3rd.

Edition

Booklet

Technical English 2

Universidad de San Carlos

deGuatemala
Engineering School
Discover the Technical English
Office
T-4 building, 2nd. Floor
English Department
http://dingles.ingenieria.usac.edu.gt/

Estudiantes de la Facultad de Ingeniera

Conscientes del vertiginoso avance de la globalizacin nos damos cuenta de la
necesidad de mantener una comunicacin adecuada en el comercio, industria y
mercadotecnia dentro de nuestra sociedad y considerando el desarrollo de
competencias adecuado, se ha construido un novedoso programa para contribuir a
que la Gloriosa Tricentenaria Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala se mantenga
con ese alto nivel que la ha distinguido durante aos.

Este proyecto naci a principios del ao 2008 con el afn de lograr que todo
estudiante egresado de la Facultad de Ingeniera tenga conocimiento de Ingls Tcnico
para poder aplicarlo tanto en sus estudios como en su desempeo profesional.

Demostrando que hoy y siempre SOMOS LOS LIDERES de la ingeniera y

pioneros en el cumplimiento de las necesidades de formacin de nuestros
profesionales, dedicamos este trabajo a todos aquellos estudiantes a quienes les
interese mejorar competentemente la aplicacin de los procedimientos de ingeniera y
tengan el deseo de aprender nuevas tcnicas desarrollando habilidades
que
constantemente expanden la efectividad y campos de aplicacin de Ingeniera. Esta
primera edicin de este folleto fue creado para cumplir y llenar los requisitos del
programa cuyo objetivo es contribuir a la preparacin integral para llenar de los
perfiles de los profesionales de hoy.

Logrando el cambio propuesto.

ING. MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS

DECANO

Students of Engineering School

Conscious of the vertiginous advance of the globalization we realize the
necessity to maintain an adapted communication in commerce, industry and
marketing research within our society and considering the development of
appropriated competences, we have developed a novel program to contribute that the
Glorious Tricentennial University of San Carlos of Guatemala stays with that high level
that has distinguished it during years.

This project started the first semester 2008 with the eagerness to obtain that all
withdrawn students of the Faculty of Engineering have knowledge of Technical
English, becoming it a necessity that the students apply this knowledge in their
studies as in their professional performance.
Demonstrating that today and always WE ARE LEADERS of engineering,
pioneers in the fulfilment of the necessities of formation of our professionals, we
present to all students who, by their competent application of engineering procedures
and their readiness to learn new techniques and to develop skills that constantly
expand the effectiveness and fields of application of engineering. The First Edition of
this booklet was created to carry out and to fill the requirements of the program which
objective is to contribute to the integral preparation of the students in order to fill the
profiles of nowadays professionals.

Reaching goals through change.

MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS

ENGINEERING SCHOOL DEAN

AWARENESS / ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Information contained in this work has been obtained by
gathering information from sources believed to be reliable. However,
neither the sites or the authors guarantees the accuracy or
completeness of any information published herein and neither the
Technical Language Area not its assistants shall be responsible for
any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this
information. This work is gathered with the understanding that the
topics are supplying information but are not attempting to render
engineering or other professional services. If such services are
required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
sought.

PREFACE

The third edition of the Technical English Booklet was collected as

a guide to fulfill the objectives proposed in the restructuring of the
curriculum of the course. This new curriculum was developed by
Engineer Soraya Martnez with the help of the different contributors
that has worked as teachers and assistants of the area. Each of the
assistants has a different specialization in the field of engineering, so it
helped to work in a multidisciplinary environment.

After it was finished, it was reviewed and authorized by the Board

of Directors of the Engineering School who decided to implement the
new curriculum since the first semester 2008.

It is advice to make a revision every two years, and thanks to the

flexibility of the program, it will allow to make different changes in the
themes studied.

It has been interesting to look at the real applications this new

curriculum can lead. It wakes up the creativity, reasoning, and
awareness of development in different areas of engineering. It is done
through problem solving proposed in classes and developed in their field
of work, enhancing engineering techniques.

SYLLABUS AND APPROACH

The technical English booklet uses high interest themes to
integrate speaking, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, listening,
reading, and writing. There is a strong focus on both accuracy and
fluency. It includes real life situation that leads to a meaningful
learning.

THEMES
The themes were selected based in the analysis of the curriculum
of each career, and selecting the courses in common. The Booklet No. I
covers the basic sciences or the common area. The Booklets No. II and
III cover the courses of the mid term curriculum, it means the courses
of the fourth, fifth and sixth semester. The Booklet IV covers courses of
the professional areas specially the ones focused to the Administrative
Bachelor which is proposed to the different careers in the school.

GRAMMAR
Every theme is organized around grammatical topics. It is tried to
present grammar in context.

VOCABULARY
This section includes new technical words that the students have
to learn for each reading.

SPEAKING
It includes lectures, technical language from various contexts.
Listening strategies that include summarizing main ideas, making
inferences, give opinions.

LISTENING
The listening activities are selected according to the different
topics covered in this booklet.

READING
It emphasizes reading strategies such as skimming, scanning,
guessing meaning from context, understanding the structure and
organization of a text, increasing reading speed.

WRITING
It helps to use correct form and mechanics, use coherent
structure, edition, and revision to create a final draft.

TO THE TEACHERS
It is important for teachers to adapt the course materials to the
needs, interest, and learning styles of their students.
Assessment must be done through oral quizzes, written quizzes
and development of projects.

Contenido
ECOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
MATERIALS SCIENCE................................................................................................................................. 13
THERMODYNAMICS ..................................................................................................................................... 20
MANUFACTURING ......................................................................................................................................... 29
METROLOGY................................................................................................................................................... 45
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE .............................................................................................................................. 50
CONTROL SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................. 63
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ........................................................................................................................ 63
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................. 77

ECOLOGY
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss this questions:

What is Ecology?

Which responsibilities does it imply?

What should be known about it?

Is Global Warming related to Ecology? Explain.

Mention some keywords related to Ecology.

READING
B.

Guess the answers of the following quiz.

Ecology is the study of

environmental systems

Physiological ecology

non-living parts of the world

both

The discipline that has as objective to follow the energy and material used throughout the
process of fabrication in order to improve the efficiency of manufacturing is
Manufacturing Ecology

Evolutionary ecology

Ecology includes the analysis and study of

living parts of the world

both

The area of ecology that focuses on attempting to understand how natural selection develop
the structure and function of the organism and ecosystems is
Ecosystems ecology

the economy of nature

Industrial Ecology

Processes

Which is the principal objective of most ecologists

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

C.

Read and check your previous answers. How well did you do?

ECOLOGY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes called, the economy of

nature. "Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus human-made world; the
"systems" means that ecology is, by its very nature, not interested in just the components of nature
individually but especially in how the parts interact. The subject matter of ecology is normally
divided onto four broad categories or levels: Physiological Ecology, having to do with the response
of single species to environmental conditions such as temperature or light; Population Ecology,
usually focusing on the abundance and distribution of individual species and the factors that cause
such distribution; Community Ecology, having to do with the number of species found at given
location and their interactions; and EcosystemsEcology, having to do with the structure and
function of the entire suite of microbes, plants, and animals, and their abiotic environment, and
how the parts interact to generate the whole. It often focuses on the energy and nutrient flows
of ecosystems, and when this approach is combined with computer analysis and simulation we often
call it systems ecology. Evolutionary ecology, which may operate at any of these levels but most
commonly at the physiological or population level, is a rich and dynamic area of ecology focusing on
attempting to understand how natural selection developed the structure and function of the
organisms and ecosystems at any of these levels.

17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

Ecology is usually considered from the perspective of the specific geographic environment
that is being studied at the moment: tropical rain forest,temperate grassland, arctic
tundra, benthicmarine, the entirebiosphere, and so on. The subject matter of ecology is the entire
natural world, including both the living and the non living parts.Biogeography focuses on the
observed distribution of plants and animals and the reasons behind it. More recently ecology has
included increasingly the human-dominated world of agriculture, grazing lands for domestic
animals, cities, and even industrial parks. Industrial ecology is a discipline that has recently been
developed, especially in Europe, where the objective is to follow the energy and material use
throughout the process of, e.g., making an automobile with the objective of attempting to improve
the material and energy efficiency of manufacturing. For any of these levels or approaches there are
some scientists that focus on theoretical ecology, which attempts to derive or apply theoretical or
sometimes mathematical reasons and generalities for what is observed in nature, and empirical
ecology, which is concerned principally with measurement. Applied ecology takes what is found
from one or both of these approaches and uses it to protect or manage nature in some way. Related
to this discipline is conservation biology. Plant ecology, animal ecology, andmicrobial ecology have
obvious foci.

33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Ecology should be more than just a set of ideas and principles that one might learn in a
classroom or book but rather more a way of looking at the world which emphasizes the assessment
and understanding of how the pieces fit together, how each influences and is influenced by the other
pieces and how the whole operates in ways not really predictable from them. When we are lucky we
are able to capture these relations in conceptual, mathematical or, increasingly, computer models that
allow us some sense of truly understanding the great complexity of nature, including as it is impacted
by human activity. This is the goal of most ecologists.

D.

From the previous text identify what the words italicized refer to.

E.

LINE

WORD

REFERS TO

LINE

WORD

it

21

it

its

27

which

such

29

which

their

30

these

10

their

30

it

11

It

31

this

13

it

36

them

13

these

38

it

REFERS TO

Read the text.

POLLUTION
There are 6 (six) types of pollution that are
going to be discussed in this site, namely air, water,
noise, land, radioactive, and thermal pollution.

AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is
the introduction
of particles that
contaminates the
composition of
compounds in
the atmosphere,
this situation can
be created by:
Excess emission of gases/vapors into
atmosphere
Saturation
of
chemical
compounds/particulates
Rate of dissipation < (smaller than) rate of
absorption through various cycles (i.e.
Carbon and nitrogen cycle)
Emergence of new chemical reactions of
reactive
and
non-biodegradable
compounds.

Global warming, acid rain, smog, ozone

depletion are some effects of air pollution. The

major sources that lead to air pollution are the

following:
Motor vehicle exhaust
Heat and power generation facilities
Industrial processes
Auto manufacturing
Fertilizers plants
Building demolition
Solid waste disposal
Solvent evaporation
Volcanic eruption
Fuel production
Roadway construction
Electrical components manufacturing
Extraction of metals
Forest fires

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is contamination of water by
foreign matter that deteriorates the quality of the
water. Water pollution covers pollutions in liquid
forms like ocean pollution and river pollution. As
the term applies, liquid pollution occurs in the
oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, underground water
and bays, in short liquid-containing areas. It
involves the release of toxic substances, pathogenic

germs, substances that require much oxygen to

decompose, easy-soluble substances, radioactivity,
etc. that become deposited upon the bottom and
their accumulations will interfere with the condition
of aquatic ecosystems. For example, the
eutrophication: lack of oxygen in a water body
caused by excessive algae growths because of
enrichment ofpollutants.

Water Cycle and Pollution

Water cycle is, simply saying, the circulation of
water in earth. In fact, the water in the earth's
biosphere is used and reused again and again. This
is called water cycle or continuous movement of
water between the earth and the atmosphere. It
involves the following mechanisms:
Evaporation: changing of water from liquid
to gas
Transpiration: Release of water vapor from
plant leaves
Condensation: Changing of vapor to liquid
(cooled down)
Precipitation: Water that returns to the
earth (water droplets in clouds become
large enough and there comes the rain).

