC Transmission

1.1
ROLE OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION
Industrial-minded countries of the world require a vast amount of energy of which electrical
energy forms a major fraction. There are other types of energy such as oil for transportation
and industry, natural gas for domestic and industrial consumption, which form a considerable
proportion of the total energy consumption. Thus, electrical energy does not represent the
only form in which energy is consumed but an important part nevertheless. It is only 150 years
since the invention of the dynamo by Faraday and 120 years since the installation of the first
central station by Edison using dc. But the world has already consumed major portion of its
natural resources in this short period and is looking for sources of energy other than hydro and
thermal to cater for the rapid rate of consumption which is outpacing the discovery of new
resources. This will not slow down with time and therefore there exists a need to reduce the
rate of annual increase in energy consumption by any intelligent society if resources have to be
preserved for posterity. After the end of the Second World War, countries all over the world
have become independent and are showing a tremendous rate of industrial development, mostly
on the lines of North-American and European countries, the U.S.S.R. and Japan. Therefore,
the need for energy is very urgent in these developing countries, and national policies and
their relation to other countries are sometimes based on energy requirements, chiefly nuclear.
Hydro-electric and coal or oil-fired stations are located very far from load centres for various
reasons which requires the transmission of the generated electric power over very long distances.
This requires very high voltages for transmission. The very rapid strides taken by development
of dc transmission since 1950 is playing a major role in extra-long-distance transmission,
complementing or supplementing e.h.v. ac transmission. They have their roles to play and a
country must make intelligent assessment of both in order to decide which is best suited for
the country's economy. This book concerns itself with problems of e.h.v. ac transmission only.
1.2
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR

DEVELOPMENT
Any engineer interested in electrical power transmission must concern himself or herself with
energy problems. Electrical energy sources for industrial and domestic use can be divided into
two broad categories: (1) Transportable; and (2) Locally Usable.
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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
Transportable type is obviously hydro-electric and conventional thermal power. But locally
generated and usable power is by far more numerous and exotic. Several countries, including
India, have adopted national policies to investigate and develop them, earmarking vast sums of
money in their multi-year plans to accelerate the rate of development. These are also called
'Alternative Sources of Power'. Twelve such sources of electric power are listed here, but there
are others also which the reader will do well to research.
Locally Usable Power

(1) Conventional thermal power in urban load centres;
(2) Micro-hydel power stations;
(3) Nuclear Thermal: Fission and Fusion;
(4) Wind Energy;
(5) Ocean Energy: (a) Tidal Power, (b) Wave Power, and (c) Ocean thermal gradient
power;
(6) Solar thermal;
(7) Solar cells, or photo-voltaic power;
(8) Geo-thermal;
(9) Magneto hydro-dynamic or fluid dynamic;
(10) Coal gasification and liquefaction;
(11) Hydrogen power; and last but not least,
(12) Biomass Energy: (a) Forests; (b) Vegetation; and (c) Animal refuse.
To these can also be added bacterial energy sources where bacteria are cultured to
decompose forests and vegetation to evolve methane gas. The water hyacinth is a very rich
source of this gas and grows wildly in waterlogged ponds and lakes in India. A brief description
of these energy sources and their limitation as far as India is concerned is given below, with
some geographical points.
1. Hydro-Electric Power: The known potential in India is 50,000 MW (50 GW) with 10 GW in
Nepal and Bhutan and the rest within the borders of India. Of this potential, almost 30% or 12
GW lies in the north-eastern part in the Brahmaputra Valley which has not been tapped. When
this power is developed it will necessitate transmission lines of 1000 to 1500 kilometres in
length so that the obvious choice is extra high voltage, ac or dc. The hydel power in India can
be categorized as (a) high-head (26% of total potential), (b) medium-head (47%), (c) low-head
(7%, less then 30 metres head), and (d) run-of-the-river (20%). Thus, micro-hydel plants and
run-of-the-river plants (using may be bulb turbines) have a great future for remote loads in
hilly tracts.
2. Coal: The five broad categories of coal available in India are Peat (4500 BTU/LB*), Lignite
(6500), Sub-Bituminous (7000-12000), Bituminous (14,000), and Anthracite (15,500 BTU/LB).
Only non-coking coal of the sub-bituminous type is available for electric power production
whose deposit is estimated at 50 giga tonnes in the Central Indian coal fields, With 50% of this
allocated for thermal stations, it is estimated that the life of coal deposits will be 140 years if
*1000 BTU/LB555.5 k-cal/kg.
the rate of annual increase in installed capacity is 5%. Thus, the country cannot rely on this
source of power to be perennial. Nuclear thermal power must be developed rapidly to replace
conventional thermal power.
3. Oil and Natural Gas: At present, all oil is used for transportation and none is available for
electric power generation. Natural gas deposits are very meager at the oil fields in the NorthEastern region and only a few gas-turbine stations are installed to provide the electric power
for the oil operations.
4. Coal Liquefaction and Gasification: Indian coal contains 45% ash and the efficiency of a
conventional thermal station rarely exceeds 25% to 30%. Also transportation of coal from mines
to urban load centres is impossible because of the 45% ash, pilferage of coal at stations where
coal-hauling trains stop, and more importantly the lack of availability of railway wagons for
coal transportation. These are needed for food transportation only. Therefore, the national
policy is to generate electric power in super thermal stations of 2100 MW capacity located at
the mine mouths and transmit the power by e.h.v. transmission lines. If coal is liquified and
pumped to load centres, power up to 7 times its weight in coal can be generated in high efficiency
internal cumbustion engines.
5. Nuclear Energy: The recent advances made in Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors (LMFBR)
are helping many developing countries, including India, to install large nuclear thermal plants.
Although India has very limited Uranium deposits, it does possess nearly 50% of the world's
Thorium deposits. The use of this material for LMFBR is still in infant stages and is being
developed rapidly.
6. Wind Energy: It is estimated that 20% of India's power requirement can be met with
development of wind energy. There are areas in the Deccan Plateau in South-Central India
where winds of 30 km/hour blow nearly constantly. Wind power is intermittent and storage
facilities are required which can take the form of storage batteries or compressed air. For an
electrical engineer, the challenge lies in devising control circuitry to generate a constant
magnitude constant-frequency voltage from the variable-speed generator and to make the
generator operate in synchronism with an existing grid system.
7. Solar-Cell Energy: Photo-voltaic power is very expensive, being nearly the same as nuclear
power costing U.S.$ 1000/kW of peak power. (At the time of writing, 1 U.S$ = Rs. 35). Solar
cells are being manufactured to some extent in India, but the U.S.A. is the largest supplier
still. Indian insolation level is 600 calories/ sq. cm/day on the average which will generate 1.5
kW, and solar energy is renewable as compared to some other sources of energy.
8. Magneto Hydro-Dynamic: The largest MHD generator successfully completed in the world
is a 500 kW unit of AVCO in the U.S.A. Thus, this type of generation of electric energy has very
local applications.
9. Fuel-Cell Energy: The fuel-cell uses H-O interaction through a Phosphoric Acid catalyzer to
yield a flow of electrons in a load connected externally. The most recent installation is by the
Consolidated Edison Co. of New York which uses a module operating at 190C. Each cell develops
0.7 V and there are sufficient modules in series to yield an output voltage of 13.8 kV, the same
as a conventional central-station generator. The power output is expected to reach 1 MW.
10. Ocean Energy: Energy from the vast oceans of the earth can be developed in 3 different
ways: (i) Tidal; (ii) Wave; and (iii) Thermal Gradient.
(i) Tidal Power: The highest tides in the world occur at 40 to 50 latitudes with tides up
to 12 m existing twice daily. Therefore, Indian tides are low being about 3.5 m in the
Western Coast and Eastern rivers in estuaries. France has successfully operated a
240 MW station at the Rance-River estuary using bulb turbines. Several installations
in the world have followed suit. The development of Indian tidal power at the Gujarat
Coast in the West is very ambitious and is taking shape very well. Like wind power,
tidal power is intermittent in nature.
The seawater during high tides is allowed to run in the same or different passage
through the turbine-generators to fill a reservoir whose retaining walls may be up to
30 km long. At low-tide periods, the stored water flows back to the sea through the
turbines and power is generated.
(ii) Wave Energy: An average power of 25 to 75 kW can be developed per metre of wave
length depending on the wave height. The scheme uses air turbines coupled to
generators located in chambers open to the sea at the bottom and closed at the top.
There may be as many as 200-300 such chambers connected together at the top
through pipes. A wave crest underneath some chambers will compress the air which
will flow into other chambers underneath which the wave-trough is passing resulting
in lower pressure. This runs the air turbines and generates power. Others are Salter's
Ducks and Cockerrel's 3-part ship.
(iii) Ocean Thermal Power: This scheme utilizes the natural temperature difference
between the warm surface water (20-25C) and the cooler oceanbed water at 5C.
The turbine uses NH3 as the working fluid in one type of installation which is vaporized
in a heat-exchanger by the warm water. The condenser uses the cooler ocean-bed
water and the cycle is complete as in a conventional power station. The cost of such
an installation is nearly the same as a nuclear power station.
This brief description of 'alternative' sources of electric power should provide the reader
with an interest to delve deeper into modern energy sources and their development.
1.3
DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECT MATTER OF THIS BOOK
Extra High Voltage (EHV) ac transmission can be assumed to have seen its development since
the end of the Second World War, with the installation of 345 kV in North America and 400 kV
in Europe. The distance between generating stations and load centres as well as the amount of
power to be handled increased to such an extent that 220 kV was inadequate to handle the
problem. In these nearly 50 years, the highest commercial voltage has increased to 1150 kV
(1200 kV maximum) and research is under way at 1500 kV by the AEP-ASEA group. In India,
the highest voltage used is 400 kV ac, but will be increased after 1990 to higher levels. The
problems posed in using such high voltages are different from those encountered at lower
voltages. These are:
(a) Increased Current Density because of increase in line loading by using series capacitors.
(b) Use of bundled conductors.
(c) High surface voltage gradient on conductors.
(d) Corona problems: Audible Noise, Radio Interference, Corona Energy Loss, Carrier
Interference, and TV Interference.
(e) High electrostatic field under the line.

(f) Switching Surge Overvoltages which cause more havoc to air-gap insulation than
lightning or power frequency voltages.
(g) Increased Short-Circuit currents and possibility of ferro resonance conditions.
(h) Use of gapless metal-oxide arresters replacing the conventional gap-type Silicon Carbide
arresters, for both lightning and switching-surge duty.
(i) Shunt reactor compensation and use of series capcitors, resulting in possible subsynchronous resonance conditions and high shortcircuit currents.
(j) Insulation coordination based upon switching impulse levels.
(k) Single-pole reclosing to improve stability, but causing problems with arcing.
The subject is so vast that no one single book can hope to handle with a description,
analysis, and discussion of all topics. The book has been limited to the transmission line only
and has not dealt with transient and dynamic stability, load flow, and circuit breaking.
Overvoltages and characteristics of long airgaps to withstand them have been discussed at
length which can be classified as transient problems. Items (a) to (e) are steady-state problems
and a line must be designed to stay within specified limits for interference problems, corona
loss, electrostatic field, and voltages at the sending end and receiving end buses through proper
reactive-power compensation.
Chapter 2 is devoted to an introduction to the e.h.v. problem, such as choice of voltage for
transmission, line losses and power-handling capacity for a given line length between source
and load and bulk power required to be transmitted. The problem of vibration of bundled
conductors is touched upon since this is the main mechanical problem in e.h.v lines. Chapters
3 and 4 are basic to the remaining parts of the book and deal with calculation of line resistance,
inductance, capacitance, and ground-return parameters, modes of propagation, electrostatics
to understand charge distribution and the resulting surface voltage gradients. All these are
directed towards an N-conductor bundle. Corona loss and Audible Noise from e.h.v. lines are
consequences of high surface voltage gradient on conductors. This is dealt fully in Chapter 5. In
several cases of line design, the audible noise has become a controlling factor with its attendant
pollution of the environment of the line causing psycho-acoustics problems. The material on
interference is continued in Chapter 6 where Radio Interference is discussed. Since this problem
has occupied researchers for longer than AN, the available literature on RI investigation is
more detailed than AN and a separate chapter is devoted to it. Commencing with corona pulses,
their frequency spectrum, and the lateral profile of RI from lines, the reader is led into the
modern concept of 'Excitation Function' and its utility in pre-determining the RI level of a line
yet to be designed. For lines up to 750 kV, the C.I.G.R.E. formula applies. Its use in design is
also discussed, and a relation between the excitation function and RI level calculated by the
C.I.G.R.E. formula is given.
Chapter 7 relates to power frequency electrostatic field near an e.h.v. line which causes
harmful effects to human beings, animals, vehicles, plant life, etc. The limits which a designer
has to bear in mind in evolving a line design are discussed. Also a new addition has been made
in this chapter under the title Magnetic Field Effects of E.H.V. Lines. Chapters 8-11 are devoted
to the discussion of high transient overvoltages experienced by an e.h.v. line due to lightning
and switching operations. Chapter 8 introduces the reader to the theoretical aspects of travelling
waves caused by lightning and switching operations, and the method of standing waves which
yields the same results as travelling waves but in many cases gives more convenient formulas.
With the advent of the Digital Computer, the standing-wave method poses no problems for
handling the calculation. The Laplace-Transform and Fourier-Transform Methods for handling
transients on e.h.v. lines are described.
Chapter 9 deals with important aspects of lightning over-voltages and protection. The
latest type of Metal Oxide Varistor known as gapless Zinc Oxide arrester is discussed as well as
the conventional gap-type SiC arresters of both the non current-limiting and current-limiting
types. The chapter commences with outage level aimed by a designer, and leads step by step in
describing the factors affecting it, namely the isokeraunik level, probability of number of strokes
to a tower or midspan, the tower-footing resistance, probability of lightning-stroke currents,
and finally the insulator flash-over. Pre-discharge currents on towers and hardware are taken
into account. Chapter 10 discusses all the possible conditions of internal overvoltages on e.h.v.
lines commencing with circuit-breaker recovery voltage, terminal and short-line faults,
interruption of low inductive current and overvoltages resulting from 'current chopping', line
dropping and restrike in circuit breakers and ferroresonance conditions. The bulk of the chapter,
however, is devoted to calculation of switching-surge overvoltages. Measures used for reduction
of overvoltages are thoroughly discussed. Equations in matrix form dealing with the resulting
transients are developed and examples using the Fourier Transform method for obtaining the
switching overvoltages are worked out.
Having known the magnitude of overvoltages that can be expected on a system, the next
aspect is to design air-gap clearances on tower. This requires a thorough knowledge of the
flashover and withstand characteristics of long air gaps. Chapter 11 is devoted to a description
of these characteristics. Commencing with the basic mechanisms postulated by engineers and
physicists for the breakdown of a long air gap, the reader is exposed to the statistical nature of
insulation design. The work of the eminent Italian engineer, Dr. Luigi Paris, ([51], IEEE) is
described and examples of using his equations for insulation design are given.
Although transients caused by lightning and switching surges have been studied extensively
by e.h.v. engineers, overvoltages caused under power-frequency are important for the design
of line compensation. This is covered in Chapter 12. The power-circle diagram and the
geometrical relations resulting from it are used throughout for evaluating synchronouscondenser design, switched capacitors under load, shunt-reactor compensation including an
intermediate station for a very long line, and finally a line with series-capacitor compensation
is discussed. This problem leads logically to the problems of high short-circuit current and
possible sub-synchronous resonance conditions. These are described from the point of view of
the line. Countermeasures for SSR are described fully as used on the Navajo Project ([67],
IEEE) and elsewhere. The chapter then describes Static Var compensating systems (SVS) of
several types which are now finding more and more use instead of unregulated or fixed reactors.
The problem of injection of harmonics into e.h.v. line is discussed and the performance of a
series L-C filter in suppressing them is analyzed. The chapter ends with a short description of
high phase order transmission (6 phase) even though it does not yet belong to the e.h.v. class.
Chapter 13 deals with e.h.v. laboratories, equipment and testing. The design of impulse
generators for lightning and switching impulses is fully worked out and waveshaping circuits
are discussed. The effect of inductance in generator, h.v. lead, and the voltage divider are
analyzed. Cascade-connected power-frequency transformers and the Greinacher chain for
generation of high dc voltage are described. Measuring equipment such as the voltage divider,
oscilloscope, peak volt-meter, and digital recording devices are covered and the use of fibre
optics in large e.h.v. switchyards and laboratory measurements is discussed.
Chapter 14 uses the material of previous chapters to evolve methods for design of e.h.v.
lines. Several examples are given from which the reader will be able to effect his or her own
design of e.h.v. transmission lines in so far as steadystate and transient overvoltages are
concerned.
The last chapter, Chapter 15, deals with the important topic of e.h.v cable transmission.
Cables are being manufactured and developed for voltages upto 1200 kV to match the equipment
and overhead-line voltages in order to interconnect switchyard equipment such as overhead
lines to transformers and circuit breakers. They are also used for leading bulk power from
receiving stations into the heart of metropolitan industrial and domestic distribution stations.
In underground power stations, large stations located at dam sites, for under-river and undersea applications, along railways, over long-span bridges, and at many situations, e.h.v. cables
are extensively used. The four types of e.h.v. cables, namely, high-pressure oil-filled (HPOF)
with Kraft paper insulation, the same with composite laminated plastic film and paper insulation
(PPLP), cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), and gas-insulated (SF 6) lines (GIL's) or bus ducts
are described and discussed. Design practices based on a Weibull Probability Distribution for
initial breakdown voltage and stress and the Kreuger Volt-Time characteristics are also dealt
with. Extensive examples of 132 kV to 1200 KV cables already manufactured or under
development are given.
Each chapter is provided with a large number of worked examples to illustrate all ideas in
a step by step manner. The author feels that this will help to emphasize every formula or idea
when the going is hot, and not give all theory in one place and provide examples at the end of
each chapter. It is expected that the reader will work through these to be better able to apply
the equations.
No references are provided at the end of each chapter since there are cases where one
work can cover many aspects discussed in several chapters. Therefore, a consolidated bibliography
is appended at the end after Chapter 15 which will help the reader who has access to a fine
library or can get copies made from proper sources.
Review Questions and Problems

