THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM

• INTRODUCTION
• DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
• DEVELOPMENT OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
• DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIAC MUSCLE
• CLINICAL ANATOMY

INTRODUCTION
The Muscular system develops from mesoderm, except for the
muscles of the iris, which develop from neuroectoderm.
Myoblasts, which are embryonic muscle cells, are derived from
mesenchyme ( embryonic connective tissue ). Much of the
mesenchyme in the head is derived from the neural crest,
particularly the tissues derived from the pharyngeal arches;
however the original mesenchyme in the arches gives rise to the
musculature of the face and neck.
DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
The myoblasts that form the skeletal muscles of the trunk are
derived from the mesoderm in the myotome regions of the somites.
The limb muscles develop from myogenic precursor cells in the
limb buds. Studeis show that these cells originate from the
dermamyotome of somites in response to molecular signals from
nearby tissues. The myogenic precursor cells migrate into the limb
buds,where they undergo epitheliomesenchymal transformation.
The first indication of myogenics(muscle formation) is the
elongation of the nuclei and cell bodies of mesenchymal cells as
they differentiate into myoblasts. These primordial muscle cells
soon fuse to form elongated, multinucleated, cylindrical structures
called myotubes. At the molecular level,these events are preceded
by gene activation and expression of the MyoD family of muscle-
specific basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors
(MyoD,myogenin,Myf-5and MRF4)in the precursor myogenic
cells. It has been suggested that signaling molecules from the
ventral neural tube (Shh),notochord (Shh), dorsal neural tube
(Wnts,BMP-4), and the overlying ectoderm (Wnts,BMP-4)
regulate the beginning of myogenesis and the induction of
myotome.
Muscle growth during development results from the ongoing
fusion of myoblasts and myotubes. Myofilaments develop in the
cytoplasm of the myotubes during or after fusion of the myoblasts.
Soon after that, myofibrils and other organells characteristics of
striated muscle cells develop. Because muscle cells are long and
narrow, they are called as muscle fibers. As the myotubes
differentiate, they become invested with external laminae, which
segregate them from the surrounding connective tissue. Fibroblasts
produce the perimysium and epimysium layers of the fibrous
sheath; the endomycium is formed by the external lamina, which is
derived from the muscle fibre, and reticular fibers. Most skeletal
muscle develops before birth,and almost all remaining muscles are
formed by the end of the first year. The increase in the size of a
muscle after the first year results from an increase in the diameter
of the fibers because of the formation of more myofilaments.
Muscles increase in length and width in order to grow with the
skeleton.
MYOTOMES
Typically, each myotome part of a som ite divides into a dorsal
expaxial division and a ventral hypaxial division. Each developing
spinal nerve also divides and sends a branch to each division,with
the dorsal primary ramus supplying the hypaxial division. Some
muscles – the intercoastal muscles,for example – remain
segmentally arranged like the somites,but most myoblasts migrate
away from the myotome and from nonsegmented muscles. Gene-
targeting studies In the mouse embryo suggest that MyoD and
Myf-5 are essential for development of the hypaxial and epaxial
muscles, respectively both genes are involved in the development
of the abdominal and intercostal muscles.
Derivatives of Epaxial Divisions of Myotomes
Myoblasts from the epaxial divisions of the myotomes form the
segmental muscles of the main body axis,the extensor muscles of
the neck and vertebral column. The embryonic extensor muscles
that are derived from the sacral and coccygeal myotomes
degenerate;their adult derivatives are the dorsal sacrococcygeal
ligaments.
Derivatives of Hypaxial Divisions of Myotomes
Myoblasts from the hypaxial divisions of the cervical myotomes
form the scalene, prevertebral geniohyoid,and infrahyoid mucles.
The thoracic myotomes form the lateral and the ventral flexor
muscles of the vertebral column, whereas the lumbar myotomes
form the quadratus lumborum muscle. The muscles of the
limbs,the intercostal muscles,and the abdominal muscles are laso
derives from the hypaxial division of myotomes. The
sacrococcygeal myotomes form the muscles of the pelvic
diaphragm and probably the striated muscles of the anus and sex
organs.
Pharyngeal Arch Muscles
The migration of the myoblasts form the pharyngeal arches to form
the muscles of mastication, facial expression, pharynx, and larynx
is described in Chapter 11. These muscles are innervated by the
pharyngeal arch nerves.

Ocular muscles
The origin of the extrinsic eye muscles is unclear,but it is thought
that they may be derived from the mesenchymal cells near the
prechordal plate. The mesoderm in this area is thought to give rise
to three preotic myotomes. Myoblasts differentiate from
mesenchymal cells derived from these myotomes. Groups of
myoblasts,each supplied by its own cranial nerve(CN III, CN IV,
or CN VI), form the extrinsic muscles of the eye.
Tongue Muscles
Initially,there are four occipitial(postotic) myotomes;however, the
first pair disappears. Myoblasts from the remaining myoblasts
form the tongue muscles,which are innervated by the hypoglossal
nerve (CN XII).
Limb Muscles
The musculature of the limbs develop from myoblasts surrounding
the developing bones. Grafting and gene-targetting studies in birds
and mammals have demonstrated that the precursor myogenic cells
in the limb buds originate from the somites. These cells are first
located in the ventral part of the dermamyotome,and they are
epithelial in nature. Following epitheliomesenchymal
tramsformation,the cells migrate into the primordium of the limb.
Molecular signals from the neural tube and notochord induce Pax-
3 and Mfy-5 in the somites. Pax-3 regulates the expression of
c-met, a migratory peptide growth factor,in the limb bud that is
involved in precursor myogenic cell migration.
DEVELOPMENT OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
Smooth muscle fibres differentiate from splanchnic mesenchyme
surrounding the endoderm if the primordial gut and its derivatives.
The smooth muscles in the wall of many blood and lymphatic
vessels arises from somatic mesoderm. The muscle of the
iris(sphincter and dilator pupillae) and the myoepithelial cells
in mammary and sweat glandsare thought to be derived from
mesenchymal cells that originate from ectoderm. The first sign of
differentiation of smooth muscle is the development of enlongated
nuclei in spindle-shaped myoblasts. During early development,new
myoblasts continue tom differentiate from mesenchymal cells but
do not fuse;they remain mononucleated. During later development,
division of existing myoblasts gradually replaces the
differentiation of new myoblasts in the production of new smooth
muscle tissue. Filamentous but nonsarcomeric contractile elements
develop in their cytoplasm,and the external surface of each
differential cell acquires a surrounding external lamina. As smooth
muscle fibers develop into sheets or bundles,they receive
autonomic innervation; fibroblasts and muscle cells synthesize and
lay down collagenous,elastic,and reticular fibers.
DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIAC MUSCLE
Cardiac muscle develops from the lateral splanchnic
mesoderm,which gives rise to the mesenchyme surrounding the
developing heart tube. Cardiac myoblasts differentiate from this
primordial myocardium. Heart muscle is recognizable in the fourth
week of development and likely develops through expression of
cardiac-specific genes. Cardiac muscle fibers arise by
differentiation and growth of single cells,unlike striated skeletal
muscle fibers,which develop fusion of cells. Growth of cardiac
muscle fibers results from the formation of new myofilaments.
The myoblasts