In a small scale, both inorganic and organic

pollutants safely decompose throughout the stream,
their concentration decrease in the sea, and they
don't harm the sea ecosystem and its distribution.
But in an excessive scale, communities in beach and
estuary will be affected by the pollutants, and can
heavily harm them.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to water
pollution to the following categories:
Petroleum products
Synthetic agricultural chemicals
Heavy metals
Hazardous wastes
Excess organic matter
Sediment
Infectious organisms
Air pollution
Thermal pollution
Soil pollution

SOIL POLLUTION
What's the relation of water cycle and
pollution?
According to the water cycle, naturally, water
around us will be absorbed to the land (soil) and
rivers will stream from the upstream to the
downstream and released to the sea. In normal
situation organic pollutants are biodegraded by
microbes and converted to a form that brings
benefits to the aquatic life. And for the inorganic
pollutants, in the same situation, don't bring to
much hazards because they are widely dispersed
and have almost no effect to the environment
which they are released to.

Revered to as soil pollution, land pollution

involves the following mechanism:
Deposition of solid waste
Accumulation of non-biodegradable
materials
Toxification of chemicals into poisons
Alteration of soil chemical composition
(imbalance of chemical equilibrium to
soil medium)

Causes
The causes for such devastation are generally
due to 2 (two) forms of malpractices:
Unhealthy soil management methods;

Non-maintenance of a proper supply of organic

matter in the soil from the imbalance
composition of the reserves of organic matter
especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur
unplenished supply after cultivation of
vegetation, living the soil prone to soil
infertility, unable to stabilize the soil physicality
which ultimately let to desertification
Irregular maintenance of a proper nutrient
supply of trace elements gives rise to theuse of
excessive synthetic fertilizers, which are non
biodegradable and accumulate in the soil system
which eventually destroys useful organisms
such as bacteria, fungi and other organisms
Improper maintenance of the correct soil
acidity which ultimately disrupt theadaptation
of various crops and native vegetation of
different soils as the solubility of minerals
present will be affected. In a more acidic soil,
minerals tend to be more soluble and washed
away during rainfall while alkaline soil, minerals
are more insoluble which form complex
minerals unable to be absorbed into the flora
system physiological usage.
Improper irrigation practices;
Poorly drained soil result in salt deposits
leading to high soil salinity that inhibit
plant growth and may lead to crop failure
Unirrigated land giving rise to stagnation of
agriculture waste products whichaccumulates
and increases land toxicity and also decreasing
Irregular irrigation leads to decreasing
moisturization of land for soil medium
andreplenishments of solvents for minerals

We can classify major sources that lead to land

pollution to the following categories:
Agriculture
Mining and quarrying
Sewage sludge
Dredged spoils
Household
Demolitions and constructions
Industrial

NOISE POLLUTION
This particular pollution is ever increasing with
due to the rise in the utilization of heavy duty
machineries of industrial facilities and vehicles,
synonymous to the increase in the standard of
living in most countries. We make sounds
practically every seconds of our day, but to the
extend it has reached an unfavorable high intensity
which had cause many disturbances and irritation to
others emotionally that has adverse effects on our
daily activities.
Noise levels can be measured by decibel
method:
Decibel - one tenth of a bel where
one bel represents a difference in level between
two intensities I1, I0 where one is ten times greater
than the other.
Thus, the intensity level is the comparison of one
intensity to another and may be expressed:

Sources and Methods

Intensity level = 10 log10 (I1/I0) (dB)

For instance, the difference between intensities

of 10-8watts/m2 and 10-4 watts/m2, an actual
difference of 10,000 units, can be expressed as a
difference of 4 bels or 40 decibels.
These are the few examples of threshold
decibels of noises made:
Threshold of hearing

0 dB

Rustling leaves
Quiet whisper (3 feet)
Quiet home
Quiet street
Normal conversation
Inside car
Loud singing (3 feet)

20 dB
30 dB
40 dB
50 dB
60 dB
70 dB
75 dB

Automobile (25 feet)

Motorcycle (30 feet

80 dB
88 dB

Food blender (3 feet)

90 dB

Subway (inside)

94 dB

Diesel truck (30 feet)

100 dB

Power mower (3 feet)

107 dB

Pneumatic riveter (3 feet)

115 dB

Chainsaw (3 feet)

117 dB

Amplified Rock and Roll (6 feet)

Jet plane (100 feet)

120 dB
130 dB

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to noise
pollution to the following categories:
Road traffic noise
Air traffic
Rail traffic
Neighborhood and domestic noise
Incompatible land use
Industrial noises

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
The 40's was the era where the first nuclear
bomb is being developed, and that's why it's called
the nuclear era. However, nuclear energy has
already researched back since 1900. Nuclear era
reached its greatest peak in the world war, by
showing its massive ability of destroying things.
Nuclear energy is a form of energy thats
released by the splitting of atoms. Since scientists
have found a way to make use of the energy, it has
also been used to generate electricity.Nuclear
energy has been recognized as a clean energy
because it doesnt release pollutants such as CO 2 to
the atmosphere after its reaction that could damage
our environment. It's also known that nuclear
energy has reduced the amount of greenhouse gas
emission, reducing emissions of CO2 for about 500
million metric tons of carbon.

Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean

energy, the big concern is the waste resulted from
nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution,
called radioactivity. Radioactivity is a form of
radiation (a form of energy that travels through
space). Some elements in this world are naturally
radioactive while some others are made to be.
Radioactivity is emitted when a radioactive element
become unstable and begin to decay in the attempt
to regain their molecular stability. When an element
decays, it emits energy and small particles. If its still
radioactive, it will repeat the process, until it finally
regains its molecular stability and stop
decaying. The time that it takes for half way of
decaying process is called half-life, and this differs
for each radioactive element. It possibly takes up to
4.5 billion years (Uranium 238) and as short as 8
days (Iodine 131). This process constantly remains,
not considering external factors such as pressure or
temperature. This process is expressed in units

called becquerels. One becquerel is equal to one

disintegration of nuclei per second.
There are commonly three types of radiation,
namely:
Alpha particles, can be blocked by a
piece of paper and human skin.
Beta particles can penetrate through
skin, while can be blocked by some
pieces of glass and metal.
Gamma rays can penetrate easily to
human skin and damage cells on its way
through, reaching far, and can only be
blocked by a very thick, strong, massive
piece of concrete.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to
radioactive pollution to the following categories:
Nuclear power plants
Nuclear weapon
Transportation
Disposal of nuclear waste
Uranium mining

THERMAL POLLUTION
This has become an increasing and the most
current pollution, owing to the increasing call of
globalization everywhere. Heat produced from
industries is a major contribution to the pollution,
much to the operation of the heavy industries
which produces high amount of heat energy.
Measurements of atmospheric temperature are
done by meteorological center of the weather
forecast annually, and the graph to detect the
temperature trend from a period of 10 years will be
compared with the previous batch of period. Thus
we may be able to know the rate of temperature
increase overall and make reference to the standard
level of heat that should be maintain in the
atmosphere to avoid large deviation of heat in the
system.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to
thermal pollution to the following categories:
Power plants creating electricity from
fossil fuel
Water as a cooling agent in industrial
facilities
Deforestation of the shoreline
Soil erosion

F.

Match the methods of contamination of water with their sources

Sources
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Excess Organic Matter

Hazardous wastes
Heavy metals
Infectious Organisms
Petroleum Products
Sediments
Synthetic Agricultural Chemicals

Methods
__________
__________
__________
__________

Accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines

and leaky underground storage tanks.
Accumulation of chemicals in plants and animals when
die.
Emission of oxides of lead from tractors and machineries
used during mining or in industries which dissolves in
water
Improper refinery processes with the production of toxic
byproducts

__________

Improper storage of heavy metals in storage containers

__________

Improper treatment of waste which are still toxic upon

release
Leak pipelines

__________
__________
__________

G.

Old and faulty machineries in industrial factories which

are inefficient
Stimulate algae growth and during decomposition of
algae
Unfiltered industrial discharge which flows into water
sources

Read the text.

GLOBAL WARMING
There is little doubt that the planet is warming. Over the last century, the planets temperature has risen
by around 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.6 of a degree Celsius). The warmest since the mid 1800s was the 1990s. The
hottest years recorded were 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003. The United Nations panel on climate change
projects that the global temperatures will rise 3-10 degrees Fahrenheit by the centurys end, enough to have the
polar caps melted. If the ice caps melt, a vast majority of our countries borders will be under water. Monuments
and great buildings, as well as homes and lives will be under water, including New York City.

How can we do to help save the planet? The answer is simpler than you may think. You dont have to
go miles away from home to protest, or spend masses of money. If you try to follow the few simple steps that I
shall now give you, you will have started to help us all. Firstly, plant a tree; this could be easier than it sounds.
Trees, when fully grown, will help keep the planet cooler. Something as simple as walking instead of taking the
car will help reduce pollution. As well as stopping pollution, you are giving yourself exercise, something
important for our bodies. So the next time you get into your car, or your motorbike, think do I have to make
this journey by vehicle or can I walk?- When you are at home, and your getting a little cold, only put a jumper
on and do not adjust the heating. The extra heat produced by our homes also affects the planet. So try wearing
an extra layer in winter. If possible use solar energy, after all it is free; all you need to buy is the equipment. You
can get much of your hot water and heating from the sun and even generate electricity. Reduce, reuse and
recycle; only buy what you need; reuse whatever you can, like containers and paper, and recycle what you
cannot reuse. It really is as simple as that. Finally turning off unused sources of power such as televisions and
heaters will help the environment, as well as save you money. If everybody stuck to these rules, we would be
doing a great thing by protecting the earth. So please take into consideration what I have written and try to do
your part. After all, it will be our next generation that will feel the effects.
H.

Answer the following questions:

Is the passage describing the Global Warming? _______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Which is the principal objective of the passage? ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

VOCABULARY
I.

Look up the following words:

Abiotic

________________________________________________________________

Benthic

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Ecosystem

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Grazing lands

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Microbe

________________________________________________________________

Pollution

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Projects

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Sewage

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Temperate

________________________________________________________________

J.

Read the following sentences. Complete each sentence with one of the words in
the box.
biodiversity
sewage
pollutants
deforestation
contamination
reservoirs
morbidity
streams

habitat
species
Air Pollution

Ecotoxicology
tillage
sedimentation
temperature

_________________ is the environmental science sub-discipline that melds the fields

of ecologyand toxicology.

_________________ is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microscopic

organisms into the atmosphere; in particular, when concentrations of those substances cause
adverse metabolic change to humans or other species.

The most common and widespread air _________________ include carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter.

Indoor air pollution is a significant source of human death and diseasemortality and
_________________through indoor burning of wood and charcoal (especially in developing
countries), tobacco smoking, radon trapping and a host of chemical substances found in
paints, printing supplies and cleaning products.

Thermal pollution is the act of altering the _________________ of a natural water body, which
may be a river, lake or ocean environment.

The concept is most frequently discussed in the context of elevating natural water
temperature, but may also be caused by the release of cooler water from the base of
_________________ into warmer rivers.

Elevated river temperatures can also arise from _________________ or urbanization that can
reduce _________________.

There can be significant environmental consequences of thermal pollution with respect to

surface receiving waters such as rivers and lakes; in particular, decrease
in _________________ and creation of an environment hospitable to alien aquatic
species may occur.

An alien species is an organism that finds itself in a new geographic location

or _________________. Many of these species arrive in the new location due to inadvertent
human activities such as shipping or agriculture, although many are purposefully introduced
for food cultivation or for attempts (usually misguided) at ecological intervention.