1. Give ten levels of transmission voltages that are used in the world.
2. Write an essay giving your ideas whether industrial progress is really a measure of
human progress.
3. What is a micro-hydel station?
4. How can electric power be generated from run-of-the-river plants? Is this possible or
impossible?
5. What is the fuel used in (a) Thermal reactors, and (b) LMFBR? Why is it called
LMFBR? What is the liquid metal used? Is there a moderator in LMFBR? Why is it
called a Breeder Reactor? Why is it termed Fast?
6. Draw sketches of a wind turbine with (a) horizontal axis, and (b) vertical axis. How
can the efficiency of a conventional wind turbine be increased?
7. Give a schematic sketch of a tidal power development. Why is it called a 'bulb turbine'?
8. Give a schematic sketch of an ocean thermal gradient project showing a heat exchanger,
turbine-generator, and condenser.
9. List at least ten important problems encountered in e.h.v. transmission which may
or may not be important at voltages of 220 kV and lower.
2
Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries
2.1
STANDARD TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES
Voltages adopted for transmission of bulk power have to conform to standard specifications
formulated in all countries and internationally. They are necessary in view of import, export,
and domestic manufacture and use. The following voltage levels are recognized in India as per
IS-2026 for line-to-line voltages of 132 kV and higher.
Nominal System
Voltage kV
132
220
275
345
400
500
750
Maximum Operating
Voltage, kV
145
245
300
362
420
525
765
There exist two further voltage classes which have found use in the world but have not
been accepted as standard. They are: 1000 kV (1050 kV maximum) and 1150 kV (1200 kV
maximum). The maximum operating voltages specified above should in no case be exceeded in
any part of the system, since insulation levels of all equipment are based upon them. It is
therefore the primary responsibility of a design engineer to provide sufficient and proper type
of reactive power at suitable places in the system. For voltage rises, inductive compensation
and for voltage drops, capacitive compensation must usually be provided. As example, consider
the following cases.
Example 2.1. A single-circuit 3-phase 50 Hz 400 kV line has a series reactance per phase
of 0.327 ohm/km. Neglect line resistance. The line is 400 km long and the receiving-end load is
600 MW at 0.9 p.f. lag. The positive-sequence line capacitance is 7.27 nF/km. In the absence of
any compensating equipment connected to ends of line, calculate the sending-end voltage.
Work with and without considering line capacitance. The base quantities for calculation are
400 kV, 1000 MVA.
Solution. Load voltage V = 1.0 per unit. Load current I = 0.6 (1 j0.483) = 0.6 j0.29 p.u.
Base impedance Z b = 4002/1000 = 160 ohms. Base admittance Yb = 1/160 mho.
Total series reactance of line
X = j0.327 400 = j130.8 ohms = j 0.8175 p.u.
Total shunt admittance of line
Y = j 314 7.27 109 400
= j 0.9136 10 3 mho = j 0.146 p.u.
10

j 0.8175 p.u.
400 km
Es
0-6j 0.29 p.u.

Ir
V = 1 0 p.u
j 0.073
p.u.
Fig. 2.1 (a)
When considering the line capacitance, one half will be concentrated at load end across
the load and the other half at the entrance to the line at the sending end, as shown in
Figure 2.1. Then, the receiving-end current is
Ir = 0.6 j0.29 + j0.073 = 0.6 j0.217 p.u.
The
sending-end
voltage will be
?
Es = 1 + j (0.6 j0.217) 0.8175 = 1.1774 + j0.49
= 1.2753 22.6 = 510 22.6, kV.
When line capacitance is omitted, the sending-end voltage is
Es = 1 + j (0.6 j0.29) 0.8175 = 1.33 21.6 = 532 21.6, kV.
Note that in both cases, the sending-end voltage, that is, the generating station h.v. bus
voltage exceeds the IS limit of 420 kV.
Example 2.2. In the previous example, suggest suitable reactive compensation equipment
to be provided at the load end to maintain 400 kV (1 p.u. voltage) at both ends of line.
Solution. Since the load is drawing lagging (inductive) current, obviously we have to
provide capacitive compensating equipment across the load in order to reduce the line current.
Figure 2.1 (b) shows the overall arrangement. If Ic is the current drawn by this compensating
equipment, considering line capacitance, the total receiving-end line current will be Ir = 0.6
j0.217 + j Ic, p.u., and the resulting sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j (0.6 j0.217 + j Ic) 0.8175 = (1.1774 0.8175 Ic) + j0.49.
0.6j 0.29
Ir
jIc
1G

p.u.
V = 1 0 p.u
Fig. 2.1 (b)
Now, since |Es| = 1 p.u. also, there results Ic = 0.374 p.u. The resulting rating of the
compensating capacitor is 374 MVAR.
When the presence of line capacitance is neglected, Ic = 0.447 p.u. and the required
compensation is 447 MVAR, which is of course higher than 374 MVAR by 73 MVAR.
Detailed discussion of line compensation for voltage control at the sending- and receivingend busses will be considered in Chapter 12. We note in passing that voltage control in e.h.v.
systems is a very expensive proposition. In addition to switched capacitors which provide variable
11
capacitive reactive power to suit variation of load from no load to full load, variable inductive
compensation will be required which takes the form of thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR)
which are also known as Static VAR Systems. Unfortunately, these give rise to undesirable
harmonics which are injected into the line and may cause maloperation of signalling and some
communication equipment. These problems and use of proper filters to limit the harmonic
injection will also be discussed in Chapter 12.
2.2
AVERAGE VALUES OF LINE PARAMETERS
Detailed calculation of line parameters will be described in Chapter 3. In order to be able to

estimate how much power a single-circuit at a given voltage can handle, we need to know the
value of positive-sequence line inductance and its reactance at power frequency. Furthermore,
in modern practice, line losses caused by I 2R heating of the conductors is gaining in importance
because of the need to conserve energy. Therefore, the use of higher voltages than may be
dictated by purely economic consideration might be found in order not only to lower the current
I to be transmitted but also the conductor resistance R by using bundled conductors comprising
of several sub-conductors in parallel. We will utilize average values of parameters for lines
with horizontal configuration as shown in Table 2.1 for preliminary estimates.
When line resistance is neglected, the power that can be transmitted depends upon (a) the
magnitudes of voltages at the ends (Es, Er), (b) their phase difference G, and (c) the total positivesequence reactance X per phase, when the shunt caspacitive admittance is neglected.
Thus,
P = Es Er sin G/(L.x)
...(2.1)
where P = power in MW, 3-phase, Es, Er = voltages at the sending-end and receiving end,
respectively, in kV line-line, G= phase difference between Es and Er, x = positive-sequence
reactance per phase, ohm/km, and L = line length, km.
Table 2.1. Average Values of Line Parameters
System kV
Average Height, m
Phase Spacing, m
400
15
12
750
18
15
1000
21
18
1200
21
21
Conductor
Bundle Spacing, m
Bundle Dia., m
r, ohm/km*
2 32 mm
0.4572
0.031
4 30 mm
0.4572
0.0136
6 46 mm
1.2
0.0036
8 46 mm
1.2
0.0027
x, ohm/km (50 Hz)

x/r
0.327
10.55
0.272
20
0.231
64.2
0.231
85.6
*At 20C. Increase by 12.5% for 50C.

From consideration of stability, G is limited to about 30, and for a preliminary estimate
of P, we will take Es = Er = E.
2.3
POWER-HANDLING CAPACITY AND LINE LOSS
According to the above criteria, the power-handling capacity of a single circuit is

P = E2 sin G/Lx. At unity power factor, at the load P, the current flowing is
I = E sin G/ 3 Lx
...(2.2)
12
and the total power loss in the 3-phases will amount to

p = 3I2rL = E2. sin2 G.r/Lx 2
Therefore, the percentage power loss is
...(2.3)
%p = 100 p/P = 100. sin G.(r/x)
...(2.4)
Table 2.2. shows the percentage power loss and power-handling capacity of lines at various
voltage levels shown in Table 2.1, for G = 30 and without series-capacitor compensation.
Table 2.2. Percent Power Loss and Power-Handling Capacity
System kV
Percentage, Power Loss
Line Length, km
400
50
10.55
750
4.76
50
20
1000
2. 5
0 .5 E 2 / Lx,MW
50
64 .2
0.78
1200
50
85.6
400
670
2860
6000
8625
600
450
1900
4000
5750
800
335
1430
3000
4310
1000
270
1140
2400
3450
1200
225
950
2000
2875
0. 584
The following important and useful conclusions can be drawn for preliminary understanding
of trends relating to power-handling capacity of a.c. transmission lines and line losses.
(1) One 750-kV line can normally carry as much power as four 400-kV circuits for equal
distance of transmission.
(2) One 1200-kV circuit can carry the power of three 750-kV circuits and twelve 400-kV
circuits for the same transmission distance.
(3) Similar such relations can be found from the table.
(4) The power-handling capacity of line at a given voltage level decreases with line length,
being inversely proportional to line length L.
From equation (2.2) the same holds for current to be carried.
(5) From the above property, we observe that if the conductor size is based on current
rating, as line length increases, smaller sizes of conductor will be necessary. This
will increase the danger of high voltage effects caused by smaller diameter of conductor
giving rise to corona on the conductors and intensifying radio interference levels and
audible noise as well as corona loss.
(6) However, the percentage power loss in transmission remains independent of line
length since it depends on the ratio of conductor resistance to the positive-sequence
reactance per unit length, and the phase difference Gbetween Es and Er.
(7) From the values of % p given in Table 2.2, it is evident that it decreases as the system
voltage is increased. This is very strongly in favour of using higher voltages if energy
is to be conserved. With the enormous increase in world oil prices and the need for
13
conserving natural resources, this could sometimes become the governing criterion
for selection of voltage for transmission. The Bonneville Power Administration (B.P.A.)
in the U.S.A. has based the choice of 1150 kV for transmission over only 280 km
length of line since the power is enormous (10,000 MW over one circuit).
(8) In comparison to the % power loss at 400 kV, we observe that if the same power is
transmitted at 750 kV, the line loss is reduced to (2.5/4.76) = 0.525, at 1000 kV it is
0.78/4.76 = 0.165, and at 1200 kV it is reduced further to 0.124.
Some examples will serve to illustrate the benefits accrued by using very high transmission
voltages.
Example 2.3. A power of 12,000 MW is required to be transmitted over a distance of 1000
km. At voltage levels of 400 kV, 750 kV, 1000 kV, and 1200 kV, determine:
(1) Possible number of circuits required with equal magnitudes for sending and receivingend voltages with 30 phase difference;
(2) The currents transmitted; and
(3) The total line losses.
Assume the values of x given in Table 2.1. Omit series-capacitor compensation.
Solution. This is carried out in tabular form.
System, kv
400
750
1000
1200
x, ohm/km
0.327
0.272
0.231
0.231
268
1150
2400
3450
45
1011
34
17.31
9.232
6.924
5.77
P=
0.5 E 2/Lx,
MW
(a) No. of circuits

(=12000/P)
(b) Current, kA
(c)
% power loss, p
4.76
2.5
0.78
0.584
Total power loss, MW
571
300
93.6
70
The above situation might occur when the power potential of the Brahmaputra River in
North-East India will be harnessed and the power transmitted to West Bengal and Bihar. Note
that the total power loss incurred by using 1200 kV ac transmission is almost one-eighth that
for 400 kV. The width of land required is far less while using higher voltages, as will be detailed
later on.
Example 2.4. A power of 2000 MW is to be transmitted from a super thermal power
station in Central India over 800 km to Delhi. Use 400 kV and 750 kV alternatives. Suggest the
number of circuits required with 50% series capacitor compensation, and calculate the total
power loss and loss per km.
Solution. With 50% of line reactance compensated, the total reactance will be half of the
positive-sequence reactance of the 800-km line.
Therefore
P = 0.5 4002/400 0.327 = 670 MW/Circuit at 400 kV
and
P = 0.5 7502/400 0.272 = 2860 MW/Circuit at 750 kV
14

400 kV
750 kV
No. of circuits required
Current per circuit, kA
667/ 3 400 = 0.963
1.54
Resistance for 800 km, ohms
0.031 800 = 24.8
0.0136 800 = 10.88
Loss per circuit, MW
3 24.8
0.9632 =
69 MW
3 10.88 1.54 2
= 77.4 MW
2.4
Total power loss, MW
3 69 = 207
77.4
Loss/km, kW
86.25 kW/km
97 kW/km
EXAMPLES OF GIANT POWER POOLS AND NUMBER OF LINES
From the discussion of the previous section it becomes apparent that the choice of transmission
voltage depends upon (a) the total power transmitted, (b) the distance of transmission, (c) the %
power loss allowed, and (d) the number of circuits permissible from the point of view of land
acquisition for the line corridor. For example, a single circuit 1200 kV line requires a width of
56 m, 3 765 kV require 300 m, while 6 single-circuit 500 kV lines for transmitting the same
power require 220 m-of-right-of-way (R-O-W). An additional factor is the technological knowhow in the country. Two examples of similar situations with regard to available hydro-electric
power will be described in order to draw a parallel for deciding upon the transmission voltage
selection. The first is from Canada and the second from India. These ideas will then be extended
to thermal generation stations situated at mine mouths requiring long transmission lines for
evacuating the bulk power to load centres.
2.4.1 Canadian Experience

The power situation in the province of Quebec comes closest to the power situation in India, in
that nearly equal amounts of power will be developed eventually and transmitted over nearly
the same distances. Hence the Canadian experience might prove of some use in making decisions
in India also. The power to be developed from the La Grande River located in the James Bay
area of Northern Quebec is as follows : Total 11,340 MW split into 4 stations [LG1: 1140, LG
2 : 5300, LG3 : 2300, and LG4: 2600 MW]. The distance to load centres at Montreal and
Quebec cities is 1100 km. The Hydro-Quebec company has vast ecperience with their existing
735 kV system from the earlier hydroelectric development at Manicouagan-Outardes Rivers so
that the choice of transmission voltage fell between the existing 735 kV or a future 1200 kV.
However, on account of the vast experience accumulated at the 735 kV level, this voltage was
finally chosen. The number of circuits required from Table 2.2 can be seen to be 1011 for 735
kV and 34 for 1200 kV. The lines run practically in wilderness and land acquisition is not as
difficult a problem as in more thickly populated areas. Plans might however change as the
development proceeds. The 1200 kV level is new to the industry and equipment manufacture is
in the infant stages for this level. As an alternative, the company could have investigated the
possibility of using e.h.v. dc transmission. But the final decision was to use 735 kV, ac. In 1987,
a r 450 kV h.v. d.c. link has been decided for James Bay-New England Hydro line (U.S.A.) for
a power of 6000 MW.
15
2.4.2 Indian Requirement

The giant hydro-electric power pools are located in the northern border of the country on the
Himalayan Mountain valleys. These are in Kashmir, Upper Ganga on the Alakhananda and
Bhagirathi Rivers, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Brahmaputra River. Power surveys indicate the
following power generation and distances of transmission:
(1) 2500 MW, 250 km, (2) 3000 MW, 300 km, (3) 4000 MW, 400 km, (4) 5000 MW, 300 km,
(5) 12000 MW over distances of (a) 250 km, (b) 450 km, and (c) 1000-1200 km.
Using the power-handling capacities given in Table 2.2 we can construct a table showing
the possible number of circuits required at differenct voltage levels (Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Voltage Levels and Number of Circuits for Evacuating from
Hydro-Electric Power Pools in India
Power, MW
Distance, km
No. of Circuits/
Voltage Level
Voltage Level
(Ac only)
2500
250
3/400
3000
300
4/400
1/750
4000
400
6/400
2/750
(70%
loaded)
5000
300
6/400
2/750
(75%)
250
12/400
3/750
1/1200
12000
450
20/400
6/750
2/1200
1000
48/400
12/750
6/1000
4/1200
One can draw certain conclusions from the above table. For example, for powers up to
5000 MW, 400 kV transmission might be adequate. For 12000 MW, we observe that 750 kV
level for distances up to 450 km and 1200 kV for 1000 km might be used, although even for this
distance 750 kV might serve the purpose. It is the duty of a design engineer to work out such
alternatives in order that final decisions might be taken. For the sake of reliability, it is usual
to have at least 2 circuits.
While the previous discussion is limited to ac lines, the dc alternatives must also be
worked out based upon 2000 Amperes per pole. The usual voltages used are 400 kV (1600
MW/bipole), r 500 kV (2000 MW) and r 600 kV (2400 MW). These power-handling capacities
do not depend on distances of transmission. It is left as an exercise at the end of the chapter for
the reader to work out the dc alternatives for powers and distances given in Table 2.3.
2.5
COSTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES AND EQUIPMENT
It is universally accepted that cost of equipment all over the world is escalating every
year. Therefore, a designer must ascertain current prices from manufacturer of equipment
and line materials. These include conductors, hardware, towers, transformers, shunt reactors,
capacitors, synchronous condensers, land for switchyards and line corridor, and so on. Generating
station costs are not considered here, since we are only dealing with transmission in this book.
In this section, some idea of costs of important equipment is given (which may be current in
2005) for comparison purposes only. These are not to be used for decision-making purposes.
(1US$ = Rs.50; 1 Lakh = 100, 000; 1 Crore = 100 Lakhs = 10 Million = 107).
(a) High Voltage DC r400 kV Bipole
Back-to-back terminals :
Rs. 50 Lakhs/MVA for 150 MVA
16
Cost of 2 terminals :
Transmission line:
Switchyards :
(b) 400 kV AC
Rs. 40 Lakhs/MVA
Rs. 26.5 Lakhs/Circuit (cct) km
Rs. 3000 Lakhs/bay
Transformers : 400/220 kV Autotransformers

Rs. 3.7 Lakhs/MVA for 200 MVA 3-phase unit
to
Rs. 3 Lakhs/MVA for 500 MVA 3-phase unit
400 kV/13.8 kV Generator Transformers
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 250 MVA 3-phase unit
to
Rs. 1.5 Lakh/MVA for 550 MVA 3-phase unit.
(c) Shunt Reactors
Non-switchable
Rs. 2.6 Lakhs/MVA for 50 MVA unit to
Switchable
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 80 MVA unit

Rs. 9 to 6.5 Lakhs/MVA for 50 to 80 MVA units.
Shunt Capacitors
Rs. 1 Lakh/MVA
Synchronous Condensers (Including transformers) :

Rs. 13 Lakhs/MVA for 70 MVA to
Transmission Line Cost:
400 kV Single Circuit: Rs. 25 Lakhs/cct km
220 kV: S/C: Rs. 13 Lakhs/cct km; D/C: Rs. 22 Lakhs/cct km.
Example 2.5. A power of 900 MW is to be transmitted over a length of 875 km. Estimate
the cost difference when using r 400 kV dc line and 400 kV ac lines.
Solution. Power carried by a single circuit dc line = 1600 MW. Therefore,
1 Circuit is sufficient and it allows for future expansion.
Power carried by ac line = 0.5 E 2/xL = 0.5 4002/ (0.32 875) = 285 MW/cct.
3 circuits will be necessary to carry 900 MW.
?
DC Alternative: cost of
(a) Terminal Stations
Rs. 33.5 103 Lakhs
(b) Transmission Line
Rs. 23 103 Lakhs
(c) 2 Switchyard Bays
Rs. 5.8 103 Lakhs

Rs. 62.3 103 Lakhs = Rs. 623 Crores
Total
AC Alternative: Cost of
(a) 6 Switchyard Bays
Rs. 17.5 103 Lakhs
(b) Shunt reactors 500 MVA
Rs. 1 103 Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacitors 500 MVA
Rs. 0.5 103 Lakhs
(d) Line cost: (3 875 25 Lakhs)
Rs. 65 103 Lakhs
Total
Rs. 84 103 Lakhs = Rs. 840 Crores
17
Difference in cost = Rs. 217 Crores, dc being lower than ac.

(Certain items common to both dc and ac transmission have been omitted. Also, series
capacitor compensation has not been considered).
Example 2.6. Repeat the above problem if the transmission distance is 600 km.
Solution. The reader can calculate that the dc alternative costs about 55 x 103 Lakhs or
Rs. 550 Crores.
For the ac alternative, the power-handling capacity per circuit is increased to 285 875/600
= 420 MW. This requires 2 circuits for handling 900 MW.
The reactive powers will also be reduced to 120 MVA for each line in shunt reactors and
switched capacitors. The cost estimate will then include:
(a) 4 Switchyard Bays
Rs. 11 103 Lakhs
(b) Shunt reactors 240 MVA
Rs. 0.6 103 Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacitors
Rs. 0.27 103 Lakhs
(d) Line cost: 2 600 25 Lakhs
Rs. 30 103 Lakhs
Total
Rs. 41. 87 103 Lakhs = 418.7 Crores.
The dc alternative has become more expensive than the ac alternative by about Rs.130
Crores. In between line lengths of 600 km and 875 km for transmitting the same power, the
two alternatives will cost nearly equal. This is called the "Break Even Distance".
2.6
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LINE PERFORMANCE
2.6.1 Types of Vibrations and Oscillations

In this section a brief description will be given of the enormous importance which designers
place on the problems created by vibrations and oscillations of the very heavy conductor
arrangement required for e.h.v. transmission lines. As the number of sub-conductors used in a
bundle increases, these vibrations and countermeasures and spacings of sub-conductors will
also affect the electrical design, particularly the surface voltage gradient. The mechanical
designer will recommend the tower dimensions, phase spacings, conductor height, sub-conductor
spacings, etc. from which the electrical designer has to commence his calculations of resistance,
inductance, capacitance, electrostatic field, corona effects, and all other performance
characteristics. Thus, the two go hand in hand.
The sub-conductors in a bundle are separated by spacers of suitable type, which bring
their own problems such as fatigue to themselves and to the outer strands of the conductor
during vibrations. The design of spacers will not be described here but manufacturers' catalogues
should be consulted for a variety of spacers available. These spacers are provided at intervals
ranging from 60 to 75 metres between each span which is in the neighbourhood of 300 metres
for e.h.v. lines. Thus, there may be two end spans and two or three subspans in the middle. The
spacers prevent conductors from rubbing or colliding with each other in wind and ice storms, if
any. However, under less severe wind conditions the bundle spacer can damage itself or cause
damage to the conductor under certain critical vibration conditions. Electrically speaking, since
the charges on the sub-conductors are of the same polarity, there exists electrostatic repulsion
among them. On the other hand, since they carry currents in the same direction, there is
electromagnetic attraction. This force is especially severe during short-circuit currents so that
the spacer has a force exerted on it during normal or abnormal electrical operation.
18
Three types of vibration are recognized as being important for e.h.v. conductors, their
degree of severity depending on many factors, chief among which are: (a) conductor tension, (b)
span length, (c) conductor size, (d) type of conductor, (e) terrain of line, (f) direction of prevailing
winds, (g) type of supporting clamp of conductor-insulator assemblies from the tower, (h) tower
type, (i) height of tower, (j) type of spacers and dampers, and (k) the vegetation in the vicinity of
line. In general, the most severe vibration conditions are created by winds without turbulence
so that hills, buildings, and trees help in reducing the severity. The types of vibration are: (1)
Aeolian Vibration, (2) Galloping, and (3) Wake-Induced Oscillations. The first two are present
for both single-and multi-conductor bundles, while the wake-induced oscillation is confined to a
bundle only. Standard forms of bundle conductors have sub-conductors ranging from 2.54 to 5
cm diameters with bundle spacing of 40 to 50 cm between adjacent conductors. For e.h.v.
transmission, the number ranges from 2 to 8 sub-conductors for transmission voltages from
400 kV to 1200 kV, and up to 12 or even 18 for higher voltages which are not yet commercially
in operation. We will briefly describe the mechanism causing these types of vibrations and the
problems created by them.
2.6.2 Aeolian Vibration

When a conductor is under tension and a comparatively steady wind blows across it, small
vortices are formed on the leeward side called Karman Vortices (which were first observed on
aircraft wings). These vortices detach themselves and when they do alternately from the top
and bottom they cause a minute vertical force on the conductor. The frequency of the forces is
given by the accepted formula
F = 2.065 v/d, Hz
...(2.5)
where v = component of wind velocity normal to the conductor in km/ hour, and d = diameter
of conductor in centimetres. [The constant factor of equation (2.5) becomes 3.26 when v is in
mph and d in inches.]
The resulting oscillation or vibrational forces cause fatigue of conductor and supporting
structure and are known as aeolian vibrations. The frequency of detachment of the Karman
vortices might correspond to one of the natural mechanical frequencies of the span, which if
not damped properly, can build up and destroy individual strands of the conductor at points of
restraint such as at supports or at bundle spacers. They also give rise to wave effects in which
the vibration travels along the conductor suffering reflection at discontinuities at points of
different mechanical characteristics. Thus, there is associated with them a mechanical impedance.
Dampers are designed on this property and provide suitable points of negative reflection to
reduce the wave amplitudes. Aeolian vibrations are not observed at wind velocities in excess of
25 km/hour. They occur principally in terrains which do not disturb the wind so that turbulence
helps to reduce aeolian vibrations.
In a bundle of 2 conductors, the amplitude of vibration is less than for a single conductor
due to some cancellation effect through the bundle spacer. This occurs when the conductors
are not located in a vertical plane which is normally the case in practice. The conductors are
located in nearly a horizontal plane. But with more than 2 conductors in a bundle, conductors
are located in both planes. Dampers such as the Stockbridge type or other types help to damp
the vibrations in the subspans connected to them, namely the end sub-spans, but there are
usually two or three sub-spans in the middle of the span which are not protected by these
dampers provided only at the towers. Flexible spacers are generally provided which may or
19
may not be designed to offer damping. In cases where they are purposely designed to damp the
sub-span oscillations, they are known as spacer-dampers.
Since the aeolian vibration depends upon the power imparted by the wind to the conductor,
measurements under controlled conditions in the laboratory are carried out in wind tunnels.
The frequency of vibration is usually limited to 20 Hz and the amplitudes less than 2.5 cm.
2.6.3 Galloping
Galloping of a conductor is a very high amplitude, low-frequency type of conductor motion and
occurs mainly in areas of relatively flat terrain under freezing rain and icing of conductors. The
flat terrain provides winds that are uniform and of a low turbulence. When a conductor is iced,
it presents an unsymmetrical corss-section with the windward side having less ice accumulation
than the leeward side of the conductor. When the wind blows across such a surface, there is an
aerodynamic lift as well as a drag force due to the direct pressure of the wind. the two forces
give rise to torsional modes of oscillation and they combine to oscillate the conductor with very
large amplitudes sufficient to cause contact of two adjacent phases, which may be 10 to 15
metres apart in the rest position. Galloping is induced by winds ranging from 15 to 50 km/hour,
which may normally be higher than that required for aeolian vibrations but there could be an
overlap. The conductor oscillates at frequencies between 0.1 and 1 Hz. Galloping is controlled
by using "detuning pendulums" which take the form of weights applied at different locations on
the span.
Galloping may not be a problem in a hot country like India where temperatures are
normally above freezing in winter. But in hilly tracts in the North, the temperatures may dip
to below the freezing point. When the ice loosens from the conductor, it brings another oscillatory
motion called Whipping but is not present like galloping during only winds.
2.6.4 Wake-Induced Oscillation

The wake-induced oscillation is peculiar to a bundle conductor, and similar to aeolian vibration
and galloping occurring principally in flat terrain with winds of steady velocity and low turbulence.
The frequency of the oscillation does not exceed 3 Hz but may be of sufficient amplitude to cause
clashing of adjacent sub-conductors, which are separated by about 50 cm. Wind speeds for causing
wake-induced oscillation must be normally in the range 25 to 65 km/hour. As compared to this,
aeolian vibration occurs at wind speeds less than 25 km/hour, has frequencies less than 20 Hz
and amplitudes less than 2.5 cm. Galloping occurs at wind speeds between 15 and 50 km/hour,
has a low frequency of less than 1 Hz, but amplitudes exceeding 10 metres. Fatigue failure to
spacers is one of the chief causes for damage to insulators and conductors.
Wake-induced oscillation, also called "flutter instability", is caused when one conductor
on the windward side aerodynamically shields the leeward conductor. To cause this type of
oscillation, the leeward conductor must be positioned at rest towards the limits of the wake or
windshadow of the windward conductor. The oscillation occurs when the bundle tilts 5 to 15
with respect to a flat ground surface. Therefore, a gently sloping ground with this angle can
create conditions favourable to wake-induced oscillations. The conductor spacing to diameter
ratio in the bundle is also critical. If the spacing B is less than 15d, d being the conductor
diameter, a tendency to oscillate is created while for B/d > 15 the bundle is found to be more
stable. As mentioned earlier, the electrical design, such as calculating the surface voltage
gradient on the conductors, will depend upon these mechanical considerations.
20
2.6.5 Dampers and Spacers

When the wind energy imparted to the conductor achieves a balance with the energy dissipated
by the vibrating conductor, steady amplitudes for the oscillations occur. A damping device
helps to achieve this balance at smaller amplitudes of aeolian vibrations than an undamped
conductor. The damper controls the intensity of the wave-like properties of travel of the
oscillation and provides an equivalent heavy mass which absorbs the energy in the wave. A
sketch of a Stockbridge damper is shown in Fig. 2.2.
A simpler form of damper is called the Armour Rod, which is a set of wires twisted around
the line conductor at the insulator supporting conductor and hardware, and extending for
about 5 metres on either side. This is used for small conductors to provide a change in mechanical
impedance. But for heavier conductors, weights must be used, such as the Stockbridge, which
range from 5 kg for conductors of 2.5 cm diameter to 14 kg for 4.5 cm. Because of the steel
strands inside them ACSR conductors have better built-in property against oscillations than
ACAR conductors.
Damper Clamp
Conductor
Steel
Centre of
Massenger Gravity
Cable
Damper
Mass
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.2 (a) Stockbridge Damper; (b) Suspension Clamp (Courtesy: Electrical
Manufacturing Co., Calcutta).
Cushion Insert
Conductor
Cushion
Aluminium Alloy
Retaining Rods
Frame
Fig. 2.3 Spacer for two-conductor bundle (Courtesy: EMC, Calcutta).
21
There are a large number of types of spacers which keep the conductors apart. Most
modern spacers have some flexibility built into them to allow rotation of the conductor inside
them such as lining the clamps with high-strength plastic or rubber washers. Some spacers are
specially designed to act as dampers and may also take the form of heavy springs. The selection
of the spacers is also determined by the wind speed in the locality. Fig. 2.3 shows a spacer used
for a bundle conductor.