Water pollution is the _________________ of natural water bodies by chemical, physical,

radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances.

10

Widespread consequences of water pollution upon ecosystems include _________________

mortality, biodiversity reduction and loss of ecosystem services.

Some water pollution may occur from natural causes such as _________________ from
severe rainfall events; however, natural causes, including volcanic eruptions and algae blooms
from natural causes constitute a minute amount of the instances of worldwide water
pollution.

The most problematic of water pollutants are microbes that induce disease, since their
sources may be construed as natural, but a preponderance of these instances result from
human intervention in the environment (such as discharge of raw _________________) or
human overpopulation phenomena.

One of the chief causes of water pollution is agricultural activity where _________________
practices, fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use create massive amounts of sedimentation and
chemical discharge to natural waters.

EXTENDING SKILLS
K.

L.

Activity 1

Are you concern about global warming?

How do you help the planet?

Do you and your family classify garbage at home?

Activity 1

Study the following reading

WASTING WATER
Water is one of the earths most valuable resources, and conservation of water
is necessary. By saving water you can help protect wildlife that live in rivers and
wetlands as the more water that is used in our homes, the less there is available in
rivers, lakes and wetlands. For example, when water levels in rivers fall, food sources
for birds can be lost, and oxygen levels can fall dangerously low for fish. In 2005,
groundwater levels were lower than they have been for 20 years. The energy impact
with the use of water is also high as heating water accounts for a lot of the energy used
in homes, so the more water used, the more energy that is needed.
Saving water at home does not require any significant cost outlay; in fact you
save money when you and your family save water. For saving water inside the house
you can check your faucets, pipes and toilet for leaks; these leaks can waste about 20 gallons of water per day.
Take shorter showers and turn off the water when soaping and after that turn it back on to rinse. It is not
necessary to keep the water running while brushing your teeth, Just wet your brush and fill a glass for mouth
rinsing. Use your dishwasher and clothes washer for only full loads.Water conservation at home is one of the

11

easiest measures to put in place, and saving water should become part of everyday family practice. It comes
naturally when everyone in the family is aware of its importance, take the time to teach children these simple
water-saving methods around the home and you will make a big difference.

What is the main purpose of these paragraphs?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How many sentences are there in the first paragraph? _________________________________

How many sentences are there in the second paragraph? ______________________________

How many sentences or clauses are in imperative form? _______________________________

Underline the subject of each sentence.

Highlight each verb in the paragraphs. How many modal verbs are there? ________________

In the 2nd sentence of paragraph 1, which is the principal verb? _________________________

How many gerunds are there in the paragraphs? _____________________________________

How many of these gerunds are being used as subjects? _______________________________

What tense is the passage mainly written in? _________________________________________

What type of reading is it? ______ _________________________________________________

GLOSSARY
Abiotic

Ecotoxicology

Pollution

Air pollution

Enviroment

Population ecology

Air Pollution

Evolutionary ecology

Projects

Alien species

Global Warming

Projects

Applied ecology

Grazing lands

Radioactive Pollution

Benthic

Industrial ecology

Sewage

Biogeography

Microbe

Soil Pollution

Community ecology

Morbidity

Temperate

Ecology

Noise Pollution

Thermal Pollution

Ecosystem ecology

Physiological ecology

Tillage

Ecosystems

Pollutants

Water pollution

12

MATERIALS SCIENCE

The properties of any material depend not only on what it's made of, but also how the
atoms and molecules within it are arranged .
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss this questions:

What are materials?

Where do we obtain materials?

What is Material Science?

Which are the forms of the matter?

What is an atom?

Which is the difference between metals and ceramics?

VOCABULARY
Match the following words with its definition.
1.

Atomic Structure

Anything that has weight and that takes up space.

2. Molecule

Solid, Liquid, Gas

3. Atom

It is the smallest particle of matter that retains the same properties

of that matter.

4. Element

This substance can be broken down into two or more simpler

substances.

5. Matter

It is the smallest part of a substance that retains the same properties

of that substance and cannot be broken down any further.

6. Forms of Matter

It is the smallest particle of an element which retains the distinct

structure characteristic of an element.

7. Compound Substance

The free atom is composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons.

13

READING
B.

Read the following passage.

WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE

AND

ENGINEERING?

Materials have been central to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of humans since
the beginning of history. Only in the last 25 years, and especially in the last decade, has the intellectual
foundation of the field that we call materials science and engineering begun to take shape and to achieve
recognition. This has occurred just as the field itself is expanding greatly and contributing significantly to
society. Without new materials and their efficient production, our world of modern devices, machines,
computers, automobiles, aircraft, communication equipment, and structural products could not exist.
Materials scientists and engineers will continue to be at the forefront of these and other areas of science
and engineering in the service of society as they achieve new levels of understanding and control of the
basic building blocks of materials: atoms, molecules, crystals, and noncrystalline arrays.

WHAT ARE MATERIALS, EXACTLY?

That's a big question - because materials are the basic substances that make up, well, you name it!
Materials can be natural - like wood, or human-made - like plastic. There are now about 300,000 different
known materials (if you named one every second, it would take you more than three whole days and nights
just to get through the list!). And as materials scientists create and combine materials in new ways, the
number's almost infinite.Most materials fit into a few big, general categories:
Metals
Whole periods of human civilization - such as the Bronze and Iron ages - are named for
metals. These were the first materials to be "engineered," that is, people changed them to fit
what they needed to do, rather than just letting their natural properties determine what they
could be used for. These days, materials scientists are using metals in ways no one could
have pictured even a few years ago - for example, shaping copper into tiny wires a thousand
times skinnier than a strand of your hair!
Ceramics
Think about a china teapot - that's one type of ceramic. But ceramics can also be used
to create bone and tooth replacements, super-strong cutting tools, or to conduct
electricity. With the addition of oxygen or nitrogen, metals become ceramics, too.
Semiconductors
One of these materials - silicon - is making it possible for you to read these words right
now! That's because silicon is the essential material in an electronic computer chip.
"Semiconductor" means a material can conduct electricity with a bit of help in the form
of added "impurities." Your CD, DVD player, and telephone - all depend on
semiconductors.
Polymers
Polymers are just very big molecules made of smaller molecules linked together into long,
repeating chains. You may not know it, but you're in touch with polymers every day more
than any other kind of material. Rubber bands are made of polymers, so are paints and every
kind of plastic. And by the way, most of the food you eat is made of natural polymers!

14

Composites
Composites are combinations of materials, which can be as simple as concrete
reinforced with steel bars or as leading edge as an ultralight, carbon-fiber bicycle. The
places where different materials meet - the "interfaces" - often produce new
properties that are radically different, and better, than those in any single material.
Biomaterials
Every part of your body is a material! Bone, muscles, fingernails, hair, and
skin are all examples of different types of materials found in your body with
remarkable properties that help you survive - from keeping you upright,
and protecting you from heat or cold, to cutting and grinding your food.
Some scientists try to mimic nature's designs to create materials for other uses, such as using
the foam structure of bone as an inspiration for designing materials that are lightweight and
strong.
Exotic and Strange Materials
Materials scientists are discovering and creating entirely new types of materials - such
as buckyballs and nanotubes, which are very tiny spheres or cylinders made of
carbon atoms. Then there are aerogels, which are extremely lightweight porous
materials made almost entirely of air! Nanotechnology is taking materials science
into a new dimension, as scientists create new materials atom-by-atom and moleculeby-molecule - leading to properties and performance never before imagined.
C.

Answer the following questions, investigate if it is necessary.

1. When did the materials science started to be recognize?
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is important to study materials science in your career?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Are new materials helping to the development of technology? Explain your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Mention at least 5 types of metals
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. According to your experience, which is the principal characteristic of ceramics?
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Additionally to the silicon, which other semiconductor is used to fabricate electronic devices.
_______________________________________________________________________________

15

7. Mention five everyday products made with polymers.

_____________________________________________________________________________
8. Why biomaterials are important nowadays?
_____________________________________________________________________________

LISTENING
D.

Watch the videos in these links and answer the questions

http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videospecial
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videowhatis
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videoeveryone

1.

What is materials science according to Dr. Ross?_____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

2.

What are boats made of? _______________________________________________________

3.

What do materials scientists do? _________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

READING
E.

Read the following topic

MATERIAL STRUCTURE
All matter is considered to be composed
of unit substances known as chemical elements.
These are the smallest units that are
distinguishable on the basis of their chemical
activity and physical properties. The elements are
composed of atoms which have distinct structure
characteristic of each element.An atom consists
of a minute positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a sufficient number of electrons
(negative charges) to keep the atom as a whole
neutral. The electron and proton have equal
butopposite electrical charge, so the neutral atom

16

must contain an equal number of electrons and

protons.

ATOMIC BONDS
There are two types of bonds:
Primary Bonds:
Primary bonds are the strongest bonds which
hold atoms together. The three types of primary
bonds are:

Metallic Bonds: In a metal, the outer

electrons are shared among all the atoms
in the solid. Each atom gives up its outer
electrons and becomes slightly positively
charged. The negatively charged electrons
hold the metal atoms together. Since the
electrons are free to move, they lead to
good thermal and electrical conductivity.
Covalent Bonds: Some atoms like to
share electrons to complete their outer
shells. Each pair of shared atoms is called
a covalent bond.
Ionic Bonds: Atoms like to have a filled
outer shell of electrons. Sometimes, by
transferring electrons from one atom to
another, electron shells are filled. The
donor atom will take a positive charge,
and the acceptor will have a negative
charge. The charged atoms or ions will be
attracted to each other, and form bonds.
Secondary Bonds:
Secondary bonds are much weaker than primary
bonds. They often provide a "weak link" for
deformation or fracture. Examples for secondary
bonds are:
Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bonds are
common in covalently bonded molecules
which contain hydrogen, such as water
(H2O).
Van der Waals Bonds: Van der Waals
bonds are very weak compared to other
types of bonds. These bonds are
especially important in noble gases which
are cooled to very low temperatures.

PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Describe how the material supports applied
forces, including forces of tension, compression,
impact, cyclic fatigue, or forces at high

17

temperatures. Then you mention are defined

below:

Toughness: The property of certain

materials
to
withstand,
without
deforming or breaking sudden efforts
that apply to them.

Flexibility: It consists in the ability of

some materials to recover their shape
and size of primitive when it ceases the
effort that had given deformation.

Hardness: The resistance a material

opposes the penetration.

Fragility: A material is brittle when

broken easily by the action of a shock.

Plasticity: Ability of some solid material

to acquire permanent deformation
under the action of an external force or
pressure without rupture.

The above mechanical properties are measured

accurately by mechanical tests:

Test drive: Provides a rough idea of the

tenacity and elasticity of a material.

Hardness Testing: allows knowing the

hardness of the material.

Testing Shock: The practice allows us to

know the fragility and tenacity of a
material.

Testing technology: They show the

features of plasticity that has a material to
carry out his forge, bending, stamping,
etc.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Rely on the structure and material
processing. Describe features such as color,
electrical or thermal conductivity, magnetic and
optical behavior, usually not altered by force
acting on the material. They can be divided into
electrical,
magnetic
and
optical.Physical
properties of matter are categorized as either
Intensive or Extensive:

Intensive - Properties that do not depend on

the amount of the matter present.

Color

Mass - A measurement of the amount

of matter in a object (grams).

Weight - A measurement of the

gravitational force of attraction of the
earth acting on an object.

Odor

Luster - How shiny a substance is.