1. Of the following transmission voltages (given in kV) used in the world, which ones
are used in India at present: 66, 132, 169, 220, 275, 345, 400, 500525, 735765, 1000,
1150.
2. The geography and civilization of any country can best be understood by a knowledge
of location of its rivers. In modern days, power development also depends on the
rivers. On an atlas, locate the following rivers in the countries listed. Note: Due to
international disputes and wars between nations some of the rivers may not be in the
countries given, but only in the general geographic area in an atlas.
(a) Indian subcontinent (including Tibet, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma)Sind,
Jhelum, Ganga; Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Alakhnanda, Gandak, Gomti, Tsang-Po,
Dehang, Brahmaputra, Padma, Hoogly, Narmada, Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Kali, Sharavathi, Kaveri, Vaigai, Tamraparni, Irrawaddy, Salween.
(b) Canada and U.S.Fraser, Columbia, Slave, Mackenzie, Athabasca, The
Saskatchewans, Winnipeg, Nelson, Peace (Finlay and Parsnip), Red, St. Lawrence,
St. John, Churchill, Ottawa, La Grande, Colorado, Mississippi-Missouri, Ohio,
Rio Grande, Delaware, Hudson, Mohawk, Niagara.
(c) Europe, including the U.S.S.R. and SiberiaSevern, Clyde, Thames, Danube,
Rhone, Rhine, Elb, Po, Seine, Ob, Volga, Dneiper, Lena, Yenesei.
(d) Other parts of the worldYangtze, Yellow, Senju, Marude, Yalu, Nile, Zambezi,
Congo (Zaire), Amazon, Itaipu, Orinaco, Makong, La Plata, Sikiang, Volta.
3. Using equations (2.1) and (2.2), draw on a graph the variation of P and I as the distance
of transmission is varied from 200 to 800 km for (a) 400 kV line, and (b) 750 kV line.
U se average values forr and x given in Table 2.1. Take P = 0.5 E2/Lx. Repeat for G=
45.
4. In the U.S.A., for transmitting a power of 10,000 MW over 285 km, a voltage of 1150
kV was selected. In the U.S.S.R., for transmitting a power of 5000 MW over 800 km,
the same voltage level was selected. Give your comments on the reasons this level is
most suitable and what the possible reasons are for such a choice. Discuss through%
line loses by comparing with other suitable voltage classes that could have been
found suitable.
5. Using the figures for power to be transmitted and distance given in Table 2.3, work
out dc alternative for India to evacuate these powers to load centres.
6. Write brief descriptions of (a) aeolian vibration, and (b) wake-induced oscillations.
Describe the measures taken to minimize the damage due to them.
3
Calculation of Line and Ground Parameters
3.1
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS
Conductors used for e.h.v. transmission lines are always stranded. Most common conductors
use a steel core for reinforcement of the strength of aluminium, but recently high tensile
strength aluminium is being increasingly used, replacing the steel. The former is known as
ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) and the latter ACAR (Aluminium Conductor
Alloy Reinforced). A recent development is the AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy Conductor) which
consists of alloys of Al, Mg, Si. This has 10 to 15% less loss than ACSR. When a steel core is
used, because of its high permeability and inductance, power-frequency current flows only in
the aluminium strands. In ACAR and AAAC conductors, the cross-section is better utilized.
Fig. 3.1 shows an example of a stranded conductor.
Fig 3.1 Cross-section of typical ACSR conductor.
If ns = number of strands of aluminium, ds = diameter of each strand in metre and Ua =

specific resistance of Al, ohm-m, at temperature t, the resistance of the stranded conductor per
km is
2
2
R = Ua 1.05 103/( Sd s ns / 4 ) = 1337 Ua / d s ns , ohms
...(3.1)
The factor 1.05 accounts for the twist or lay whereby the strand length is increased by 5%.
Example 3.1. A Drake conductor of North-American manufacture has an outer diameter
of 1.108 inches having an Al cross-sectional area of 795,000 circular mils. The stranding is 26
Al/7 Fe. Its resistance is given as 0.0215 ohm/1000' at 20C under dc, and 0.1284 ohm/mile at
50C and 50/60 Hz. Calculate.
(a) diameter of each strand of Al and Fe in mils, inch, and metre units;
23
(b) check the values of resistances given above taking Ua = 2.7 10 8 ohm-metre at 20C
and temperature-resistance coefficient D = 4.46 103/C at 20C.
(c) find increase in resistance due to skin effect.
Note.
1 inch = 1000 mils; 1 in2 = ( 4 / S) 106 cir-mils;
6
10 cir-mils = ( S/ 4 ) 2.542 sq. cm. = 5.067 sq. cm.
Solution: Area of each strand of Al = 795,000/26 = 30,577 cm.
(a)
Diameter of each strand, d s =
30 ,577 = 175 mils = 0.175 inch
= 0.4444 cm = 0.00444 m
Referring to Fig. 3.1, there are 4 strands of Al along any diameter occupying 700 mils. The
3 diameters of Fe occupy 1108 700 = 408 mils since the overall dia. of the conductor is 1.108"
= 1108 mils.
Therefore, diameter of each steel strand = 408/3 = 136 mils = 0.136" = 0.3454 cm
(b) Because of the high permeability of steel, the steel strands do not carry current.
Then, for 1000 feet,
S
3 2
Ra = 2.7/108 (1000 1.05/3.28)/ u( 4. 444 u10 ) u26
4
= 0.02144 ohm.
This is close to 0.0215 ohm/1000'
At 50C, U50 =
1 4. 46 u10 3 u50
U20 = 1.123 U20

1 4 . 46 u10 3 u20
R50 = 1.123 0.0215 5.28 = 0.1275 ohm/mile.
?
(c) Increase in resistance due to skin effect at 50/60 Hz is
0.1284 0.1275 = 0.0009 ohm = 0.706%.
3.1.1 Effect of Resistance of Conductor

The effect of conductor resistance of e.h.v. lines is manifested in the following forms:
(1) Power loss in transmission caused by I 2R heating;
(2) Reduced current-carrying capacity of conductor in high ambient temperature regions.
This problem is particularly severe in Northern India where summer temperatures
in the plains reach 50C. The combination of intense solar irradiation of conductor
combined with the I2R heating raises the temperature of Aluminium beyond the
maximum allowable temperature which stands at 65C as per Indian Standards. At
an ambient of 48C, even the solar irradiation is sufficient to raise the temperature
to 65C for 400 kV line, so that no current can be carried. If there is improvement in
material and the maximum temperature raised to 75C, it is estimated that a current
of 600 amperes can be transmitted for the same ambient temperature of 48C.
(3) The conductor resistance affects the attenuation of travelling waves due to lightning
and switching operations, as well as radio-frequency energy generated by corona. In
these cases, the resistance is computed at the following range of frequencies:
Lightning100 to 200 kHz; Switching1000-5000 Hz; Radio frequency0.5 to 2 MHz.
We shall consider the high-frequency resistance later on.
24
3.1.2 Power Loss in Transmission

In Chapter 2, average resistance values were given in Table 2.1. For various amounts of power
transmitted at e.h.v. voltage levels, the I 2R heating loss in MW are shown in Table 3.1 below.
The power factor is taken as unity. In every case the phase angle difference G= 30 between Es
and Er.
Table 3.1. I2 R Loss in MW of E.H.V. Lines
System kV
Resistance, ohm/km
400
750
1000
1200
0.031
0.0136
0.0036
0.0027
I 2R Loss, MW
Power Transmitted
1,000 MW
48
25
7.8
5.84
2,000
96
50
15.6
11.68
5,000
240
125
39
29.2
10,000
480
250
78
58.4
20,000
960
500
156
116.8
We notice the vast reduction in MW loss occurring with increase in transmission voltage
for transmitting the same power. The above calculations are based on the following equations:
(1) Current:
I = P/ 3V
(2) Loss:
p=
(3) Total resistance:
R=
where
L=
and
r=
(4) Total above holds for G=
p=
where
x=
...(3.2)
3I2R = P 2R/V 2
L.r,
line length in km,
resistance per phase in ohm/km.
30. For any other power-angle the loss is
3I 2rL = E 2r sin2 G/(L.x 2)
positive-sequence reactance of line per phase.
...(3.3)
...(3.4)
...(3.5)
3.1.3 Skin Effect Resistance in Round Conductors

It was mentioned earlier that the resistance of overhead line conductors must be evaluated at
frequencies ranging from power frequency (50/60 Hz) to radio frequencies up to 2 MHz or more.
With increase in frequency, the current tends to flow nearer the surface resulting in a decrease
in area for current conduction. This gives rise to increase in effective resistance due to the
'Skin Effect'. The physical mechanism for this effect is based on the fact that the inner filaments
of the conductors link larger amounts of flux as the centre is approached which causes an
increase in reactance. The reactance is proportional to frequency so that the impedance to
current flow is larger in the inside, thus preventing flow of current easily. The result is a
crowding of current at the outer filaments of the conductor. The increase in resistance of a
stranded conductor is more difficult to calculate than that of a single round solid conductor
because of the close proximity of the strands which distort the magnetic field still further. It is
easier to determine the resistance of a stranded conductor by experiment at the manufacturer's
premises for all conductor sizes manufactured and at various frequencies.
25
1.5
1.0
1.4
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.1
0.8
1.0
0
mr = 0.0636
(a)
f R0
mr
(b)
Fig. 3.2 Variation with frequency parameter (mr) of (a) skin effect resistance ratio Rac (f)/Rdc
and (b) skin effect inductance L(f)/L0, with L0 = P
8S

the inductance with uniform current
distribution in round conductor.
In this section, a method of estimating the ratio Rac(f)/Rdc will be described. The rigorous
formulas involve the use of Bessel Functions and the resistance ratio has been tabulated or
given in the form of curves by the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, several decades
ago. Figure 3.2(a) shows some results where the ordinate is Rac/Rdc at any frequency f and the
abscissa is X = mr = 0.0636
f/R0 , where R 0 is the dc resistance of conductor in ohms/mile.
W hen using SI units, X = 1.59 103
f/Rm , where Rm = dc resistance in ohm/metre.
Example 3.2. A Moose conductor has a resistance of 62 milli-ohm/km. Using Fig. 3.2(a),
determine the highest frequency for which the graph is applicable for a round conductor.
Solution. Maximum value of X = 4 = 0.0636 f / R0 .
R0 = 62 103 1.609 = 0.1
Now,
Therefore
f = (X/0.0636)2 R0 | 400 Hz.
For other frequencies the functional relationship between Rac(f)/R dc is as follows:
Let
X8

"
2 2.42 22.42.6 2.82
Ber (X) = 1
X 10

"
22
2 2. 42. 6 2 2 2. 4 2. 6 2. 8 2. 10 2
B'er(X) = d Ber (X)/dX, B'ei(X) = d Bei (X)/dX
Bei (X) =
Then,
X2
X4
X6
Rac ( f )
X Ber ( X ). Bc
ei( X ) Bei ( X ).B c
er( X )

2
2
Rdc = 2
c
c
[ B er( X )] [ B ei( X )]
...(3.6)
...(3.7)
The Bessel Functions are tabulated and values from there must be used [see H.B. Dwight:
Mathematical Tables (Dover Publications) pages 194 onwards]. The following example will
illustrate the increase in resistance of a round copper conductor up to a frequency of 100 kHz.
26
Example 3.3. A round 7/0 copper conductor 0.5" (12.7 mm) in dia. has U= 1.7 10-8
ohm-m at 20C. Calculate the variation of R ac/Rdc as a function of frequency up to 10 5 Hz.
Solution. R 0 = 1.7 108 1609/
S 12.72 106/4) = 0.216 ohm/mile
0.0636/ R0 = 0.0137.
?
We will use a logarithmic increase for frequency;
100
300
600 1000
3000
6000
X = 0.0137 f
Rac/R dc
.137
.237
.335
1
1
1
1
0. 37
0. 4
.8
.8
.4326
1.0017
.749
1.06
1.0066
104
3 104 6 104
1.37
2.37
1.0182
1.148
105
3.35 4.326
1.35
1.8
u10 5 u10 4 u10 4 u10 3

1.0000037, 1.00004, 1.00008, 1.0008
[These values are taken from N.B.S. Tables and T. and D. Reference Book (Westinghouse)].
3.2
TEMPERATURE RISE OF CONDUCTORS AND CURRENT-CARRYING

CAPACITY
When a conductor is carrying current and its temperature has reached a steady value, heat
balance requires
External Heat Supplied
Internal Heat

2
by Solar Irradiatio n
Developed
by
I
R
Heat Lost by
Heat Lost by

Radiation
Convection
to
Air
...(3.8)
Wi = I 2R heating in watts/metre length of conductor

Ws = solar irradiation ,,
,,
,,
,,
Wc = convection loss
,,
,,
,,
,,
and
Wr = radiation loss
,,
,,
,,
,,
Then the heat balance equation becomes
Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr
...(3.9)
Each of these four terms depends upon several factors which must be written out in terms
of temperature, conductor dimensions, wind velocity, atmospheric pressure, current, resistance,
conductor surface condition, etc. It will then be possible to find a relation between the temperature
rise and current. The maximum allowable temperature of an Al conductor is 65C at present,
but will be increased to 75C . Many countries in the world have already specified the limit as
75C above which the metal loses its tensile strength. The four quantities given above are as
follows:
(1) I 2R heating. Wi = I 2R m watts/metre where, Rm = resistance of conductor per metre
length at the maximum temperature.
Let
27
1 Dt
R20 .
1 20 D
with D = temperature resistance coefficient in ohm/C and R20 = conductor resistance at
Rm =
20C.
(2) Solar irradiation.

Ws = sa.Is.dm watts/metre
where dm = diametre of conductor in metre, s a = solar absorption coefficient = 1 for black
body or well-weathered conductor and 0.6 for new conductor, and Is = solar irradiation intensity
in watts/m 2.
At New Delhi in a summer's day at noon, Is has a value of approximately 1000-1500 W/m 2.
[Note: 104 calories/sq. cm/day = 4860 watts/m 2]
(3) Convection loss.
wc = 5.73
p vm / dm . 't , watts/m2
where p = pressure of air in atmospheres, vm = wind velocity in metres/sec.,

and 't = temperature rise in C above ambient = t t a.
Since 1 metre length of conductor has an area of Sd m sq. m., the convection loss is
Wc = 18 . 't. p.vm .d m , watts/metre
(4) Radiation loss. This is given by Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Wr = 5.702 108 e( T 4 Ta4 ), watts/m 2
where e = relative emissivity of conductor-surface = 1 for black body and 0.5 for oxidized Al
or Cu, T = conductor temperature in K = 273 + t and Ta = ambient temperature in K = 273 + t a.
The radiation loss per metre length of conductor is
Wr = 17.9 108 e( T 4 Ta4 ) d m, watt/m.
Equation (3.9) for the heat balance then becomes
4
4
T Ta
I2Rm + saIsdm = 18 't p.vm .dm 17 . 9. e. d m

...(3.10)

100 100
Example 3.4. A 400-kV line in India uses a 2-conductor bundle with d m = 0.0318 m for
each conductor. The phase current is 1000 Amps (500 Amps per conductor). The area of each
conductor is 515.7 mm2, Ua = 2.7 108 ohm-m at 20C, D = 0.0045 ohm/C at 20. Take the
ambient temperature t a = 40C, atmospheric pressure p = 1, wind velocity vm = 1 m/s, e = 0.5
and neglect solar irradiation. Calculate the final temperature of conductor due only to I2R
heating.
Solution. Let the final temperature = tC.
Then,
Therefore,
1. 05
1 0 .0045 ut
1 0 .0045 u20 515 . 7 u10 6
4
= 0.5 10 (1 + 0.0045t), ohm/m
Wt = I 2Rm = 12.5 (1 + 0.0045t), watts/m
Rm = 2.7 108
Wc = 18 1 u0.0318.(t 40)
3 .21(t 40), watts/m
28

4
4
273 t 273 40
Wr = 17.9 0.5 0.0318

100 100
= 0.2845 {[(273 + t)/100]4 95.95}.