Malleability - The ability of a substance

to be beaten into thin sheets.

Volume - A measurement of the

amount of space a substance occupies.

Ductility - The ability of a substance to

be drawn into thin wires.

Length

Conductivity - The ability of a

substance to allow the flow of energy or
electricity.

Hardness - How easily a substance can

be scratched.

Melting/Freezing Point - The

temperature at which the solid and
liquid phases of a substance are in
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure.

Boiling Point - The temperature at

which the vapor pressure of a liquid is
equal to the pressure on the liquid
(generally atmospheric pressure).

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
These describe the substances and their
abiolity to change into a new substance with
different properties.

Flammability:
Ability to burn.

Reactivity: It is when two substances

cause any reaction together, when a
reaction happen you can see bubbling,
fizzing, color change; but it can create
sound, light, color or heat.
Reactivity can be created mixing a
element with oxygen, water or acid.

Density - The mass of a substance

divided by its volume

Extensive - Properties that do depend on the

amount of matter present.

F.

Prepare a summary of the previous reading.

G.

Write the name of 2 materials that present the following properties.

Toughness
__________________________________________________________

Flexibility:

__________________________________________________________

Hardness:

__________________________________________________________

Fragility:

__________________________________________________________

Plasticity:

__________________________________________________________

Ductility:

__________________________________________________________

Malleability:

__________________________________________________________

18

H.

Flammability:

__________________________________________________________

Select a material and describe their physical properties.

Material
__________________________________________________________

Color

__________________________________________________________

Odor

__________________________________________________________

Luster

__________________________________________________________

Malleability

__________________________________________________________

Ductility

__________________________________________________________

Conductivity

__________________________________________________________

Hardness

__________________________________________________________

Melting/Freezing Point ___________________________________________________

Boiling Point

__________________________________________________________

Density

__________________________________________________________

GLOSSARY
Atom

Ductility

Melting Point

Atomic Bond

Element

Metallic Bond

Atomic Structure

Flammability

Metals

Biomaterial

Flexibility

Molecule

Boiling Point

Fragility

Plasticity

Bond

Hardness

Polymer

Ceramics

Hydrogen Bond

Reactivity

Composite

Ionic Bond

Semiconductor

Compound Substance

Length

Toughness

Conductivity

Malleability

Van der Waals Bond

Covalent Bond

Mass

Volume

Density

Matter

Weight

19

THERMODYNAMICS
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss the following

Why are radiators important in vehicles?

Whats the function of the ozono layer in the atmosphere?

How does a microwave works?

How is chicken soup made?

What happen if I leave a bowl with water in the open air in a really sunny day?

READING / WRITING
B.

Look and study the following notes.

Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation
in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation. It interrelates
macrosqcopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical properties of
material bodies and radiation, which in this science are called thermodynamic systems.
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam
engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who
believed that the efficiency of heat engines was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.
Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854:
Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to
forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the
relation of heat to electrical agency.

20

C.

Write one or two paragraphs that summarize the passage and the picture above.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

D.

Look and study the following picture.

21

E.

Conduction, Convection, or Radiation?

1.

F.

Between a stove and a pot.

____________________________

2.

Walking across hot sand burns your feet.

____________________________

3.

When nothing is touching the object.

____________________________

4.

You accidentally touch a hot stove.

____________________________

5.

An iron is used to iron your clothes.

____________________________

6.

The doctor takes an X-ray of your body.

____________________________

7.

How you get a sunburn.

____________________________

8.

The metal part of your seatbelt burns your

leg when you sit on it after the car sat in
the sun all day.

____________________________

9.

You sit near a campfire.

____________________________

10.

In a microwave.

____________________________

Read the following passage.

LAWS

OF THERMODYNAMICS

The four laws of thermodynamics

summarize the most important facts of
thermodynamics. They define fundamental
physical quantities, such as temperature, energy,
and entropy, to describe thermodynamic systems
and they describe the transfer of energy as heat
and work in thermodynamic processes.

22

Experimentally reproducible distinction between

heat and work is at the heart of thermodynamics,
and about processes in which this distinction
cannot be made, thermodynamics has nothing to
say.

ZEROTH LAW

The zeroth law implies that thermal

equilibrium, viewed as a binary relation, is a
Euclidean relation. If we assume that the binary
relationship is also reflexive, then it follows that
thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence relations are also transitive and
symmetric. The symmetric relationship allows
one to speak of two systems being "in thermal
equilibrium with each other", which gives rise to
a simpler statement of the zeroth law:
If two systems are in
thermal equilibrium
with a third, they are in
thermal equilibrium
with each other

However, this statement requires the

implicit assumption of symmetry and reflexivity,
rather than reflexivity alone.
The law is also a statement about
measurability. To this effect the law allows the
establishment of an empirical parameter, the
temperature, as a property of a system such that
systems in equilibrium with each other have the
same temperature. The notion of transitivity
permits a system, for example a gas thermometer,
to be used as a device to measure the temperature
of another system.
Although the concept of thermodynamic
equilibrium is fundamental to thermodynamics,

23

the need to state it explicitly as a law was not

widely perceived until Fowler and Planck stated it
in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and
third law were already widely understood and
recognized. Hence it was numbered the zeroth
law. The importance of the law as a foundation
to the earlier laws is that it allows the definition
of temperature in a non-circular way without
reference to entropy, its conjugate variable.

FIRST LAW
The first law of thermodynamics may be
expressed by several forms of the fundamental
thermodynamic relation:
A change in the internal
energy of a closed
thermodynamic system is
equal to the difference
between the heat supplied
to the system and the
amount of work done by
the system on its
surroundings

For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat

supplied to the system equals the net work done
by the system.The net change in internal energy is
the energy that flows in as heat minus the energy
that flows out as the work that the system
performs on its environment. Work and heat are

not defined as separately conserved quantities;

they refer only to processes of exchange of
energy.
These statements entail that the internal
energy obeys the principle of conservation of
energy. The principle of conservation of energy
may be stated in several ways:
Energy can be neither
created nor destroyed. It
can only change forms.

In any process in an isolated system, the

total energy remains the same.

SECOND LAW
The second law of thermodynamics
asserts the existence of a quantity called the
entropy of a system and further states that.
When two isolated systems in separate
but nearby regions of space, each in
thermodynamic equilibrium in itself (but not
necessarily in equilibrium with each other at first)
are at some time allowed to interact, breaking the
isolation that separates the two systems, allowing
them to exchange matter or energy, they will
eventually reach a mutual thermodynamic
equilibrium. The sum of the entropies of the
initial, isolated systems is less than or equal to the
entropy of the final combination of exchanging
systems. In the process of reaching a new

24

thermodynamic equilibrium, total entropy has

increased, or at least has not decreased.
It follows that the entropy of an isolated
macroscopic system never decreases. The second
law states that spontaneous natural processes
increase entropy overall, or in another
formulation that heat can spontaneously be
conducted or radiated only from a highertemperature region to a lower-temperature
region, but not the other way around.
The second law refers to a wide variety of
processes, reversible and irreversible. Its main
import is to tell about irreversibility.
The prime example of irreversibility is in
the transfer of heat by conduction or radiation. It
was known long before the discovery of the
notion of entropy that when two bodies of
different temperatures are connected with each
other by purely thermal connection, conductive
or radiative, then heat always flows from the
hotter body to the colder one. This fact is part of
the basic idea of heat, and is related also to the
so-called zeroth law, though the textbooks'
statements of the zeroth law are usually reticent
about that, because they have been influenced by
Carathodory's basing his axiomatics on the law
of conservation of energy and trying to make
heat seem a theoretically derivative concept
instead of an axiomatically accepted one. ilahv
(1997) notes that Carathodory's approach does
not work for the description of irreversible
processes that involve both heat conduction and
conversion of kinetic energy into internal energy
by viscosity (which is another prime example of
irreversibility), because "the mechanical power
and the rate of heating are not expressible as
differential forms in the 'external parameters'".
The second law tells also about kinds of
irreversibility other than heat transfer, and the
notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider
scope of the law.
According to the second law of
thermodynamics, in a reversible heat transfer, an
element of heat transferred, Q, is the product of

the temperature (T), both of the system and of

the source or destination of the heat, with the
increment (dS) of the system's conjugate variable,
its entropy (S)

The second law defines entropy, which

may be viewed not only as a macroscopic variable
of classical thermodynamics, but may also be
viewed as a measure of deficiency of physical
information about the microscopic details of the
motion and configuration of the system, given
only predictable experimental reproducibility of
bulk or macroscopic behavior as specified by
macroscopic variables that allow the distinction
to be made between heat and work. More exactly,
the law asserts that for two given macroscopically
specified states of a system, there is a quantity
called the difference of entropy between them.
The entropy difference tells how much additional
microscopic physical information is needed to
specify one of the macroscopically specified
states, given the macroscopic specification of the
other, which is often a conveniently chosen
reference state. It is often convenient to
presuppose the reference state and not to
explicitly state it. A final condition of a natural
process
always
contains
microscopically
specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly
predictable from the macroscopic specification of
the initial condition of the process. This is why
entropy increases in natural processes. The
entropy increase tells how much extra
microscopic information is needed to tell the
final macroscopically specified state from the
initial macroscopically specified state.
Heat cannot
spontaneously flow from

25

a colder location to a
hotter location.

THIRD LAW
The third law of thermodynamics is
usually stated as follows:
The entropy of a perfect
crystal at absolute zero
is exactly equal to zero.

This is explained in statistical mechanics

by the fact that a perfect crystal has only one
possible microstate (microscopic state) at
extremely low temperatures: The locations and
energies of every atom in a crystal are known and
fixed. (In quantum mechanics, the location of
each atom is not exactly fixed, but the
wavefunction of each atom is fixed in the unique
ground state for its position in the crystal.)
Entropy is related to the number of possible
microstates, and with only one microstate, the
entropy is exactly zero.
The third law is also stated in a form that
includes non-crystal systems, such as glasses:
As temperature
approaches absolute
zero, the entropy of a
system approaches a
minimum.

The minimum, not necessarily zero, is

called the residual entropy of the system.

G.

Write a well-structure paragraph with title LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS. (Summarize

the previous reading in two or three paragraphs)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

26

VOCABULARY
H.

Unscramble the words and match them with their definitions.

27

1.

Bsaoluet rzoe

The branch of physical science concerned with the interrelationship and interconversion of different forms of energy and
the behavior of macroscopic systems in terms of certain basic
quantities, such as pressure or temperature.

2.

Ryefilxevit

A quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy not

available to do work.

3.

Etnyrpo

A state in which all parts of a system are at the same

temperature.

4.

Tdherycmiosnaam

A collection of ordered pairs of elements.

5.

Tyratvnsitii

A relationship of characteristic correspondence, equivalence,

or identity among constituents of an entity or between
different entities.

6.

Itseolad symstse

The property of a binary relation that expresses the fact that

the relation holds between an object and its mirror image.

7.

Ybnria rtienlao

The quality of being measurable

8.

Meaytsiulriab

A relationship between three elements such that if the

relationship holds between the first and second elements and
between the second and third elements, it necessarily holds
between the first and third elements.

9.

Smyrmyet

The total heat o system

10.

Tamhler Eiqruimliubm

A system that cannot exchange matter or energy with its

Surroundings.

11.

Nte htae

The temperature at which molecular activity is at a minimum.

12.

Dcseol Semsty

Emission and propagation and emission of energy in the form

of rays or waves.

13.

Cntnioveoc

A physical system that does not interact with other systems.