Using equation (3.9), the equation for t comes out as
12.5 (1 + 0.0045t) = 3.21t + 0.2845 108 (273 + t)4 155.7
or,
(273 + t)4 = (590 11.28t) 108.
A trial and error solution yields t |44C. (At this final temperature, we can calculate the
values of the three heats which are I2Rm = 14.38, Wc = 12.84, and Wr = 1.54, watts/m.).
Example. 3.5 In the previous example, calculate the final temperature (or temperature
rise) if the solar irradiation adds (a) 10 watts/m, and (b) 1160 W/m 2 giving a contribution of 37
watts/m to the conductor.
Solution. By going through similar procedure, the answers turn out to be
(a) t = 45.5C, 't = 5.5C;
(b) t = 54.1C, 't = 14.1C.
We observe that had the ambient temperature been 50C, the temperature rise would
reach nearly the maximum. This is left as an exercise at the end of the chapter.
3.3
PROPERTIES OF BUNDLED CONDUCTORS
Bundled conductors are exclusively used for e.h.v. transmission lines. Only one line in the
world, that of the Bonneville Power Administration in the U.S.A., has used a special expanded
ACSR conductor of 2.5 inch diameter for their 525 kV line. Fig. 3.3 shows examples of conductor
configurations used for each phase of ac lines or each pole of a dc line.
B
d = 2r
Single
Twin
3-Cond.
B
R
4-Cond.
6-Cond.
8-Cond.
Fig. 3.3 Conductor configurations used for bundles in e.h.v. lines.
As of now a maximum of 18 sub-conductors have been tried on experimental lines but for
commercial lines the largest number is 8 for 1150-1200 kV lines.
3.3.1 Bundle Spacing and Bundle Radius (or Diameter)

In almost all cases, the sub-conductors of a bundle are uniformly distributed on a circle of
radius R. There are proposals to space them non-uniformly to lower the audible noise generated
by the bundle conductor, but we will develop the relevant geometrical properties of an Nconductor bundle on the assumption of uniform spacing of the sub-conductors (Fig. 3.4). It is
also reported that the flashover voltage of a long airgap is increased when a non-uniform
spacing for sub-conductors is used for the phase conductor.
29
1
N
2

S
N
N 1
N
3

S
N
S
S
Fig. 3.4 Bundle spacing B, and bundle radius R.
The spacing between adjacent sub-conductors is termed 'Bundle Spacing' and denoted by
B. The radius of the pitch circle on which the sub-conductors are located will be called the
'Bundle Radius', denoted as R. The radius of each sub-conductor is r with diameter d. The angle
sub-tended at the centre by adjacent sub-conductors is (2S
/N) radians, and it is readily seen that
For
B
=
2
N=
N=
R/B =
R sin (S
/N) giving R = B/2 sin (S
/N)
...(3.11)
2 to 18, the following table gives (R/B) and (B/R).

2
3
4
6
8
12
18
0.5 0.578
0.7071
1
1.308
1.874
2.884
B/R = 2
0.7654
0.5344
0.3472
3.3.2 Geometric Mean Radius of Bundle (Equivalent Radius)

Except for calculating the surface voltage gradient from the charge of each sub-conductor, for
most other calculations the bundle of N-sub-conductors can be replaced by a single conductor
having an equivalent radius. This is called the 'Geometric Mean Radius' or simply the 'Equivalent
Radius.' It will be shown below that its value is
req = (N.r.RN1)1/N = r[N.(R/r)N1]1/N = R(N.r/R)1/N
...(3.12)
It is the Nth root of the product of the sub-conductor radius r', and the distance of this subconductor from all the other (N 1) companions in the bundle. Equation (3.12) is derived as follows:
Referring to Fig. 3.4, the product of (N 1) mutual distances is
S
2S
3 S
N 1
2 R sin
2 R sin
2 R sin
....
2 R sin
S
N
N
N
N
S
2 S N 1
N 1
sin
S
.
sin
sin
....
= ( 2R )
N
N
30

1/ N
S
2 S ...
N 1
r .(2 R )N 1 sin . sin

sin
S
req =
N
N
N
1/2
N = 2, req = (2rR)
For
1/ 3
For
S
2 S
2 2
2 .R .r. sin . sin
N = 3, req =
3
3
For
S
2S
3S
3 3
N = 4, req =
2 . R .r. sin . sin
. sin
4
4
4
...(3.13)
( 3rR 2 )1 / 3
1 /4
( 4rR 3 )1 / 4
1/ 6
For
N = 6, req
S
2 S...
5 S
5 5
2 .R .r. sin . sin
sin
=
6
6
6
(6 .r. R5 )1 / 6
This is equation (3.12) where the general formula is req = (N.r.RN1)1/N.

The reader should verify the result for N = 8, 12, 18.
Example 3.6 The configurations of some e.h.v. lines for 400 kV to 1200 kV are given.
Calculate r eq for each.
(a) 400 kV :
N = 2, d = 2r = 3.18 cm, B = 45 cm
(b) 750 kV :
N = 4, d = 3.46 cm, B = 45 cm
(c) 1000 kV :
N = 6, d = 4.6 cm, B = 12 d
(d) 1200 kV :
N = 8, d = 4.6 cm, R = 0.6 m
Solution. The problem will be solved in different ways.

(a) r eq =
1/2
r. B = (1.59 45) = 8.46 cm = 0.0846 m
(b) r eq = [4 u1.73 u(45 / 2 )3 ]1 / 4 = 21.73 cm = 0.2173 m

(c) r eq = [6 2.3 55.25]1/6 = 43.81 cm = 0.4381 m
Also, r eq = 55.2 (6 2.3/55.2)1/6 = 43.81 cm
(d) r eq = 60 (8 2.3/60)1/8 = 51.74 cm = 0.5174 m
We observe that as the number of sub-conductors increases, the equivalent radius of
bundle is approaching the bundle radius. The ratio req/R is (Nr/R)1/N. The concept of equivalent
bundle radius will be utilized for calculation of inductance, capacitance, charge, and several
other line parameters in the sections to follow.
3.4
INDUCTANCE OF E.H.V. LINE CONFIGURATIONS
Fig. 3.5 shows several examples of line configuration used in various parts of the world. They
range from single-circuit (S/C) 400 kV lines to proposed 1200 kV lines. Double-circuit (D/C)
lines are not very common, but will come into practice to save land for the line corridor. As
pointed out in chapter 2, one 750 kV circuit can transmit as much power as 4-400 kV circuits
and in those countries where technology for 400 kV level exists there is a tendency to favour
the four-circuit 400 kV line instead of using the higher voltage level. This will save on import of
equipment from other countries and utilize the know-how of one's own country. This is a
National Policy and will not be discussed further.
31
3
2
(a) S/C Horizontal
2'
3'
(e) S/C Delta
No.3 No.4
2
3
(d) D/C Double Triangle
No.1 No.2
3'
(c) D/C Conventional
1'
2'
3
(b) S/C L-Type
1'
2
3
2
3
(4) Four-Circuit Tower
Fig. 3.5 E.h.v. line configurations used.
3.4.1 Inductance of Two Conductors

We shall very quickly consider the method of handling the calculation of inductance of two
conductors each of external radius r and separated by a distance D which forms the basis for
the calculation of the matrix of inductance of multi-conductor configurations.
dye
dy
ye
y
Fig. 3.6 Round conductor with internal and external flux linkages.
32
Figure 3.6 shows a round conductor carrying a current I. We first investigate the flux
linkage experienced by it due, up to a distance x, to its own current, and then extend it to two
conductors. The conductor for the present is assumed round and solid, and the current is also
assum ed to be uniform ly distributed w ith a constant value for current densityJ = I/S
r2. There
are two components to the flux linkage: (1) flux internal to the conductor up to r; and (2) flux
external to the conductor from r up to x.
Inductance Due to Internal Flux
At a radius y inside the conductor, Ampere's circuital law gives
H.dl= current enclosed.
With a uniform current density J, the current enclosed up to radius y is Iy = y 2I/r2. This
gives,
I
.y
2 Sr 2
Now, the energy stored in a magnetic field per unit volume is
Hy .2S
y = Iy 2/r 2 or, H y =
1
P0Pr H 2y
2
...(3.14)
I 2P0 Pr
y 2 , Joules/m 3
...(3.15)
8 S2r 4
Consider an annular volume at y, thickness dy, and one metre length of conductor. Its
volume is (2S
y.dy.1) and the energy stored is
wy =
dW = 2Sy.wy .dy =
I 2 P0Pr
4Sr 4
y 3 .dy
Consequently, the total energy stored up to radius r in the conductor can be calculated.
1
2
But this is equal to L i I , where = Li = inductance of the conductor per metre due to the
2
internal flux linkage.
Therefore,
2
r
I P0Pr r 3
P0 Pr 2
1
y .dy
I
Li I 2 = dW
...(3.16)
4
0
0
16 S
2
4 Sr
Consequently,
Li = P0Pr/8S
, Henry/metre
...(3.17)
7
For a non-magnetic material, Pr = 1. With P0 = 4S 10 H/m, we obtain the interesting
result that irrespective of the size of the conductor, the inductance due to internal flux linkage is
Li = 0.05 PHenry/metre for Pr = 1
The effect of non-uniform current distribution at high frequencies is handled in a manner
similar to the resistance. Due to skin effect, the internal flux linkage decreases with frequency,
contrary to the behaviour of resistance. The equation for the inductive reactance is (W.D.
Stevenson, 2nd Ed.)
Xi( f ) = R0.(X/2).
Ber ( X ).B c
er( X ) Bei( X ). B c
ei( X )
[Bc
er( X )]2 [ B c
ei( X )]2
...(3.18)
33
where Xi(f) = reactance due to internal flux linkage at any frequency f, R 0 = dc resistance
of conductor per mile in ohms, and X = 0.0636
f / R0 . [If Rm = resistance per metre, then X =
1.59 103
f / Rm . ]
Figure 3.2 (b) shows the ratio L i/L0 plotted against X, where Li = Xi/2S
f and L0 = P0/8P
derived before.
Inductance Due to External Flux
Referring to Figure 3.6 and applying Ampere's circuital law around a circle of radius y e on
which the field strength H is same everywhere, the magnetic field strength is given as
He = I/2S
y e giving Be = P0Pr I/2S
ye
Since e.h.v. line conductors are always located in air, Pr = 1. In a differential distance dy e,
the magnetic flux is d I= Be.dy e per metre length of conductor. Consequently, the flux linkage
of conductor due to external flux up to a distance x is
\e =
The inductance is
B .dy
r
Le = <e/I =
P0 Pr
I . ln ( x / r )
2S
P0 Pr
ln ( x / r )
2S
...(3.19)
...(3.20)
P0 = 4S 107 H/m,
Le = 0.2 ln (x/r) PH/m.
For a round conductor with uniform current density, the combined inductance due to
internal and external flux linkage up to distance x from the centre of conductor is
L = 0.2[0.25 + ln (x/r)] = 0.2[in 1.284 + ln (x/r)]
= 0.2 ln (x/0.7788r), PH/m or mH/km
This expression can be interpreted as though the effective radius of conductor becomes re
= 0.7788 actual radius. We emphasize here that this applies only to a solid round conductor
with uniform current density distribution inside. It does not apply to stranded conductors nor
at alternating currents where the current density is not uniformly distributed. For stranded
conductors and at power frequency, conductor manufacturers provide data of the effective
radius to be used for inductance calculation. This is known as the 'Geometric Mean Radius' and
the reader should consult catalogues of conductor details. Its average value lies between 0.8
and 0.85 times the conductor radius.
In air, and with
The Two-Conductor Line

Figure 3.7 depicts two conductors each of radius r, separated by a centre-to-centre distance D,
and carrying currents I and I. We will derive expression for the flux linkage and inductance of
1 metre length of the 2-conductor system which will enable us to translate the result to the
case of a single conductor located at a height H = D/2 above a ground plane.
First consider a flux line Ie flowing external to both conductors. It is clear that this line
links zero current and so the magnetic field strength is zero. Therefore, all the flux must flow
in between the conductors from r to (D r). The flux linkage of conductor 1 shown on the left
has two parts:
(i) Due to its own current I, and (ii) due to the current I in conductor 2. Neglecting
34
internal flux linkage, the flux linkage due to its own current in the absence of current in
conductor 2 up to the distance (x) is
\11 =
P0 Pr
I
2S
d\
11
dx / x
r
P0 Pr
x
I ln
2S
r
...(3.21)
2r
I
D/2
D
I
e
G
Fig. 3.7 Flux linkage calculation of 2-conductor line.
Consider the effect of current in conductor 2. Fleming's rule shows that the flux is in the
same direction as that produced by current in conductor 1. The flux linkage of conductor 1 due
to current in conductor 2 is
P0 Pr
Dr
I ln
, x o f.
2S
x
Hence, the total flux linkage of conductor 1 due to both currents is
\12 =
d\
D r
12
\1 = \11 + \12 =
P0Pr
D r P0 Pr
I .ln
|
I . ln ( D / r )
S
r
S
...(3.22)
...(3.23)
(when D
r). The centre line G G between the two conductors is a flux line in the field
of two equal but opposite currents. The inductance of any one of the conductors due to flux
flowing up to the plane G G will be one half that obtained from equation (3.23). This is
P0Pr
ln ( D / r )
...(3.24)
2S
Using P0 = 4S 107, Pr = 1, and D = 2H, the inductance of a single overhead-line conductor
above a ground plane can be written as
L = 0.2 ln (2H/r), PHenry/metre (milli Henry/km)
(3.25)
To this can be added the internal flux linkage and the resulting inductance using the
geometric mean radius.
L=
Example 3.7. A 345-kV line has an ACSR Bluebird conductor 1.762 inches (0.04477 m) in
diameter with an equivalent radius for inductance calculation of 0.0179 m. The line height is 12
m. Calculate the inductance per km length of conductor and the error caused by neglecting the
internal flux linkage.
Solution: L = 0.2 ln (24/0.0179) = 1.44 mH/km.
If internal flux linkage is neglected,
L = 0.2 ln (24/0.02238) = 1.3955 mH/km
Error = (1.44 1.3955) 100/1.44 = 3.09%.
35
We also note that GMR/outer radius = 0.0179/0.02238 = 0.8. For a round solid conductor,
GMR = 0.7788 outer radius.
3.4.2 Inductance of Multi-Conductor LinesMaxwell's Coefficients

In the expression for the inductance L = 0.2 ln (2H/r) of a single conductor located above a
ground plane, the factor P = ln (2H/r) is called Maxwell's coefficient. When several conductors
are present above a ground at different heights each with its own current, the system of nconductors can be assumed to consist of the actual conductors in air and their images below
ground carrying equal currents but in the opposite direction which will preserve the ground
plane as a flux line. This is shown in Fig. 3.8.
2
1
I2
2
3
I1
H1
H2
I2
I3
H3
I1
I12
2H1
2H 2
Ground
I3
2H3
Ground
I1
I3
I2
Fig. 3.8 Multi-conductor line above ground with image conductors below ground.
The flux linkage of any conductor, say 1, consists of 3 parts in a 3-phase line, due its own
current and the contribution from other conductors. The self flux linkage is \11 = (P0/2S
) I1 ln
(2H/r). We may use the geometric mean radius instead of r to account for internal flux linkage
so that we write \11 = (P02S
) I1 ln (2H/Ds), where Ds = self-distance or GMR. For a bundleconductor, we will observe that an equivalent radius of the bundle, equation (3.12), has to be
used.
Now consider the current in conductor 2 only and the flux linkage of conductor 1 due to
this and the image of conductor 2 located below ground. For the present neglect the presence
of all other currents. Then, the flux lines will be concentric about conductor 2 and only those
lines beyond the aerial distance A12 from conductor 1 to conductor 2 will link conductor 1.
Similarly, considering only the currentI2 in the image of conductor 2, only those flux lines
flowing beyond the distance I12 will link the aerial conductor 1. Consequently, the total flux
linkage of phase conductor 1 due to current in phase 2 will be
f
P0Pr f
PP
I2
dx/x I 2
dx / x 0 r I 2 ln( I 12 / A12 )
...(3.26)
I 12
2S A12
2S
The mutual Maxwell's coefficient between conductors 1 and 2 will be
P12 = ln (I12/A12)
In general, it is evident that the mutual Maxwell's coefficient for the flux linkage of
conductor i with conductor j (and vice-versa) will be with i, j = 1, 2, ...n,
Pij = ln (Iij/Aij), i zj.
...(3.27)
\12 =
36
Thus, for a system of n conductors (phases or poles) shown in Fig. 3.8, the flux-linkage
matrix is
P0Pr
[ P ]nn [ I ]n [ L]nn[ I ]n
[\]n =
...(3.28)
2S
where
[\]n = [\1,\2,..., \n]t,
[In] = [I1,I2,..., In]t,
and the elements of Maxwell's coefficient matrix are
Pii = ln (2H/req) and Pji = Pij = ln (Iij/Aij), i zj
...(3.29)
The diagonal elements of the inductance matrix [L]nn represent the self-inductances, and
the off-diagonal elements the mutual-inductances.
3.4.3 Bundled Conductor Lines: Use of Equivalent Radius, req

In this section we will show that for a bundle conductor consisting
of N sub-conductors, the denominator in the self Maxwell's
coefficient is to be taken as req of equation (3.12). This is done
under the following basic assumptions:
(1) The bundle spacing B between adjacent sub-conductors
or the bundle radius R is very small compared to the
height H of the phase conductor above ground. This
allows the use of 2H as the distance between any subconductor of the bundle and the image of all the other
(N1) sub-conductors below ground, as shown in Fig.
3.9. This means that
I11 = I12 = I13 = ... = I1N = 2H
(2) The total current carried by the bundle is I and that
of each sub-conductor is i = I/N.
1
2
3
2H
Ground
3'
N'
2'
1'
(3) Internal flux linkages are omitted, but can be included

Fig. 3.9 Calculation of equivalent
if the problem warrants it.
Consider the flux linkage of conductor 1, which is
radius of bundle.
P0Pr I 2H
2H
2H
2H
ln
ln
ln
... ln
\1 =
S
2S
N 1
2S N r
2 R sin
2R sin
2 R sin
N
N
N
P0Pr I
(2 H ) N
ln
S
2S...
N 1
= 2S N
r ( 2R ) N 1 . sin . sin
sin
S
N
N
N
P0Pr
2H
I ln
...(3.30)
2S
req
is precisely what is given in equation (3.12). The self-inductance of the entire
=
where req
bundle is
L = \1/I =
P0Pr
ln(2 H / req )
2S
...(3.31)
37
while the inductance of each subconductor will be

P0 Pr
N ln(2 H / req )
...(3.32)
2S
which is also N times the bundle inductance since all the sub-conductors are in parallel.
The Maxwell's coefficient for the bundle is Pb = ln (2H/req), as for a single conductor with
equivalent radius req.
Lc = \1/i =
Example 3.7. The dimensions of a 3-phase 400-kV horizontal line, Fig. 3.10, are:
H = 15 m, S = 11 m phase separation, conductor 2 3.18 cm dia, and B = 45.72 cm. Calculate.
(a) the matrix of inductances per km, for untransposed configuration, and
(b) the same when there is complete transposition.
11 m
11 m
H = 15m
Fig. 3.10 400-kV line for Example 3.7
Solution.
req =
r. B
0. 0159 u0 .4572
0. 0853 m
P11 = P22 = P33 = ln (2 15/0.0853) = 5.863

P12 = P21 = P23 = P32 = ln ( 4H 2 S 2 /S )
2
P13 = P31 = ln ( 4H 4S /2S )
1.0664
0.525
5. 863 , 1 .0664 , 0. 525
H/m
1. 0664 , 5 .863 , 1 . 0664
= 0.2
mH/km
0. 525 , 1 .0664 , 5. 863
(a) [L]ut
1. 173, 0. 213, 0 .105
1. 173, 0 .213
mH/km
=
1
.
173
(b)For the completely transposed line, since each phase occupies each of the 3 positions
for 1/3 the distance, the average mutual inductance will be 0.2 (1.0664 + 1.0664 + 0.525)/3
= 0.177 mH/km.
Ls , Lm , Lm
1. 173 , 0. 177 , 0. 177
L
,
L
,
L
0 .177 , 1. 173 , 0. 177
mH/km
[L]t = m
s
m
Lm , Lm , Ls
0 .177 , 0. 177 , 1 . 173
Note that the self inductance of usual e.h.v. lines is in the neighbourhood of 1 mH/km. We
observed that as the number of sub-conductors is increased, the geometric mean radius or equivalent
38
radius of bundle increases. Since req divides 2H in the logarithm, bundling will reduce the series
inductance of a line, which will increase the power-handling capacity. Table 2.1 in Chapter 2
shows this property where, as the system kV increases, the need for using more sub-conductors
is urgent from considerations of current-carrying capacity as well as reducing the voltage gradient
on conductor surface. This also brings the benefit of decrease in series reactance and improvement
in power-handling capacity of a single circuit. Fig. 3.5 must again be referred for details.
3.5 LINE CAPACITANCE CALCULATION

Consider two conductors of equal radii r located with their centres 2H apart, as shown in
Fig. 3.11. The charges on each is Q coulombs/metre and of opposite polarity. On a unit positive
test charge located at point F at a distance x from the centre of the conductor on the left with
positive charge Q, the total force exerted will be
Ef =
Q 1
1

Newtons
2 Se0 x 2H x
...(3.33)
G
E'F
F'
E' F
2r
Q
x
2H
G
Fig. 3.11 Single-phase line for capacitance calculation.
(This results from Gauss's Law and the reader is referred to Chapter 4 if it is not already
known from previous courses devoted to Electrostatics.). Consequently, the potential difference
between the two conductors is
Q
V = 2 Se
0
2H r
[1 / x 1 /(2H x )] dx
Q
2H r
ln
Se0
r
...(3.34)
Q
r as is usual in e.h.v. lines, V = Se ln (2H/r); By symmetry, the mid-plane GG
0
will be at 0.5 V and the p.d. between the positive conductor and GG is Vg = V/2.
Therefore
If 2H
Vg =
Q
2H
ln
2 Se0
r
Q
Dist. of cond. from negative charge
ln
2Se 0
Dist. of cond. from positive charge
...(3.35)
39
Since the factor ln (2H/r) multiplies the charge coefficient (Q/2S

e0), which is in volts, it is
called Mawell's Potential coefficient. We encountered the same factor in inductance calculation
also. The mid-plane GG is an equipotential surface since the electric force is everywhere
perpendicular to it as can be observed from the vector field intensity EF' at a point F', whose
components along G G are equal and opposite.
We again observe that when the ground plane G G is considered an equipotential surface
for capacitance calculations, its effect can be considered by using an image conductor with a
charge equal to the charge on the aerial conductor but of opposite polarity. From equation
(3.35), we write the self potential coefficient as
Pii = ln (2H/r)
...(3.36)
The mutual potential coefficients between phases are determined by placing the conductors
and their images with proper charges as shown in Fig 3.12. Following equation (3.35) the
potential of conductor 1 due to the charges Q2 and Q2 of conductor 2 and its image will be
V12 =
Q2
Distance from Q2
ln
2 Se 0
Distance from Q 2
Q2
ln ( I 12 / A12 )
2 Se 0
Q2
. P12 ...(3.37)
2 Se 0
For a system of n conductors (phases or poles) above ground, the potential of conductors
will be
V1
Q1
2H1
Q
I
Qn
I
ln
2 ln 12 ....
ln 1n
2Se0
r
2Se0
A12
2 Se0
A1n
Vn
Q1
I
Q
I
Qn
2H n
ln 1 n 2 ln 2n ....
ln
2 Se0
A1n 2Se0
A2 n
2 Se0
r
In matrix form,
[V]n = [P]nn[Q/2S
e0]n
...(3.38)
2
A12
A23
A13
2H1
I12
2H2
2H3
I23
I13
3'
1'
2'
Fig. 3.12 Multi-conductor line for calculation of Maxwell's potential coefficients.
40
where [V]n = [V1, V2, ..., Vn]t = the potentials with respect to ground, and [Q]n = [Q1, Q2, ...,
Qn]t = the conductor charges. The elements of the potential coefficient matrix are
Pii = ln (2Hi/r), P ij = ln (Iij/Aij), i z j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
...(3.39)
The capacitance matrix of the n-conductor system
1
[C ]nn = 2 Se0[ P ]nn
...(3.40)
2 Se0[ M ]
We derived the inductance matrix for the n-conductor system to be, equation (3.28)
P0
[ P ]nn
2S
If internal flux linkages be neglected there results the important relation
[L]nn =
[U ]
g2
where [U] = unit matrix, and g = velocity of light = 3 105 km/sec.*
[L][C ] = P0e 0[U] =
...(3.41)
...(3.42)
Potential Coefficients for Bundled-Conductor Lines

When each phase or pole comprises of N sub-conductors we once again arrive at the concept of
geometric mean radius or equivalent radius of bundle req exactly in the same manner as for
inductance calculations. In the self potential coefficient, equation (3.39), req will be used instead
of r. This is derived as follows, on the assumptions that
(1) the bundle dimensions B and R are small compared to line height H, and
(2) B and R are small compared to the spacing S from the centre of one phase to another.
Fig. 3.9 is again referred from which, with each conductor having a charge q = Q/N per
unit length, the potential of conductor 1 is
Q 1 2H
2H
2H
2H
ln
ln
ln
" ln
V1 = 2 Se0 N r
S
2
S
N
2 R sin
2 R sin
2 R sin
S
N
N
N
Q
= 2 Se ln (2H/req)
0
Thus,
Pii = ln (2H/req).
(3.43)
For calculating the mutual potential coefficients we can assume that the total bundle
charge is concentrated at the centre of the bundle conductor, or else use the two assumptions
above that the bundle dimensions are small compared to H and S.
Example 3.8. Calculate the capacitance matrix of the 3-phase 400 kV line of Example 3.7.
Solution. (a) For the untransposed configuration, the matrix of Maxwell's potential
coefficients was found to be
5. 863 , 1 . 0664 , 0. 525
1. 0664 , 5 . 863 , 1. 0664

[P]ut =
0 .525 , 1 . 0664 , 5. 863
*In this book, the symbolg denotes light velocity or velocity of e.m. wave in free space, instead of the
standard symbol c. This is because c is reserved for denoting capacitance per unit length.
41
Its inverse is
[M]ut =
1
[ P ]ut
0. 176 ,
0 .0298 , 0. 0104
0. 0298 , 0. 1805 , 0. 0298

=
0. 0104 , 0 .0298 ,
0. 176
The resulting capacitance matrix will be

[C ] = 2S
e0[M] =
10 9
[ M ], Farad/metr e
18
9 .77 , 1 . 65, 0. 58
1 . 65, 10 . 02, 1 . 65
nF/km
[C ]ut =
0
.
58
,
1
.
65
,
9
.
77
(b) For the completely transposed line,

cs , cm, cm
with cs 9. 85 nF/km and

cm , cs , cm
,
[C ] =
cm 1 . 29 nF/km
cm , cm, cs
We observe that the self capacitance of e.h.v. lines is in the neighbourhood of 10 nF/km.
All the self-capacitance coefficients are positive while the mutual capacitance coefficients are
negative. For the horizontal configuration of phases, the centre-phase has a slightly higher
self-capacitance (capacitance to ground) due to the increase in number of dielectric lines of
force terminating on it. The negative sign in mutual-capacitance follows from the physical
consideration that a charge of one polarity placed on a conductor induces a charge of opposite
polarity on another, i.e., the two conductors form the positive and negative electrodes of a
capacitor.
Bundling increases the capacitance from that of a single conductor having the same crosssectional area because of the equivalent bundle radius which depends on the bundle radius
which is larger than the conductor radius. We will consider these aspects under voltage-gradient
calculations in a later section.
3.6
SEQUENCE INDUCTANCES AND CAPACITANCES
The use of Symmetrical Components for analysing 3-phase problems has made it possible to
solve very extensive network problems. It depends upon obtaining mutually-independent
quantities from the original phase quantities that have mutual interaction. Following this
concept, we will now resolve the inductances, capacitances, charges, potentials etc., into
independent quantities by a general method. This procedure will be used for many types of
excitations other than power-frequency later on. The basis for such transformations is to impress
suitable driving functions and obtain the resulting responses.
Inductance Transformation to Sequence Quantities

We observed that for a fully-transposed 3-phase ac line, the flux-linkage equation is
[\]3 = [L]33 [I]3
...(3.44)
42
The inductance matrix is symmetric for a transposed line for which the symmetricalcomponents theory will be used. For zero-sequence, the currents in the 3 phases are equal and
in phase so that I1 = I2 = I3 = I0. The resulting flux linkage is.
Ls , Lm , Lm 1
1

Lm , Ls , Lm 1
I 0 1
( Ls 2Lm ) I 0
[\0] =

Lm , Lm , Ls 1
1
Consequently, the inductance offered to zero-sequence currents is
L0 = Ls + 2Lm
When positive-sequence currents are impressed,
I1 = Im sin wt, I2 = Im sin (wt 120) and I3 = Im sin (wt + 120)
...(3.45)
sin wt
Ls , Lm , Lm
L , Ls , Lm
sin (wt 120 q
)
Im
[\1] = m
sin (wt 120 q

)
Lm , Lm , Ls
sin wt
sin(
wt

120
q
)
( L s Lm )I m
sin( wt 120 q
)
Hence, the inductance offered to positive-sequence currents is

L1 = Ls Lm
Similarly, for negative-sequence currents, the inductance is also
L2 = Ls L m
...(3.46)
...(3.47)
Sequence Capacitances
In a similar manner, we can evaluate the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence capacitances
by re-writing equation (3.38) as
[Q] = 2S
e0[P]1[V] = [C][V]
...(3.48)
For zero-sequene voltages, [V0] = [1, 1, 1] V, and we obtain
C0 = Cs + 2Cm
...(3.49)
For positive-sequence voltages, [V+] = [sin wt, sin (wt 120), sin (wt + 120)] V, and C1 =
Cs Cm. Similarly, C2 = Cs Cm for negative-sequence voltages.
From the above resolution of phase inductances into sequence inductances, and the
capacitances, we can observe the following properties which are very important for modelling
of transmission lines.
(1) The zero-sequence inductance L0 is higher than the self inductance Ls, while the positive
and negative sequence inductances are lower than Ls.
(2) The converse holds for capacitances since Cm is a negative quantity.
C0 < Cs and, C1 and C2 > Cs.
(3) From equations (3.45) and (3.46), the self and mutual inductances can be found from
the sequence inductances.
Ls =
1
( L 0 2 L1 ) and Lm
3
1
( L0 L1 )
3
...(3.50)
43
1
1
(C 0 2C1 ) and C m
(C 0 C1 )
...(3.51)
3
3
Fig. 3.13 shows representative models of transmission lines used for system study on
Network Analysers or Digital Computers. It is easy to impress zero-sequence and positivesequence voltages and currents and measure the responses in a practical test setup.
(4) Similarly,
Cs =
Cm
r
L s L m
Cs
Ground
Fig. 3.13 Model of transmission lines for TNA study and Digital-Computer Calculation.
The sequence inductances and capacitances can be obtained from the phase quantities in
a very general manner by matrix diagonalization procedure which will be described in the next
section. Referring to the symmetrical component theory, the phase quantities are transformed
to symmetrical components by the matrix multiplication
V0
V1
V2
1 1
1 V a
1
2
...(3.52)
= 3 1 a a Vb
2
a V c
1 a
where a = 1
120.
The converse of combining the symmetrical components is carried out through the matrices
V a
Vb
V c
1 1
1
2
a
1 a
2
1 a a
V0
V1
V2
...(3.53)
These follow the original relations formulated by Dr. C.L. Fortescue as far back as 1915.
We now denote
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
2
1
2
1 a
a and [T ]
1 a a
[T ] =
...(3.54)
3
2
2
a
1 a a
1 a
If now we carry out the multiplications [T ]1 [L] [T ] and [T ]1 [C] [T ] for a completely
transposed line, the result is (multiply and verify)
1 1
1
1 a
[T ]1 [L] [T ] = 3
2
1 a
1 Ls , Lm , L m
a 2 Lm , Ls , L m
a Lm , Lm , L s
1 1
2
1 a
1 a
a2
44
Ls 2Lm ,
Ls Lm ,
=
...(3.55)
Ls Lm
The diagonal elements are the inductances for zero-sequence, positive-sequence and
negative-sequence networks.
Similarly,
C s 2C m,
C
,
s
m
[T ]1 [C ] [T ] =
...(3.56)
C
s
m
Such a general procedure is very convenient for de-coupling mutually-interacting quantities

and then combining them suitably. For a general problem encountered with e.h.v. transmission
lines, they are given the generic name 'Modes of Propagation'.
3.7
LINE PARAMETERS FOR MODES OF PROPAGATION
The sequence parameters given in the previous section apply to steady-state conditions and
use phasor algebra. The quantity a = 1 120 = 0.5 + j0.866 is a complex number. This is not
always convenient when solving equations encountered with wave propagation on the phase or
pole conductors which are characterized by (a) velocity of propagation, (b) attenuation, and
(c) surge impedance. Following the ideas propounded by Dr. Fortescue, the waves on multiconductor lines can also be resolved into 'modes of propagation'. The transformation matrix
[ T ] and its inverse [ T ]1 have to be evaluated for a given problem through standard set of rules
which eventually diagonalize the given matrix of inductances, capacitances, resistances, surge
impedances, and other parameters which govern the propagation characteristics. For a fullytransposed line, analytical expressions in closed form can be obtained for the transformation
matrix and its inverse using real numbers. But for untransposed lines the evaluation of [ T] and
[ T ]1 can also be carried case by case when numerical values for the inductances, etc. are
given. These will be discussed in detail below.
3.7.1 Diagonalization Procedure

The resolution of mutually-interacting components of voltage, current, charge, or energy in
waves propagating on the multi-conductors depends upon diagonalization of the n n impedance
matrix. A general procedure is given here while their application to Radio Noise, Switching
Surges, etc, will be discussed in later chapters when we consider these problems individually.
First consider the diagonalization of the inductance matrix of a transposed line
Ls , Lm , Lm
[L] = Lm , Ls , Lm
Lm , Lm , Ls
The following steps have to be followed for diagonalization.