14.

Rpssreue

Heat transfer in a gas or liquid by the circulation of currents

from one region to another.

15.

Rdaiatoin

Force applied uniformly over a surface, measured as force per

unit of area.

GLOSSARY
Absolute Zero

Insulator

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Closed System

Isolated System

Thermodynamic System

Conduction

Pressure

Thermodynamics

Conductor

Principle of Conservation of
Energy

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Convection
Efficiency
Entropy
First Law of Thermodynamics
Heat Engines

Radiation
Residual Entropy
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Steam Engines
Thermal Equilibrium

28

Transfer of Heat
Work
Zeroth
Law
Thermodynamics

of

MANUFACTURING
A.

Discuss the following

Where does the sugar come from?

29

How are chocobananas made?

If you would have money for investing in a home-made product, which product would you
produce?
Which are the materials used for producing wooden tables and chairs?

Which process is described in the picture.

WRITING
B.

Look at the picture.

1.

Whats the picture about? _______________________________________________________

2.

According to the picture, which are the materials needed for manufacturing tires.
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3.

Describe the process of tire fabrication.

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

30

READING
C.

Read the following passage and make a sketch of self study applying a notetaking
system.

MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term
may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to
industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such
finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as aircraft, household
appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to
end users the "consumers".
Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and
integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers
use the term fabrication instead.

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Craft or Guild System
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed
as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel,
and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds is the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting
places.
Putting-out system
The putting-out system was a means of subcontracting work. It was also known as the workshop
system. In putting-out, work was contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who completed the work
in their own facilities, usually their own homes. The domestic system was a popular system of cloth
production in Europe.
Mass production
Mass production, flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial
production, is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on
assembly lines. The concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and
particulates handled in bulk (such as food, fuel, chemicals, and mined minerals) to discrete solid parts (such
as fasteners) to assemblies of such parts (such as household appliances and automobiles).
Just In Time manufacturing
Just-in-Time (JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business' return on investment
by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs. This production method is also called the
Toyota Production System. To meet JIT objectives, the process relies on signals or Kanban (,
Kanban) between different points in the process, which tell production when to make the next part.
Kanban are usually 'tickets' but can be simple visual signals, such as the presence or absence of a part on a
shelf. Implemented correctly, JIT focuses on continuous improvement and can improve a manufacturing

31

organization's return on investment, quality, and efficiency. To achieve continuous improvement key areas
of focus could be flow, employee involvement and quality.
Quick notice that stock depletion requires personnel to order new stock is critical to the inventory
reduction at the center of JIT. This saves warehouse space and costs. However, the complete mechanism
for making this work is often misunderstood.
Lean manufacturing
Lean manufacturing, lean enterprise, or lean production, often simply, "Lean," is a production
practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the
end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Working from the perspective of the
customer who consumes a product or service, "value" is defined as any action or process that a customer
would be willing to pay for.
Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a
present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency, decreasing
waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing
ideas.
Flexible manufacturing
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount
of flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This
flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories.
The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product
types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category is called
routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple qmachines to perform the same operation
on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or
capability.
The main advantages of an FMS are its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like
time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the
production of small sets of products like those from a mass production.
Mass customization
Mass customization, in marketing, manufacturing, call centers and management, is the use of
flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to produce custom output. Those systems combine the low
unit costs of mass production processes with the flexibility of individual customization.
Agile manufacturing
Agile manufacturing is a term applied to an organization that has created the processes, tools, and
training to enable it to respond quickly to customer needs and market changes while still controlling costs
and quality.
Rapid manufacturing
Direct digital manufacturing, sometimes called additive, rapid, direct, instant, or on-demand
manufacturing, is a manufacturing process which creates physical parts directly from 3D CAD files or data

32

using computer-controlled additive and subtractive fabrication and machining techniques with minimal
human intervention. When a small, low-cost device is used, it is calleddesktop or personal manufacturing.
Prefabrication
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other
manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where
the structure is to be located. The term is used to distinguish this process from the more conventional
construction practice of transporting the basic materials to the construction site where all assembly is
carried out.
Fabrication
This term refers to building metal structures by cutting, bending, and assembling. The cutting part
of fabrication is via sawing, shearing, or chiseling, torching with handheld torches (such as oxy-fuel torches
or plasma torches); and via CNC cutters (using a laser, torch, or water jet). The bending is via hammering
or via press brakes and similar tools. The assembling is via welding, binding with adhesives, riveting,
threaded fasteners, or even yet more bending in the form of a crimped seam. Structural steel and sheet
metal are the usual starting materials for fabrication, along with the welding wire, flux, and fasteners that
will join the cut pieces. As with other manufacturing processes, both human labor and automation are
commonly used. The product resulting from fabrication may be called a fabrication. Shops that specialize
in this type of metal work are called fab shops. The end products of other common types of metalworking,
such as machining, metal stamping, forging, and casting, may be similar in shape and function, but those
processes are not classified as fabrication.

Paragraph No. 1

Read the following passage and write the main idea of each paragraph.
Additionally write next to the picture the number of paragraph that correspond to
the each step of the process.

Paragraph No. 2

D.

33

Portland Cement is a carefully blended

combination of lime, silica, alumina and iron
oxide. These components are found in
materials which fall into two main categories;
calcareous (or lime bearing), such as
limestone, and argillaceous (or clay-like) such
as shale.
Main Idea

The main raw material component of cement

is Limestone, which is obtained from our
Kleins Point Quarry on the Yorke Peninsula
and shipped across St. Vincent Gulf on the
Companys ship M.V. Accolade II, to our
Birkenhead plant.
Main Idea

Paragraph No. 3
Paragraph No. 4

The reclaimed limestone is then transported

via belt conveyors to the weigh building
where other raw materials, known as fringe
materials, such as shale, sand and iron oxide
are added to the limestone.This blend of
materials is fed into a ring roller mill, where it
is dried and crushed to a fine state.
Main Idea

Paragraph No. 7

Paragraph No. 6

A reclaimer (pictured in the diagram to the

right) moves back and forth along the heap
scraping a cross section of the limestone. As
the newer raw material is stacked on top of
older material, the cross-sectioned reclaiming
process ensures an even blend of material is
reclaimed.
Main Idea

Paragraph No. 5

Once the Accolade II reaches the Birkenhead

plant, the Limestone is transported via
conveyor belts to the Limestone Pre-blend
Building, where it is stockpiled into preblended heaps of around 25,000 tonnes.
Main Idea

34

This material is now referred to as raw meal

and is the feed for the kiln. The drying
process in the raw mill uses the hot gases
from the kiln, which also transport the raw
meal through large electrofilters which
separate the solid particles from the gas,
allowing the clean gasses to pass into the
atmosphere.
Main Idea
The raw meal is then extracted from the
electrofilters and conveyed to the 6,000 tonne
blending silo. This silo serves, not only as a
storage silo, but also thoroughly blends the
raw meal into a physically and chemically
consistent material, ensuring well controlled,
quality product.
Main Idea

Paragraph No. 8
Paragraph No. 9
Paragraph No. 10
Paragraph No. 11
Paragraph No. 12

35

The raw meal travels through a preheating tower and reaches approximately 900C before
it enters the kiln. Once the raw meal reaches the rotating kiln, it is heated further which
releases carbon dioxide from the limestone. As the heated raw meal proceeds further
down the kiln into the burning zone, temperatures reach in excess of 1400C causing
chemical reactions which convert the raw meal into hard nodules ranging in size from 535mm in diameter known as clinker.
Main Idea

The clinker is then cooled, with the heat recovered from this process being re-used in the
kiln to increase energy efficiency. After cooling, the clinker is transported from the storage
area, via belt conveyers, to the cement mill.
Main Idea

Just before entering the mill, other additives such as gypsum and limestone are added to
the clinker in very specific quantities. The mill is a large rotating ball mill which is filled to
a certain level with steel balls ranging in size from 17-90mm in diameter. The clinker and
additives are crushed and ground between the steel balls until the desired fineness is
attained.
Main Idea

The resultant cement powder then exits the mill and passes through a separator, which
extracts the coarse cement powder that has not been milled to the required fineness and
returns it back into the mill for further milling. The cement meal that passes through the
separator is stored in various silos, ranging in size from 500-30,000 tonnes, where it awaits
bagging or bulk transportation.
Main Idea

From the bulk silo, the cement is dispatched from our plants in various ways. The
majority of our cement is loaded into bulk pneumatic tankers via 24 hour automated
weighbridges, where the driver simply drives the vehicle onto the weighbridge, weighs his
empty truck, connects the loading chute to the tank and selects the appropriate product.
Once loading is finished, the vehicle is then weighed again to determine exactly how much
product was loaded, the driver departs and the weighbridge system automatically records
the transaction for processing.
Main Idea

Paragraph No. 13
E.

Some of the cement is transported from the bulk silo to the Despatch Silo where it is
packed into 20kg paper bags on the automated Rotopacker and then arranged onto pallets.
The cement is also available in 1 tonne bulk bags for manufacturing and construction
purposes and is often loaded into ships where it is transported via sea to various
destinations across Australia.
Main Idea

Read the following passage.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process by
which a liquid material is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mold to complete
the process. Casting materials are usually metals
or various cold setting materials that cure after
mixing two or more components together;
examples
are epoxy, concrete,plaster and clay.
Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods.

Metal casting is one of the most common

casting processes. Metal patterns are more
expensive but are more dimensionally stable and
durable. Metallic patterns are used where
repetitive production of castings is required in
large quantities.

36

Plaster and other chemical setting

materials such as concrete and plastic resin may
be cast using single-use waste molds as noted
above, multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made
of small rigid pieces or of flexible material such as
latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an
exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete,
the finished product is, unlike marble,
unattractive, lacking in transparency, and so it is
usually painted, often in ways that give the
appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the
first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to
give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete,
rather than plaster, it is possible to create
sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use.
A simulation of high-quality marble may be made
using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for
example epoxy or polyester) with powdered stone
added for coloration, often with multiple colors
worked in. The latter is a common means of
making attractive washstands, washstand tops
and shower stalls, with the skilled working of
multiple colors resulting in simulated staining
patterns
as
is
often
found
in
natural marble ortravertine.
Molding
Molding is
the
process
of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material
using a rigid frame or model called
a pattern.A mold is a hollowed-out block that is
filled with a liquid like plastic, glass, metal,

or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or

sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold
is the counterpart to a cast. The manufacturer
who makes the molds is called themoldmaker.
A release agent is typically used to make removal
of the hardened/set substance from the mold
easier. Typical uses for molded plastics include
molded furniture, molded household goods,
molded cases, and structural materials.

process are very complex and may involve many

varieties of stresses operating simultaneously, or
it may involve stresses which change over the
course of the operation.

Compressive forming
Compressive forming involves those processes
where the primary means of plastic deformation
is uni- or multiaxial compressive loading.

Forming
Forming,
or metal
forming,
is
the metalworking process of fashioning metal
parts and objects through mechanical
deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without
adding or removing material, and its mass
remains unchanged. Forming operates on
the materials
science principle
of plastic
deformation, where the physical shape of a
material is permanently deformed.

Rolling, where the material is passed through

a pair of rollers.
Extrusion, where the material is pushed
through an orifice.
Die forming, where the material
is stamped by a press around or onto a die.
Forging, where the material is shaped by
localized compressive forces.
Indenting, where a tool is pressed into the
workpiece.

Tensile forming
Tensile forming involves those processes where
the primary means of plastic deformation is unior multiaxial tensile stress.