Step 1. We evaluate the 'characteristic roots' or 'eigenvalues' (O
) of the given matrix
according to the determinantal equation
|O
[ U ] [L]| = 0, which gives
45
O Ls ,
Lm ,
Lm
Lm ,
O Ls ,
Lm
Lm ,
Lm ,
O L s
3 3L O
2 + 3( L2 L2 )O ( L3 3L L 2 2L3 )
This gives O
s
s
m
s
s m
m
...(3.57)
or,
(O Ls 2Lm) (O L s + Lm)2 = 0
...(3.58)
The three eigenvalues are
O
...(3.59)
1 = L s + 2L m, O
2 = L s L m, O
3 = Ls Lm
Step 2. For each of these eigenvalues in turn, we evaluate the 'eigenvector' [x], which is a
column matrix, according to the equation.
{[ U ] O
...(3.60)
n [L]} [x] = [0]
Considering O
=
L
+
2L
,
there
results
the
explicit
equation
1
s
m
2, 1, 1
= L 1,
2, 1
m
1, 1,
which in turn yields the three equations
x1
{O
x2
1[ U ] [L]}
x3
x1
x2
x3
for x 1, x 2, x 3 to be
2x1 x 2 x3
0
...(3.61)
x1 x 2 2 x3 0
By choosing x 1 = 1, there results x 2 = x 3 = x 1 = 1. These corresponding eigenvector is [1, 1,

1]t with the normalized form [1, 1, 1]t (1/3).
By following a similar procedure for O
2 = L s L m, there results
x1 2x 2 x3
y1
{O
2[U] [L]} y2
y3
= L
m
1, 1, 1 y1 0

.
1, 1, 1 y2 0
1, 1, 1
y3

0
The three equations for y 1, y 2, y 3 are all equal to y 1 + y 2 + y 3 = 0. Once again letting y 1 =
1, we have y 2 + y 3 = 1. Now we have an infinite number of choices for the values of y 2 and y 3,
and we make a judicial choice for them based on practical engineering considerations and
utility.
As a first choice, let y 2 = 0. Then y 3 = 1. The resulting eigen-vector and its normalized
form are
1
0
1
1
1
and 2 0
Since the third eigenvalue O

is
also
the
same
as
O
,
we
obtain the same equations for the
3
2
components of the eigenvector which we can designate as[z1, z2, z3]t. By choosing z1 = 1 and z3
= 1, we obtain z2 = 2. The third eigenvector and its normalized form are
[1, 2, 1]t and (1/6) [1, 2, 1]t.
46
Step 3. Formulate the complete 3 3 eigenvector matrix or in general, n n for the n

eigenvalues and call it the inverse of the transformation matrix [T]1. For the problem under
consideration.
2, 2,
2
3,
0, 3 1 / 6
[T ]1 =
1, 2,
Step 4. The transformation matrix [T] will be

2,
3,
1
2,
0, 2 1 / 6
[T ] =
1
2, 3,
...(3.63)
which turns out to be the transpose of [T ]1.Their determinant is 6.

Step 5. The given inductance matrix is diagonalized by the relation
Ls 2Lm ,
L
,
s
m
[ O]
[T ]1 [L] [T ] =
...(3.64)
L
s
m
This is a diagonal matrix whose elements are equal to the three eigenvalues, which might
be seen to be the same as the sequence inductances presented to the voltage and current. But
now they will be called the inductances for the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic
energy of the waves generating them.
3.7.2 Interpretation of the Eigenvectors

We observe that the eigenvector corresponding to the first eigenvalue O
1 = L s + 2L m consists of
[1, 1, 1], which can be interpreted as follows:
In the first mode of behaviour (or travel of all quantities on the three conductors), the
voltages, currents, charges, and accompanying energies are all equal on the three conductors.
Also, they are all of the same sign or polarity. In this mode of propagation, the return current
flows in the ground and the resulting attenuation of energy etc., are high because of ground
resistance. It is usually called the 'Line-to-Ground' mode of propagation or the 'homopolar'
mode.
The eigenvector [1, 0, 1] corresponds to the second eigenvalue O
2 = L s L m. In this case
the propagation can be seen to take place between the outer phase-conductors only, with the
centre phase being idle. Also, because this is a closed system, involving the two outer phases,
ground is not involved in propagation so that attenuation is lower than in the line-to-ground
mode. The second mode is called 'Line-to-Line Mode of the 1st kind', or simply 'phase-phase'
mode.
The last eigenvector is [1, 2, 1] corresponding to the repeated eigenvalue O
3 = O
2 = Ls
Lm. We observe that these eigenvectors have depended upon the choice made by us for the
relative values of the components of the eigenvector in step 2 of the diagonalization procedure.
There are infinite set of such values for the eigenvector components, and the choice
recommended here is felt to be the most convenient from the point of view of interpretation of
47
the physical mechanism of behaviour of the several quantities of interest in the wave-propagation
phenomenon involving the three phase-conductors and ground. The eigenvector [1, 2, 1] can
be interpreted by noting that the outer phases form the 'go' for the current and the centrephase the 'return'. Once again the system is closed if we assume charges of + 1 and + 1 on the
outers and 2 on the centre phase. Therefore, ground is not involved in the propagation in this
mode. It is called the 'Line-to-Line Mode of the 2nd kind', or the 'inter-phase mode'.
Mode 1
+1
+1
Mode 2
+1
+1
Mode 3
+1
+1
Fig. 3.14 Pictorial representation of conditions of modes of propagation on 3-phase line.
These three modes can be represented pictorially as shown in Figure 3.14. Once the
mutually-interacting quantities are resolved into the three independent modes of propagation,
in a manner identical to symmetrical-component analysis of which we are familiar, the behaviour
of all quantities in each mode can be analyzed and the phase quantities obtained finally by the
inverse procedure. In general, resolution into modes requires premultiplication by [T]1 of the
voltages, currents, and charges on the phase conductors, while combining the modal quantities
to obtain phase quantities requires pre-multiplication of the modal voltages, currents, charges
and other responses to these by [T], the transformation matrix.
The concept of modes of propagation is very useful for:
(a) design of carrier equipment for speech and protection where the attenuation of signals
and their distortion is of primary concern in determining the transmitter and receiver
powers;
(b) propagation of switching and lightning surges on the lines which cause over-voltages
and control the design of insulation clearances; and
(c) radio-interference levels generated by corona pulses on the phase-coductors which
propagate on the conductors over a ground plane.
In the above illustration, the diagonalization procedure was applied to the matrix of
inductances of a transposed line. A similar diagonalization of the capacitance matrix for the
fully-transposed line will yield the same transformation matrices. In this case, the resulting
eigen-values for both inductance and capacitance are equal to the zero-, positive-, and negativesequence quantities obtained from Fortescue's transformation using phasors in the
transformation matrix. Here, we have used only real numbers to effect the diagonalization
procedure. The resulting [T] and [T]1 are called 'Modified Clarke Transformation' matrices
after the eminent lady engineer Dr. Edith Clarke, who is also known for her D EJ or
DE0 components of Machines Theory.
3.7.3 Velocities of Propagation for the Modes in Transposed Lines

When working with phase quantities, eq. (3.42) gave [L] [C] =
[U] where g = velocity of e.m.

g2
wave propagation, which is equal to velocity of light in a medium with Pr = 1 and er = 1. [g = 1/
48
P0 e0 ]. Now, consider the effect of pre-multiplying equation (3.42) by [ T ]1 and post-multiplying

by [T]:
[ T ]1 [L] [ C ] [ T ] = {[ T ]1 [L] [ T ]} {[T]1 [ C ] [ T ]}
= [ T ]1 [ U ] [ T ]
1
g
1
g2
[U ]
Ls 2 Lm ,
L s Lm ,
L s Lm
= 2 1
g
1
i.e.,
This gives ( L s 2L m )( C s 2C m )
L0C 0
and
L1C 1
( Ls Lm )( C s C m )
...(3.65)
C s 2C m ,
C s Cm ,
Cs C m
1/ g 2
2
1/ g
...(3.66)
This shows that the velocities of propagation of waves in all three modes are equal to the
velocity of light. This is the case when ground-return inductance is not taken into account.
Usually, in the first or line-to-ground mode (homopolar mode) inductance of ground return
reduces the velocity of propagation of that modal component to about 2 ~ 2.5 105 km/s (nearly
70-85% of g) as will be discussed after we evaluate the ground-return inductance in Section 3.8.
3.7.4 Untransposed Line: Modes of Propagation

The eigenvalues and eigenvectors resulting in transformation matrix and its inverse for an
untransposed line must be worked out on a case-by-case basis using the numerical values of
the inductance and capacitance. No general expressions can be given although the general
programme for the diagonalization is the same as outlined before. Thus, a digital computer can
handle any type of matrix diagonalization. We will illustrate the procedure through an example.
Example 3.9. The inductance and capacitance matrices for the 400-kV horizontal line
were worked out in Examples 3.7 and 3.8. Diagonalize the capacitance matrix of the untransposed
line.
Solution.
[C]ut
9. 77 , 1 .65 , 0 . 58
= 1. 65 , 10 . 02, 1. 65 nF/km
9. 77
0. 58 , 1 .65 ,
O 9 .77 ,
Step 1.
|O[U] [C]| =
1. 65 ,
0. 58
1 .65 , O 10 .02 ,
1 .65
0. 58 ,
1. 65 , O 9 .77
3 29.65 O
2 + 285.46 O 896.67 = 0
=O
The eigenvalues are O
1 = 11.9755, O
2 = 10.35, O
3 = 7.2345. Note that the characteristic
roots are now distinct.
Step. 2.
49
2. 2055 , 1 .65 ,
0 . 58
{O
1 .9555 , 1. 65
1 [U] [C]} [x] = 1. 65 ,
0
.
58
,
1 .65 ,
2 . 2055
x1
x 2
x 3
Therefore, taking x 1 = 1, there result x 2 + 0.3515 x 3 = 1.3367

and
x 2 + 0.8438 x 3 = 0.8438
Thus we obtain the components of the first eigenvector to be x 1 = 1, x 2 = 1.6887, and x 3
= 1.00127 | 1. Length of vector = 2.2032. The normalized form is [0.454, 0.7665, 0.454].
Similarly, for O
2 = 10.35, there results the normalized eigenvector [0.7071, 0, 0.7071], and for
O
=
7.2345
,
[0.542,
0.6422, 0.542].
3
0 .454 , 0. 7655 ,
0 .454
[T] 1 =
0. 7071 ,
0,
0 .7071
0 . 6422 ,
0 .542
0 . 542 ,
Step 3.
0. 454 ,
0. 7071 , 0. 542
0
.
7655
,
0,
0. 6422 [T ]t1
[T] =
0. 7071 , 0. 542
0. 454 ,
and
Step 4.
[T]1
11 . 954
[C] [T] =
10 . 36
nF/km,
which is nearly the matrix of eigenvalues.

7. 234
Figure 3.15 shows the distribution of currents in the three modes. We note that in only
one mode ground is not involved in the propagation.
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
0.454 0.7655 0.454 0.7071 0 0.7071 0.542 0.6422 0.542
Ground 0.1425
Return
1.7262
Fig. 3.15. Distribution of currents in the three modes of propagation of Example 3.9.
Diagonalization of [L]ut
We will show that the same transformation matrices obtained for diagonalizing the capacitance
matrix of the untransposed configuration will also diagonalize the inductance matrix when
[L] [C] =
1
g2
[U ], i.e. when [L] and [C] are calculated on the basis of light-velocity theory.
50
We observe that
{[ T ]1 [L] [ T ]} {[ T ]1 [ C ] [ T ]} =
so that [ T ]1 [L] [ T ] =
1
g2
1
g
1
1
2 {[ T ] [ C ] [ T ]} =
[U ]
g2
(3.67)
[ O] 1
(3.68)
The three eigenvalues of [L] are

2
2
P1 = 1/g2O
1,P
2 = 1/g O
2 and P
3 = 1/g O
3
(3.69)
Example 3.10. The eigenvalues of the capacitance matrices are 11.954

109 F/km, and 7.234 109 F/km.
Therefore, the eigenvalues of the inductance matrix will turn out to be
P1 =
P2 =
and
P3 =
1
5 2
( 3 u10 ) u11 . 954 u10
1
5 2
( 3 u10 ) u10 . 36 u10
1
( 3 u10 5 )2 u7. 234 u10 9
109
F/km, 10.36
1
Henry/km = 0.93 mH/km.
1076
1
932 . 4
1
651
1 .0725 mH/km
1 . 536 mH/km
Example 3.11. Taking the inductance matrix [L]ut of example 3.7 and the transformation
matrix [ T ] and its inverse [ T ]1 from example 3.9, show that [ T ]1 [L]ut [ T ] is diagonalized and
the eigenvalues are nearly P1, P2, P3 obtained in example 3.10.
Solution.
. 454 ,
. 7071 ,
. 542 ,
. 7655 ,
0,
. 6422 ,
.454
1 . 173 ,
. 213 ,
.105
.7071 . 213 , 1 . 173 ,

.213
.542 . 105 ,
. 213 , 1 .173
. 454 ,

u . 7655 ,

. 454 ,
.7071 , .542
0,
.6422
.7071 , .542
0.92, 0,
0
0
,
1
.
068
,
0
mH/km,
=
0,
1. 535
0,
which check with P1, P2, P3. (Calculated on hand calculator)
3.8
RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE OF GROUND RETURN
Under balanced operating conditions of a transmission line, ground-return currents do not

flow. However, many situations occur in practice when ground currents have important effect
on system performance. Some of these are:
(a) Flow of current during short circuits involving ground. These are confined to single
line to ground and double line to ground faults. During three phase to ground faults
the system is still balanced;
(b) Switching operations and lightning phenomena;
51
(c) Propagation of waves on conductors;

(d) Radio Noise studies.
The ground-return resistance increases with frequency of the current while the inductance
decreases with frequency paralleling that of the resistance and inductance of a conductor. In all
cases involving ground, the soil is inhomogeneous and stratified in several layers with different
values of electrical conductivity. In this section, the famous formulas of J.R. Carson (B.S.T.J.
1926) will be given for calculation of ground resistance and inductance at any frequency in a
homogeneous single-layer soil. The problem was first applied to telephone transmission but we
will restrict its use to apply to e.h.v. transmission lines.
The conductivity of soils has the following orders of magnitude: 10 mho/metre for moist
soil, 101 for loose soil, 10 2 for clay, and 103 for bed rock.
Xij
i
J
Hi
Hj
Iij
Hi
Tij
Hj
J'
i'
Fig. 3.16 Geometrical parameters for calculation of ground-return resistance and inductance.
Figure 3.16 describes the important parameters involved in the calculation showing two
conductors i and j above ground together with their images. We take
cs = soil conductivity in mho/m,
f = frequency of current, Hz,
G = 1.7811, Euler's number, P0 = 4S 107 H/m,
Iij = distance of conductor j from image of conductor i, metre,
Tij = arc tan [Xij /(Hi + H j)], radians
The most important parameter involved in the calculation is
Fij = Iij 2S
...(3.70)
P0 fc s
For usual e.h.v. configurations, Fij < 1.
[When c.g.s. units are used, Iij is in cm, and cs is also in c.g.s. e.m. units. To convert ohm/
m into c.g.s. units, the multiplying factor is 10-11. Then, Fij = I ij 8S2 fc s ]
Having calculated Fij, the ground resistance and inductance are
Rg = 8S
f J r. 104, ohm/km
...(3.71)
52
and
Lg = 4.Ji.104, Henry/km
where Jr and Ji are calculated as follows:
...(3.72)
S
1
1
0 . 5 .S2 . ln ( 2 / G Fij ) 0 . 5 TijT2 W1
W 2 ...(3.73)
8
2
2 2
S
Ji = 0.25 + 0.5 (1 S4). ln (2/ G Fij) 0.5 Tij T4 S2
8
1
(W1 W3 ) 0. 5W 4
+
...(3.74)
2
There are several quantities above, (S, T, W), which are given by Carson by the following
infinite series when Fij < 1. For most calculations, only two or three leading terms will be
sufficient as will be shown by an example of a horizontal 400-kV line.
Jr = (1 S 4 )
2( 2 k 1 )
S2 = (1) .( Fij / 2)
k 0
1
cos( 2k 1) 2Tij
(2k 1)!( 2k 2)!
T2 = same as S2 with cosine changed to sine
...(3.75)
...(3.76)
4k
Fij
1
cos (4k )Tij
2 (k 1)! (k 2)!
k1
S4 = ( 1)
...(3.77)
T4 = same as S4 with cosine changed to sine
...(3.78)
k 1
W1 = (1)
k1
k 1
Fij
(4 k 1 )
W2 = 1.25 S2, W4 =
f
W3 = (1)
k 1
k1
1 .3 . 5 ...(4k 1)
cos (4k 3) Tij
5S 4
3
...(3.79)
...(3.80)
( 4k1)
Fij
2 2
3 5 ...(4k 1)
cos (4 k 1) Tij
...(3.81)
The important and interesting properties of R g and L g for a- 3-phase line are illustrated by
taking an example of the horizontal 400-kV line. These properties come out to be
1, 1, 1
1, 1, 1
[Rg] | Rg 1, 1, 1 and [ L g ] |L g 1, 1, 1
1
,
1
,
1
1
,
1
,
1
...(3.82)
Example 3.12. Figure 3.17 shows all major dimensions of a 400-kV line. Calculate the
matrices of ground-return resistance and inductance per km at f = 1 kHz for cs = earth conductivity
= 102mho/m.
Solution. The frequency of 1 kHz is useful for switching-surge propagation studies. The
required parameters are:
T12 = T23 = arc tan (11/26) = 0.4014 radian.
T13 = arc tan (22/26) = 0.7025 radian.
T11 = T22 = T33 = 0.
I12 = 30 m, I13 = 34 m.
F ij: F11 = 0.234, F12 = 0.27, F13 = 0.306
53
11
11
13
I12
I13
I23
T12
13
T23
T
13
Fig. 3.17. Dimensions of 400 kV line for example 3.12
Self resistances and inductances: Tij = 0.