Stretching, where a tensile load is applied

along the longitudinal axis of the workpiece
Expanding, where the circumference of a
hollow body is increased by tangential
loading
Recessing, where depressions and holes are
formed through tensile loading

Combined tensile and compressive

forming

Forming processes tend to be typified by

differences in effective stresses. These categories
and descriptions are highly simplified, since the
stresses operating at a local level in any given

37

This category of forming processes involves

those operations where the primary means of
plastic deformation involves both tensile stresses
and compressive loads.

Bending

This category of forming processes

involves those operations where the primary
means of plastic deformation is a bending load.
Bending is a manufacturing process that
produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape
along a straight axis in ductile materials, most
commonlysheet
metal. Commonly
used
equipment include box and pan brakes, brake
presses, and other specialized machine presses.
Typical products that are made like this are boxes
such
as electrical
enclosures and
rectangularductwork.
In press brake forming, a work piece is
positioned over the die block and the die block
presses the sheet to form a shape. Usually
bending has to overcome both tensile
stressesand compressive stresses. When bending
is done, the residual stresses cause the material
to spring back towards its original position, so
the sheet must be over-bent to achieve the
proper bend angle. The amount of spring back is
dependent on the material, and the type of
forming. When sheet metal is bent, it stretches in
length. The bend deduction is the amount the
sheet metal will stretch when bent as measured
from the outside edges of the bend. Thebend
radius refers to the inside radius. The formed
bend radius is dependent upon the dies used, the
material properties, and the material thickness.
There are three basic types of bending on
a press brake; each is defined by the relationship
of the end tool position to the thickness of the
material. These three are Air Bending, Bottoming
and Coining. The configuration of the tools for
these three types of bending is nearly identical. A

38

die with a long rail form tool with a radiuses tip

that locates the inside profile of the bend is called
a punch. Punches are usually attached to the ram
of the machine by clamps and move to produce
the bending force. A die with a long rail form
tool that has concave or V shaped lengthwise
channel that locates the outside profile of the
form is called a die. Dies are usually stationary
and located under the material on the bed of the
machine. Note that some locations do not
differentiate between the two different kinds of
dies (punches and dies.) The other types of
bending listed use specially designed tools or
machines to perform the work.
Shearing
This category of forming processes
involves those operations where the primary
means of plastic deformation is a shearing load.

Shear forming, also referred as shear

spinning, is similar to metal spinning. Inshear
spinning the area of the final piece is
approximately equal to that of the flat sheet metal
blank. The wall thickness is maintained by
controlling the gap between the roller and the
mandrel. In shear forming a reduction of the wall
thickness occurs.
Before the 1950s, spinning was
performed on a simple turning lathe. When new
technologies were introduced to the field of metal
spinning and powered dedicated spinning
machines were available, shear forming started its
development in Sweden.
In shear forming, the starting workpiece
can have circular or rectangular cross sections.
On the other hand, the profile shape of the final

component can be concave, convex or a

combination of these two.A shear forming
machine will look very much like a conventional
spinning machine, except for that it has to be
much more robust to withstand the higher forces
necessary to perform the shearing operation.
The design of the roller must be
considered carefully, because it affects the shape
of the component, the wall thickness, and
dimensional accuracy. The smaller the tool nose
radius, the higher the stresses and poorest
thickness uniformity achieved.
Machining
Machining is any of various processes in
which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired
final shape and size by a controlled materialremoval process. The many processes that have
this common theme, controlled material removal,
are today collectively known assubtractive
manufacturing, in distinction from processes of
controlled material addition, which are known
as additive manufacturing.
The precise meaning of the term
"machining" has evolved over the past two
centuries as technology has advanced. During
the Machine Age, it referred to (what we today
might call) the "traditional" machining processes,
such
as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching,saw
ing, shaping, planning, reaming, and tapping. In
these "traditional" or "conventional" machining
processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling
machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a
sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a
desired geometry. Since the advent of new
technologies
such
as electrical
discharge
machining,electrochemical machining, electron
beam machining, photochemical machining,
andultrasonic
machining,
the retronym "conventional machining" can be
used to differentiate those classic technologies
from the newer ones. In current usage, the term
"machining" without qualification usually implies
the traditional machining processes.

39

Machining is a part of the manufacture of

many metal products, but it can also be used on
materials
such
as wood, plastic, ceramic,
and composites. A person who specializes in
machining is called a machinist. A room,
building, or company where machining is done is
called a machine shop. Machining can be
a business, a hobby, or both. Much of modern
day machining is carried out by computer
numerical control (CNC), in which computers are
used to control the movement and operation of
the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.

Turning operations are operations that

rotate the workpiece as the primary method
of moving metal against the cutting tool.
Lathes are the principal machine tool used
in turning.
Milling operations are operations in which
the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting
edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling
machines are the principal machine tool
used in milling.

Drilling operations are operations in which

holes are produced or refined by bringing a
rotating cutter with cutting edges at the
lower extremity into contact with the
workpiece. Drilling operations are done
primarily in drill presses but sometimes on
lathes or mills.

As a commercial venture, machining is

generally performed in a machine shop, which
consists of one or more workrooms containing
major machine tools. Although a machine shop
can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses
maintain internal machine shops which support
specialized needs of the business.

Miscellaneous operations are operations

that strictly speaking may not be machining
operations in that they may not
be swarf producing operations but these
operations are performed at a typical
machine tool. Burnishing is an example of
a miscellaneous operation. Burnishing
produces no swarf but can be performed at
a lathe, mill, or drill press.

An unfinished workpiece requiring

machining will need to have some material cut
away to create a finished product. A finished
product would be a workpiece that meets the
specifications set out for that workpiece
byengineering
drawings or blueprints.
For
example, a workpiece may be required to have a
specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine
tool that can be used to create that diameter by
rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool
can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round
surface matching the required diameter and
surface finish. A drill can be used to remove
metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other
tools that may be used for various types of metal
removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding
machines. Many of these same techniques are
used in woodworking.
More recent, advanced machining
techniques
include electrical
discharge
machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser
cutting, orwater jet cutting to shape metal
workpieces.

40

Machining requires attention to many

details for a workpiece to meet the specifications
set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints.
Beside the obvious problems related to correct
dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the
correct finish or surface smoothness on the
workpiece. The inferior finish found on the
machined surface of a workpiece may be caused
by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or
inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently,
this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is
evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and
the appearance of waves on the machined
surfaces of the workpiece.
There are many kinds of machining
operations, each of which is capable of generating
a certain part geometry and surface texture.

In turning, a cutting tool with a single

cutting edge is used to remove material
from a rotating workpiece to generate a
cylindrical shape. The speed motion is
provided by rotating the workpiece, and
the feed motion is achieved by moving the
cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the workpiece.

Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is

accomplished by a rotating tool that
typically has two or four helical cutting
edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel
to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to
form the round hole.

In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed

tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in
a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the
hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine
finishing operation used in the final stages
of product manufacture.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple

cutting edges is moved slowly relative to
the material to generate a plane or straight
surface. The direction of the feed motion is
perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation.
The speed motion is provided by the
rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms
of milling are:

Joining

Welding
Welding is the fabrication or sculptural
process
that
joins
materials,
usually metals orthermoplastics,
by
causing coalescence. This is often done
by melting the workpieces and adding a filler
material to form a pool of molten material
(the weld pool) that cools to become a strong
joint,
with pressure sometimes
used
in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the
weld. This is in contrast with soldering and
brazing, which involve melting a lower-meltingpoint material between the workpieces to form a
bond between them, without melting the
workpieces.

avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage,

inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
Until the end of the 19th century, the
only welding process was forge welding,
whichblacksmiths had used for centuries to join
iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first
processes to develop late in the century,
and electric resistance welding followed soon
after. Welding technology advanced quickly
during the early 20th century as World War I and
World War II drove the demand for reliable and
inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars,
several modern welding techniques were
developed,
including
manual
methods
like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the
most popular welding methods, as well as semiautomatic and automatic processes such as gas
metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, fluxcored arc welding andelectroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention
of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, electromagnetic
pulse
welding and friction stir welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, the science continues to
advance. Robot welding is commonplace in
industrial settings, and researchers continue to
develop new welding methods and gain greater
understanding of weld quality

Brazing

Many different energy sources can be

used for welding, including a gas flame,
an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction,
and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different
environments, including open air, under waterand
in outer space. Welding is a potentially hazardous
undertaking and precautions are required to

41

Brazing is
a metal-joining
process
whereby a filler metal is heated above melting
point and distributed between two or more closefitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)
temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the
base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled
to join the workpieces together. It is similar
to soldering, except the temperatures used to
melt the filler metal are higher.
A variety of alloys are used as filler metals
for brazing depending on the intended use or
application method. In general, braze alloys are

made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy

with the desired properties. The filler metal for a
particular application is chosen based on its
ability to: wet the base metals, withstand the
service conditions required, and melt at a lower
temperature than the base metals or at a very
specific temperature.Some of the more common
types of filler metals used are
Aluminum-silicon
Copper
Copper-silver
Copper-zinc (brass)
Gold-silver
Nickel alloy
Silver

Fastening

A fastener is
a hardware device
that
mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects
together.Fasteners can also be used to close a
container such as a bag, a box, or an envelope; or
they may involve keeping together the sides of an
opening of flexible material, attaching a lid to a
container, etc. There are also special-purpose
closing devices, e.g. a bread clip. Fasteners used
in these manners are often temporary, in that
they may be fastened and unfastened repeatedly.
Some types of woodworking joints make
use of separate internal reinforcements, such
as dowels or biscuits, which in a sense can be
considered fasteners within the scope of the joint
system, although on their own they are not
general purpose fasteners.

Cast iron "welding"

The "welding" of cast iron is usually a
brazing operation, with a filler rod made chiefly
of nickel being used although true welding with
cast iron rods is also available. Ductile cast iron
pipe may be also "cadwelded," a process which
connects joints by means of a small copper wire
fused into the iron when previously ground down
to the bare metal, parallel to the iron joints being
formed as per hub pipe with neoprene gasket
seals. The purpose behind this operation is to use
electricity along the copper for keeping
underground pipes warm in cold climates.

42

Items like a rope, string, wire (e.g. metal

wire, possibly coated with plastic, or multiple
parallel wires kept together by a plastic strip
coating), cable, chain, or plastic wrap may be
used to mechanically join objects; but are not
generally categorized as fasteners because they
have
additional
common
uses.
Likewise, hinges and springs may join objects
together, but are ordinarily not considered
fasteners because their primary purpose is to
allow articulation rather than rigid affixment.
There are three major steel fasteners used
in industries: stainless steel, carbon steel,
and alloy steel. The major grade used in stainless
steel fasteners: 200 series, 300 series, and 400
series.

VOCABULARY
F.

Write the word that correspond to the definition. Use the words in the box.
Aircraft
Chisel
Guild
Household appliance
Coarse
Oxy-fuel torches
Serial production
Subcontractor
1.

Assembly line
Customer
Guildhall
Manufacturing
Production
Limestone
Shear
Weld

Casting
Forging
Handicraft
Kilns
weighbridge
Raw Material
Standardize
Machining

A large edge tool that cuts sheet metal by passing a blade through it.
__________________________

2.

A machine or device, such as an airplane, helicopter, glider, or dirigible, that is capable of

atmospheric flight.
__________________________

3.

A person who buys.

__________________________

4.