2
0. 234 1 0 . 234 1
...

|0 . 00685
S2 =
2
2
!
2
3
!
4
!
T2 = 0,W2 = 1.25 S2 = 0.00856

S4 =
W1 =
Therefore
0.1174
, negligible.T4
2 u6
0 . 234 3
1 2.3
0. 0043 , W3
S
0 .5 u0 . 00685 uln
8
= 0.4
Jr =
Ji = 0.25 + 0.5 1.61

= 1.055
0.W4 is negligible.
0 . 234 3
32. 5
0. 00028
2
0 .0086
0 .00215
1
.
7811
u
0
.
234
2 2
S
0 . 0046
u0. 00685
8
2
Therefore
Rii = 8S 103 104 0.4 = 1 ohm/km
Lii = 4 1.055 104 = 0.422 mH/km
Mutual between 1 and 2 (outer and inner)
Calculations yield Jr = 0.3983 | 0.4 and Ji = 0.952
Therefore R12 = R 23 = 1 ohm/km, L12 = L23 = 0.38 mH/km
54
Mutual between 1 and 3 (outer and outer)

Jr = 0.3925, Ji = 0.89, giving R13 | 1 ohm/km and
L13 = 0.356 mH/km.
1, 1, 1
[Rg] = 1, 1, 1 ohm/km
1, 1, 1
?
and
0. 422 , 0. 38 , 0. 356
[Lg] = 0. 38 , 0. 422 , 0. 38
0. 356 , 0. 38 , 0. 422
mH/km
The mutual inductances are quite close to an average value of

(0.422 3 + 0.38 4 + 0.356 2)/9 = 0.39 mH/km
We see that the resistance and inductance of ground return are given approximately as
and
1, 1, 1
[Rg] = 1, 1, 1 Rg , where R g
1, 1, 1
1 ohm/km
1, 1, 1
[Lg] = 1, 1, 1 L g , where L g
1, 1, 1
0 . 39 mH/km.
We will denote
1, 1, 1
[D] = 1, 1, 1
1, 1, 1
Then, [Rg] = Rg [D], and [L g] = L g [D]
...(3.83)
...(3.84)
This property will be used throughout the book whenever groundreturn effects are to be
considered.
Diagonalization of [D]
It is interesting to observe the properties of [D] by diagonalizing it. The 3 eigenvalues come out
1 which will diagonalize [D] turn out to be exactly
to be O
1 = 3, O
2 =O
3 = 0. One set of [T] and [T]
the same as Clarke's Modified Transformation, equations (3.62) and (3.63), as can be worked
out by the reader. Also,
[T]1
2, 2,
2 1, 1, 1 2,
3,
1
1
0, 3 1, 1, 1 u2,
0, 2
[D] [T] =
3,
6
6
1
1
1, 2,
1, 1, 1 2, 3,
3 0 0
O1

0 0 0
=
0 0 0

55
O2
O3
...(3.85)
We could have applied this property for diagonalizing the matrices of [L]t and [C]t of the
transposed line instead of the lengthy procedure in step 1 of Section. 3.7 for finding the three
eigenvalues or characteristic roots. Observe that
Ls , Lm , Lm
[L]t = Lm , Ls , Lm ( Ls Lm )[U ] Lm [ D ]
Lm , Lm , Ls
...(3.86)
Any transformation matrix which diagonalizes [D] will also diagonalize (L s Lm) [U] which
is already in diagonalized form.
Complete Line Parameters with Ground Return
We can now combine the resistances, inductances and capacitances of the phase conductors
with those of ground return to formulate the complete line-parameters for a transposed line.
(a) Resistance
The conductor resistance matrix is [Rc] = Rc[ U ]
Ground-return resistance matrix [Rg] = R g [ D ]
Therefore
R c R g ,
Rg,
Rg
R
,
R

R
,
Rg
[R] = [Rc] + [Rg] = R c[U] + Rg[D] =
g
c
g
Rg,
Rg,
R c R g
...(3.87)
(b) Inductance
L s , Lm , Lm
[Lc] = L m , Ls , Lm
L m , Lm , Ls
( L s Lm )[U ] Lm [ D ]
...(3.88)
[Lg] = Lg[D]
?
[L] = [Lc] + [Lg] = (Ls Lm) [U] + (Lg + Lm) [D]
(c) Capacitance
[C] = (Cs Cm) [U] + Cm (D)
...(389)
...(3.90)
Diagonalization of any of these matrices is easily carried out through [T] and [T]1 of
Clarke's modified transformation matrices.
56
[T
]1
[R][T ] = Rc[U] + Rg 0
Rc 3 R g
Rc
Rc
...(3.91)
Note that the ground contributes (3R g ) to the first mode or line-to-ground mode of
propagation. The term R 0 = Rc + 3Rg may still be called the zero-sequence resistance.
3
[T
[L] [T ] = (Ls Lm) [U] + (Lg + Lm) 0
Ls 2Lm 3L g ,
Ls Lm ,
=
...(3.92)
L

L
s
m
Comparing with equation (3.64) we observe that ground has contributed an inductance of
3Lg to the first or line-to-ground mode of propagation since in this mode ground-return current
is equal to the sum of the currents flowing in the 3-phase conductors above ground.
On the other hand, the ground has not contributed to the line-to-line modes of propagation
as there is no return current in the ground in these two modes. We also observe that Lg + Lm
= (L 0 L1)/3.
The capacitance transformation is
]1
[T ]1[C][T ] = (Cs Cm) [U ] + Cm
C s 2C m
C s C m
C s C m
...(3.93)
This is the same as equation (3.64) with inductance replaced by capacitance. Therefore,
ground has not added any capacitance to any of the three modes of propagation.
We can observe the further property that in the presence of ground activity.
( L s 2L m 3 L g )( C s 2C m ),
( Ls Lm )(C s C m )
[T ]1[L ][C][T ] =
(
L

L
)(
C

C
)
s
m
s
m
...(3.94)
This clearly shows that the velocity of wave propagation in the second and third modes,
the two line-to-line modes, is still the velocity of light as discussed in Section 3.7.3, equation
(3.66). However, the velocity of propagation in the line-to-ground mode is
v1 = 1 / ( Ls 2Lm 3Lg )(Cs 2Cm )
...(3.95)
Since Lg is a positive quantity, v 1 < g, the velocity of light.
57
Example 3.13. A 400-kV line (Example 3.7) gave the following inductance matrix
1 . 173 , 0 . 177 , 0 .177
[L]t = 0. 177 , 1 .173 , 0 .177
0. 177 , 0 . 177 , 1. 173
mH/km
Take (Cs + 2Cm) = (1/g2) (Ls + 2Lm)1 and (Cs Cm) (Ls L m) = 1/g2. The ground return
contributes 0.39 mH/km as calculated in Example 3.12. Calculate the velocities in the three
modes.
Solution. Cs + 2Cm = (1/g2)[(1.173 + 2 0.177) 103]1 =
1 10 3
g 2 1. 527
Ls + 2Lm + 3Lg = 2.697 103

?
(Ls + 2Lm +3Lg) (Cs + 2Cm) = 1.7662/g2 = (1.329/g)2
and
v1 = g/1.329 = 0.7524g = 2.2572 105 km/sec.
The velocity of propagation in the line-to-ground mode is now 75.24% of light velocity.
Equivalent Circuit of Line Model for Network Studies
From equations (3.91) and (3.92), we obtain the quantities
R0 = Rc + 3Rg, R 1 = Rc, L0 = L s + 2L m + 3Lg , and L 1 = Ls Lm
...(3.96)
C0 C1
3
I1
I2
A
I3
R1
L1
R0 R1
3
L0 L1
2
A'
C0 2C1
3
I1 + I2 + I3
B
B'
Fig. 3.18 Line model with ground-return parameters included.
The ground-return resistance is then

Rg = (R0 R1)/3
and there also results
L g + Lm = (L0 L1)/3
...(3.97)
...(3.98)
The quantities R0 and L0 can be considered as the zero-sequence quantities while R1 and
L1 are positive-sequence quantities obtained under symmetrical component concept of
58
Fortescue. Using these, a line model can be constructed similar to Figure 3.13. This is shown
in Figure 3.18.
The three lines are represented by their positive-sequence quantities R1 and L1. The
ground-return part constitutes Rg and (Lg + Lm) which are denoted as (R0 R1)/3, and (L0 L1)
/3 respectively. The capacitance network consists of a Y-connected set equal to Cs = (C0 + 2C1)/
3 and a '-connected set of Cm = (C0 C1)/3. The '-connected set may be converted to an
equivalent Y if necessary each leg having a capacitance of 3Cm = (C0 C1). Such a representation
of a line section has been used for setting up miniature models on a Transient Network Analyzer
for switching-surge studies and in mathematical models for computation of transient performance
of transmission lines using the Digital Computer.
The reader can prove that the voltage drop from A to A' is
{(Rc + Rg) + s(Ls + L g)} I1(s) + {Rg + (Lm + Lg)s} I2(s) + {Rg + (Lm + L g)s} I3(s)
...(3.99)
This is left as an exercise at the end of the chapter.

1. A Moose conductor has the following detailsOuter dia = 31.8 mm. Area of Al = 515.7
mm 2. Calculate the resistance of 1 km of a double-Moose bundled conductor at 50C
given that Ua = 2.7 10 8 ohm-m at 20C and temperature resistance coefficient of A1
= 4.46 103/C. (Increase length by 5% for stranding.)
2. The closest conductor to Moose of North-American manufacture is Bluejay with area
= 1.113 106 cir-mil, outer dia = 1.259". Its resistance is listed in tables of conductors
as 0.0166 ohm/1000 feet at 20C for dc and 0.0941 ohm/mile at 50C and 50/60 Hz.
(a) Verify these values.
(b) Find % increase due to skin effect.
3. A 750 kV line has the details given below. Calculate the temperature rise of the
conductor under given conditions. Conductor4 0.03 m ACSR (area = 954,000 cirmils). Power carried 2000 MW. Ua = 2.7 108 ohm-m at 20C, D= 0.0045 ohm/C,
ambient t a = 45C, e = 0.5, p = 1, v = 1.2 m/s, solar irradiation 1 kW/m2, s a = 0.8.
4. A 3-phase 750 kV horizontal line has minimum height of 12 m, sag at midspan = 12 m.
Phase spacing S = 15 m. Conductors are 4 0.035 m with bundle spacing of
B = 0.4572 m. Calculate per kilometre:
(a) The matrix of Maxwell's Potential coefficients for an untransposed configuration.
(b) The inductance and capacitance matrices for untransposed and transposed
configurations.
(c) The zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence inductances and capacitances for
transposed line.
(d) The ground-return resistance and inductance matrices at 750 Hz taking Us = 100
ohm-metre.
For calculation take Hav = H min + Sag/3.
59
5. Repeat problem 3.4 for a 1150-kV delta configuration of the 3-phases with average
height of 18 m for the lower conductors, 36 m for the top conductor, and spacing of 24
m between bottom conductors. Bundle radius = 0.6 m and conductor size = 6 0.046
m diameter. f = 1000 Hz and Us = 50 ohm-metre.
6. Diagonalize the matrix
1 1
1 1
[D] =
1 1
Give eigenvalues and
1
.
1
eigen-vector matrices.
7. Discuss the convenience offered by using modes of propagation and possible uses of
this technique.
8. The capacitance matrix of a 750-kV horizontal configuration line is
10 . 20 , 1 . 45
1. 45 , 10 . 45
[C] =
0. 35 1 . 45
(a) Find the 3 eigenvalues of the
0. 35
1. 45 nF/km
10 . 20
matrix, (O
1, O
2, O
3).
(b) Diagonalize the matrix by evaluating suitable transformation matrix [T] and its
inverse [T ]1.
(c) Then prove that
O1
O2
[T ]1 [C] [T ] =
O3
9. In problems 3.4 and 3.5 calculate the charging current supplied. Assume full
transposition and place all the capacitance at the line entrance across the source. L =
400 km.
10. In Fig. 3.18 show that the voltage drop from A to B and B' to A add to
{(Rc + R g) + s(L s + Lg )} I1 + (Rg + sL m + sL g) I2 + (Rg + sL m + sL g) I3.
where s = the Laplace-Transform operator.
11. (a) Using the transformation matrices for diagonalizing the matrix [D], prove without
multiplying, that the same transformation matrices will diagonalize the inductance
or capacitance matrices of a fully-transposed line of the type.
Ls
L
[L] = m
Lm
Lm
Ls
Lm
Lm
Lm
Ls
60

2
(b) If O
1, O
2, O
3 are the eigenvalues of matrix [C] and given that [L ][C] = [U]/g , prove
2O and P = 1/g2O. In
that the eigenvalues of [L] will be P1 = 1/g2O
,
P
=
1/g
1
2
2
3
3
general, prove that if O
1, O
2, O
3 are eigenvalues of a matrix [M], then the eigenvalues
of its inverse are the reciprocals of O
1, O
2, O
3.
12. The following transformation matrix is attributed to Karrenbauer.

1
1, 1,
1, 2, 1
[T]=
1, 1, 2
1
1
(a) Calculate [ T ]1.
,
2
having the three eigenvectors
, 1
(b) Normalize [ T ] and [ T ]1.

(c) Prove that [ T ]1 [L]t [ T ] give a diagonal matrix for the inductance of a fullytransposed
line. Determine the eigenvalues of [L]t.
(d) Check that [ T ]1 [C]t [ T ] is also diagonal where [L]t[ C ]t = [ U ]/g2.
(e) Interpret the eigenvectors of the Karrenbauer transformation matrix.
( f ) Is this type of transformation unitary?

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1

Introduction to EHV AC Transmission

ROLE OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR

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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

Locally Usable Power

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Introduction to EHV AC Transmission

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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECT MATTER OF THIS BOOK

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Introduction to EHV AC Transmission

(e) High electrostatic field under the line.

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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

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Introduction to EHV AC Transmission

Review Questions and Problems

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STANDARD TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES

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0-6j 0.29 p.u.

Fig. 2.1 (b)

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Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries

AVERAGE VALUES OF LINE PARAMETERS

Detailed calculation of line parameters will be described in Chapter 3. In order to be able to

x, ohm/km (50 Hz)

*At 20C. Increase by 12.5% for 50C.

POWER-HANDLING CAPACITY AND LINE LOSS

According to the above criteria, the power-handling capacity of a single circuit is

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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

and the total power loss in the 3-phases will amount to

%p = 100 p/P = 100. sin G.(r/x)

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Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries

(a) No. of circuits

Total power loss, MW

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No. of circuits required

Current per circuit, kA

667/ 3 400 = 0.963

Resistance for 800 km, ohms

0.031 800 = 24.8

0.0136 800 = 10.88

Loss per circuit, MW

Total power loss, MW

EXAMPLES OF GIANT POWER POOLS AND NUMBER OF LINES

2.4.1 Canadian Experience

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Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries

2.4.2 Indian Requirement

COSTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES AND EQUIPMENT

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Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering

Transformers : 400/220 kV Autotransformers

Rs. 2.6 Lakhs/MVA for 50 MVA unit to

1 4. 46 u10 3 u50

u10 5 u10 4 u10 4 u10 3