A product made by artisans

__________________________

5.

A sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate, deposited as the calcareous

remains of marine animals or chemically precipitated from the sea: used as a building stone
and in the manufacture of cement, lime, etc.
__________________________

6.

A sequence of machines, tools, operations, workers, etc., in a factory, arranged so that at

each stage a further process is carried out.
__________________________

7.

An appliance that does a particular job in the home.

8.

An edge tool with a flat steel blade with a cutting edge

9.

An unprocessed natural product used in manufacture.

_______________________

10.

Association of artisans.

__________________________

11.

It consist in joining (metals) by applying heat, sometimes with pressure and sometimes with
an intermediate or filler metal having a high melting point. __________________________

12.

It is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods. __________________________

13.

One that assumes some of the obligations of the primary contractor. ___________________

14.

Process in which power-driven machine tools are used with a sharp cutting tool to
mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. ________________________

15.

Processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. ______________________

16.

The act or process of producing something.

43

__________________________

__________________________

17.

The hall of a guild or corporation.

__________________________

18.

The manufacture of goods in large quantities, often using standardized designs and
assembly-line techniques.
__________________________

19.

The process of forming (metal, for example) by heating in a forge and beating or
hammering into shape.
__________________________

20.

The process of transferring molten steel to a mould.

__________________________

21.

To test by or compare with a standard.

__________________________

22.

Ovens for hardening, burning, or drying substances such as grain, meal, or clay, especially a
brick-lined oven used to bake or fire ceramics.
__________________________

23.

A machine for weighing vehiclesby means of a metal plate set into a road.
__________________________

24.

Not fine in texture, rough.

__________________________

LISTENING
G.

Watch the video in this link and describe the process.

www.glasswebsite.com/video/fgmd.asp
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

GLOSSARY
Assembling

Forming

Reclaimer

Brazing

Guild

Standardization

Bulk Product

JIT

Structural Steel

Casting

Machining

Torching

Clinker

Manufacturing

Welding

FMS

Mass Production

Forging

Raw Material

44

METROLOGY
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss the following topics.

Measurement terms used in a market

Metric system
Unit Conversions
Differences between measures in Guatemala and other countries

VOCABULARY
B.

Select the word that better fits in each sentence.

Coordinated / synchronized
Core / central
Defined / defining
Defined / is defined
Knowing / know

Measure / measurement
Measurers / Metrologists
Perfoms / performing
Practical / practiced
With / by

1.

Metrology is the science of ___________________

2.

Metrology includes all theoretical and _________________ aspects of measurement.

3.

Metrology is ________________ by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures

(BIPM) as "the science of measurement, embracing both experimental and theoretical
determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and technology."

4.

A _______________ concept in metrology is (metrological) traceability.

5.

This _______________ as "the property of the result of a measurement or the value of a

standard whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or international
standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties."

6.

Traceability is most often obtained _______________ calibration, establishing the relation

between the indication of a measuring instrument and the value of a measurement
standard.

7.

These standards are usually ______________ by national metrological institutes: National

Institute of Standards and Technology, National Physical Laboratory, UK, PhysikalischTechnische Bundesanstalt, etc.

8.

Metrology technicians _____________ investigation work in addition to calibrations.

45

C.

9.

They also apply proven principles to ______________ situations and evaluate unexpected or
contradictory results.

10.

__________________ are people who perform metrology work at and above the technician
levels, generally without the benefit or acknowledgement of a college degree.

Match the following concepts with their definition.

Traceability, Precision, Reliability, Accuracy and Calibration are important concepts in metrology.

Criterion

Definition
Is the degree of exactness which the final product corresponds to the measurement
standard.
Refers to the ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced.
Refers to the consistency of accurate results over consecutive measurements over
time.
Refers to the ongoing validations that the measurement of the final product conforms
to the original standard of measurement.
It is the process where metrology is applied to measurement equipment and
processes to ensure conformity with a known standard of measurement, usually
traceable to a national standards board.

D.

Match the subfields of metrology with their definition.

Metrology is a very broad field and may be divided into three subfields; they are legal metrology,
scientific or fundamental metrology and the applied or industrial metrology.

To this concerns the

establishment
of
quantity systems, unit
systems,
units
of
measurement,
the
development of new
measurement methods,
realization
of
measurement standards
and the transfer of
traceability from these
standards to users in
society.

46

To this concerns the

application
of
measurement science
to manufacturing and
other processes and
their use in society,
ensuring the suitability
of
measurement
instruments,
their
calibration and quality
control
of
measurements.

To
this
concerns
regulatory requirements
of measurements and
measuring instruments
for the protection of
health, public safety,
the
environment,
enabling
taxation,
protection
of
consumers and fair
trade.

E.

Match the calibration technician works with their functions.

Calibration technicians execute calibration work. In large organizations, the work is further divided
into three groups: Operators, Tear-down workers and set-up workers
Group

Definition
Arrange the equipment needed for calibration and verify that it works correctly.
Execute the calibration procedures and collect data.
Dismantle set-ups, check the components for damage and then put the
components into a stored state. This is the entry-level position for people who
didnt start in the equipment warehouse or transportation functions

READING

STANDARDS

AND

Standards are objects or ideas that are

designated as being authoritative for some
accepted reason. Whatever value they possess is
useful for comparison to unknowns for the
purpose of establishing or confirming an assigned
value based on the standard. The design of this
comparison process for measurements is
metrology. The execution of measurement
comparisons for the purpose of establishing the
relationship between a standard and some other
measuring device is calibration.
The ideal standard is independently
reproducible without uncertainty. This is what
the creators of the meter length standard were
attempting to do in the 19th century when they
defined a meter as one ten-millionth of the
distance from the equator to one of the Earths
poles. Later, it was learned that the Earths
surface is an unreliable basis for a standard. The
Earth is not spherical and it is constantly
changing in shape. But the special alloy meter
bars that were created and accepted in that time
period
standardized
international
length
measurement until the 1950s. Careful calibrations
allowed tolerances as small as 10 parts per million
to be distributed and reproduced in metrology
laboratories worldwide, regardless of whether the
rest of the metric system was implemented and in
spite of the shortfalls of the meters original basis.

47

STANDARDIZATION
Standardization is the process of
establishing a technical standard, which could be
a standard specification, standard test method,
standard definition, standard procedure (or
practice), etc.
The existence of a published standard
does not necessarily imply that it is useful or
correct. Just because an item is stamped with a
standard number does not, by itself, indicate that
the item is fit for any particular use. The people
who use the item or service (engineers, trade
unions, etc.) or specify it (building codes,
government, industry, etc.) have the responsibility
to consider the available standards, specify the
correct one, enforce compliance, and use the item
correctly. Validation of suitability is necessary.
Standardization is implemented greatly
when companies release new products to market.
Compatibility is important for products to be
successful; many devices coming out have USB,
Ethernet, or other standard types of connection.
This allows consumers to use their new items
along with what they already own.
By using standardization, groups can
easily communicate through the set guidelines, in
order to maintain focus. The method is made to
facilitate processes and tasks; this is why it
interlocks with lean manufacturing.

In the context of social criticism and

social sciences, standardization often means the
process of establishing standards of various kinds
and improving efficiency to handle people, their
interactions, cases, and so forth. Examples
include formalization of judicial procedure in
court, and establishing uniform criteria for
diagnosing mental disease. Standardization in this
sense is often discussed along with (or
synonymously to) such large-scale social changes
as
modernization,
bureaucratization,
homogenization, and centralization of society.
In the context of business information
exchanges, standardization refers to the process
of developing data exchange standards for
specific business processes using specific
syntaxes. These standards are usually developed
in voluntary consensus standards bodies such as
the United Nations Center for Trade Facilitation
and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT), the
World Wide Web Consortium W3C, and the
Organization for the Advancement of Structured
Information Standards (OASIS).
In the context of customer service,
standardization refers to the process of
developing an international standard that enables
organizations to focus their attention on
delivering excellence in customer service, whilst
F.

at the same time providing recognition of success

through a 3rd Party organization, such as British
Standards Institution (BSI). The International
Customer Service Standard (TICSS) has been
developed by The International Customer Service
Institute (TICSI) with the objective of making it
the cornerstone global standard of customer
service. This standard has the status of an
independent standard, managed by The
International Customer Service Institute.
Standards can be:
De facto standards which means
they are followed by informal
convention or dominant usage.
De jure standards which are part
of legally binding contracts, laws
or regulations.
Voluntary standards which are
published and available for people
to consider for use
In general, each country or economy has
a single recognized National Standards Body
(NSB). Examples include ABNT, ANSI,
AENOR, AFNOR, BSI, DGN, DIN, IRAM,
JISC, KATS, SABS, SAC, SCC, SIS, and SNZ.
An NSB is likely the sole member from that
economy in ISO.

What do they stand for? Investigate the following acronyms.

1.

ANSI

______________________________________________________________________

2.

ABNT ______________________________________________________________________

3.

AENOR______________________________________________________________________

4.

IRAM ______________________________________________________________________

5.

JISC

6.

KATS ______________________________________________________________________

7.

SABS ______________________________________________________________________

8.

SAC

48

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

G.

9.

SCC

______________________________________________________________________

10.

ISO

______________________________________________________________________

Answer the following questions.

1.

What are standards? ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2.

Why do people have to use standards in measures? __________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3.

Why is important the calibration? _________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4.

Why was the meter definition changed (1/10 000 000 of the distance from Equator to the
pole)? _______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5.

Which is the maximum tolerance in calibration? _____________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

6.

Whats the difference between standard and standardization? _________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

7.

Is Metrology important in your career? Why? _______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

8.

In your career, how is applied the standardization? __________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

9.

What are the ISO norms? _______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

GLOSSARY
Accuracy

Metrologist

Standard

Calibration

Metrology

Standardization

Industrial Metrology

Precision

Traceability

ISO Norms

Reliability

Legal Metrology

Scientific Metrology

49

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss the following.

Which are the most used household appliances?

Which of them use microprocessors?

How does a computer work?

VOCABULARY
B.

Select the word that better fits in the sentence.

1.

Electronics is the _______________ of science and technology that deals with electrical
circuits.
Type

2.

Make

made

Its

their

Use

Uses

An ____________________ is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the

electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended
function of the electronic system.
Electronic component

50

Flows

Today, most electronic devices _________________semiconductor components to perform

electron control.
Used

7.

Systems

Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology" because _______________ principal
application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers and vacuum tubes.
Your

6.

Mechanisms

Similarly, the ability of electronic devices to act as switches _______________ digital

information processing possible.
Makes

5.

Apparatus

The nonlinear behavior of these components and their ability to control electron
_______________ makes amplification of weak signals possible and is usually applied to
information and signal processing.
Gadgets

4.

Subdivision

It includesactive electrical _______________ such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and

integrated circuits.
Components

3.

Branch

Electronic Module

Electronic Part

8.

Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to

a _______________ (PCB).
PolyChlorinated Board

9.

Printed Circuit Board

This is used to _________________ an electronic circuit with a particular function (for

example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator).
Form

10.

Invent

Multipart

Multifunction

Some _______________ electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes,

transistors, etc.
Special

12.

Create

Components may be packaged singly or in more ________________ groups as integrated

circuits.
Complex

11.

Printed Card and Board

Unknown

Common

Components are often _________________ as active (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or

passive (e.g. resistors and capacitors).
Categorized

divide

separate

READING
C.

Read the following article.

WHAT

IS ELECTRICITY?

This word has been defined in several

ways, but according to the Merriam-Webster
dictionary, electricity is: a fundamental form of
energy observable in positive and negative forms
that occurs naturally (as in lightning) or is
produced (as in a generator) and that is expressed
in terms of the movement and interaction of
electrons. Since the previous statement defines
electricity in terms of the interactions between
electrons it is obvious why studying the atom and
its components has been a priority for humanity.
The study of electricity begins by
assuming electricity as a manifestation of
electromagnetism; therefore, it begins with the
study of the atom and its components,
specifically the charged ones: the electron
(negatively charged) and the proton (positively
charged). There are two specific branches of

51

science that study the different interactions

between charged particles or bodies:
Electrostatics: this is the branch
of science that studies charges
which remain still.
Electrodynamics: this is the
branch of science that studies
charges in motion.
Basics of electromagnetism
Objects can be charged in several
ways, although it is basically the same process
taking place: electrons flowing from a material to
another. As explained before, there are only two
types of charge: positive and negative. When an
interaction between charges occurs the results are
indeed very simple; charges of the same polarity
repel, while charges of different polarities attract

each other. Another fact to keep in mind is that

there is a charge conservation principle which is
the equivalent to the Law of Conservation of
Matter. There have been several great discoveries
when it comes to the field of electromagnetism,
but most of them are not that recent, as
Coulombs Law.

Coulombs law
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (17361806) was a great French physicist that developed
what is now called Coulombs Law which
states the formula to calculate the strength of the
attraction or repulsion forces within charges.
Coulombs Law states that the force between two
charged objects is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them. It is important to note that such a
law is used at electrostatics.

Ohms law
Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) was a
German physicist and mathematician that
developed what is now called Ohms Law
which states relationship between voltage and
current is called resistance. In 1827, George
Simon Ohm defined this relationship with the
following formula:
V=I*R
In which:
- V = Voltage
- I = Current
- R = Resistance
Electric Circuits basics
Electric circuits are of great
importance to engineers, they are the essential
element of any electrical device. An electrical
circuit is made of various components, some of
which are described below:

Battery:
This is source of direct current which has
a fixed voltage. The symbol used to describe this
device can be seen below:

52

Resistor:

This is a very important element that can be used

in a circuit; its main use is to vary the amount of
resistance offered by a wire. The symbol used to
describe this device can be seen below:

Capacitor:

This is a component made by placing a plate of

an insulating material between two plates of
conductive material. These devices can hold a
determined quantity of energy in the form of
voltage and free it later, acting as a non-regulated
power supply. The symbol used to describe this
device can be seen below:

Inductor:
This is basically a coil of wire, similarly to
the capacitor; this device can store a determined
quantity of energy, but in the form of a magnetic
field. This device can also be used as a power
supply, but it provides current rather than
voltage. The symbol used to describe this device
can be seen below:

In this case, the two bars indicate that the

inductor has an iron core on it.

Diode:
This is a device that allows current to flow only in
a single direction. Typically diodes are made of a
semiconductor material, specifically Silicon or
Germanium. A very common kind of diode is the
LED (Light Emitting Diode): This special type of
diode is capable of emitting light when current
flows in the correct direction.

investigation might allow to reopen the option of

using metallic interconnects at a nanometer scale.

ANALOGUE AND
DIGITAL SYSTEMS
ANALOGUE SYSTEMS

Electricity Applied: Nanotechnology

The term nanotechnology refers to
manipulation of materials on an atomic or
molecular scale in order to build microscopic
devices such as robots. When working in this
branch of electronics, one of the greatest
difficulties is that the size of the metallic
junctures is decreased, the more their resistance is
raised. This higher resistance induces greater heat
dissipation, according to the theory of the Joule
Effect; such a temperature increase can be
enough to melt the junctures and damage the
circuit.
Recent investigations at the University
of Ohio have reported that they discovered a
molecule chain made from organic salt that
exhibits superconductivity obtaining therefore
such a low resistance that it can be ignored.
Originally this discovery was published in
Nature Nanotechnology describing how the
researchers team was able to synthesize the
molecules of the organic salt ((BETS)2-GaCl4),
place them on a silver substrate and observe that
when placed in small groups they exhibited
superconductivity.
The researchers not only discovered
this molecule chain, they also investigated the
smallest limit to the superconductivity, noting
that the best results were found in chains longer
than 50nm in length. With this discovery, several
scientists have claimed that the researchers have
created the smallest known superconductor. This

53

Analogue systems process analogue

signals which can take any value within a range,
for example the output from an LDR (light
sensor) or a microphone.
An audio amplifier is an example of an
analogue system. The amplifier produces an
output voltage which can be any value within the
range of its power supply.
An analogue meter can display any value
within the range available on its scale. However,
the precision of readings is limited by our ability
to read them. For example the meter on the right
shows 1.25V because the pointer is estimated to
be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue
meter can show any value between 1.2 and 1.3
but we are unable to read the scale more precisely
than about half a division.
All electronic circuits suffer from 'noise'
which is unwanted signal mixed in with the
desired signal. It can be difficult to eliminate
from analogue signals because it may be hard to
distinguish from the desired signal.

DIGITAL SYSTEMS
Digital systems process digital signals which can
take only a limited number of values (discrete
steps), usually just two values are used: the
positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V).

Digital systems contain devices such as

logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters.
A computer is an example of a digital system.
A
digital
meter can display
many values, but
True
False
not every value
within its range. For
1
0
example the display
on the right can
High
Low
show 6.25 and 6.26
+Vs
0V
but not a value
On
Off
between them. This
is not a problem because digital meters normally
have sufficient digits to show values more
precisely than it is possible to read an analogue
display.

Logic States

D.

Most digital systems use the simplest

possible type of signal which has just two values.
This type of signal is called a logic signal because
the two values (or states) can be called true and
false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs
represents true and 0V represents false. Other
labels for the true and false states are shown in
the table on the right.
Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from
digital signals because it is easy to distinguish
from the desired signal which can only have
particular values. For example: if the signal is
meant to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up
to 2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages
greater than 2.5V as true and all voltages less than
2.5V as false.

Answer the questions.

Whats the difference between analog and digital circuits? _________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Can mixed circuits be constructed? ___________________________________________

Mention 3 different analog circuits ___________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Mention 3 different digital circuits ___________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

E.

If mixed circuits exist, mention 3 of them. _____________________________________

Underline the correct answer.

1.

54

Analog quantities
a.
Vary smoothly, and then change abruptly to new values.
b.
Consist of codes of high-level and low-level signals.
c.
Vary smoothly continuously.
d.
Have periods of high-level and low-level signals, then change to continuous signals.

2.

Digital signals
a.
Vary smoothly, then change abruptly to new values.
b.
Consist of codes of high-level and low-level signals.
c.
Vary smoothly continuously.
d.
Have periods of high-level and low-level signals, then change to continuous signals.

3.

Bynary digital systems

a.
Have two discrete levels1 or 0, high level or low level.
b.
Have three or more discrete levels.
c.
Have a level that varies continuously with time.
d.
Have binary digits, or bits for short.
e.
None of the above.
f.
D and a above.

4.

Decimal numbering system have

a.
Weighted digit positions that vary randomly.
b.
Weighted digit positions varying by powers of 10.
c.
Weighted digit positions varying by powers of 2.
d.
Weighted digit positions that remain constant at one value.

5.

Physical quantities in the human world are typically:

a.
Digital and analog.
b.
Digital.
c.
Analog.
d.
Digital systems represent quantities

6.

Using combinations of binary digits in codes.

a.
Using more bits in its binary codes as the quantity value increases.
b.
Using more bits in its binary code as more accuracy is required.
c.
Using binary codes with just two levels 1 or 0, high level or low level.
d.
None of the above.
e.
All of the above.

7.

Analog quantities
a.
Usually have slow response and less than high accuracy.
b.
Can be maintained at very high accuracy at very high computing speeds.
c.
Are impossible to compute.
d.
Either have slow response or very high accuracy.

8.

Digital quantities
a.
Usually have slow response and less than high accuracy.
b.
Can be maintained at very high accuracy at very high computing speeds.
c.
Are impossible to compute. Either have slow response or very high accuracy

55

F.

9.

The basic functions for A-to-D (analog-to-digital) conversions are:

a.
Sense, compute digitally, convert to analog.
b.
Compute as analog, sense, convert to digital.
c.
Convert to digital, sense, condition to analog.
d.
Sense, condition, convert to digital.

10.

A digital-to-analog converter:
a.
Outputs a digital signal in serial form.
b.
Outputs an analog signal in stair-step form.
c.
Outputs a smooth and continuous analog signal.
d.
Outputs one digital code after another.

Read the following passage.

SERIES

AND

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

OHM'S LAW
To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across that resistance. Ohm's
Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It can be written in
three ways:
Where

V = voltage in volts (V)

I = current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms ()

Example:
3 V is applied across a 6resistor, what is the current?
We have voltage (V) and resistance(R); we need to find the current (I).
Finding I

Replacing the variables

Exercises

A lamp connected to a 6 V battery passes a current of 60 mA, what is the lamp's resistance?

A 1.2 k resistor passes a current of 0.2 A, what is the voltage across it?

56

POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

In addition to voltage and current, there is another measure of free electron activity in a circuit:
power. Power is a measure of how much work can be performed in a given amount of time. Work is
generally defined in terms of the lifting of a weight against the pull of gravity. The heavier the weight
and/or the higher it is lifted, the more work has been done. Power is a measure of how rapidly a standard
amount of work is done.
In electric circuits, power is a function of both voltage and current. Not surprisingly, this
relationship bears striking resemblance to the "proportional" horsepower formula above:

In this case, however, power (P) is exactly equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage (V), when using
this formula, the unit of measurement for power is the watt, abbreviated with the letter "W."
In an open circuit, where voltage is present between the terminals of the source and there is zero
current, there is zero power dissipated, no matter how great that voltage may be. Since P=IE and I=0 and
anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in any open circuit must be zero. Likewise, if we
were to have a short circuit constructed of a loop of superconducting wire (absolutely zero resistance), we
could have a condition of current in the loop with zero voltage, and likewise no power would be dissipated.
Since P=IE and E=0 and anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in a superconducting
loop must be zero.

SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUITS

Let's start with a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a
single battery:
The first principle to understand about series circuits is that the
amount of current is the same through any component in the circuit. This
is because there is only one path for electrons to flow in a series circuit,
and because free electrons flow through conductors like marbles in a tube,
the rate of flow (marble speed) at any point in the circuit (tube) at any specific point in time must be equal.
The second principle of series circuits: the total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances.

This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors in series that the electrons must flow through,
the more difficult it will be for those electrons to flow. In the example problem, we had a 3 k, 10 k, and
5 k resistor in series, giving us a total resistance of 18 k:

57

In essence, we've calculated the equivalent resistance of R1, R2, and R3 combined. Knowing this,
we could re-draw the circuit with a single equivalent resistor representing the series combination of R1, R2,
and R3:

Now we have all the necessary information to calculate circuit current, because we have the voltage
between points 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 k):

Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit (and we just determined
the current through the battery), we can go back to our original circuit schematic and note the current
through each component:
The rule with such a table is to apply Ohm's Law only to the values within each vertical column.
For instance, find ER1 only with IR1 and R1 values; ER2 only with IR2 and R2; etc. You begin your analysis by
filling in those elements of the table that are given to you from the beginning:

SIMPLE PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Let's start with a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery:

The first principle to understand about parallel circuits is that the voltage is equal across all
components in the circuit. This is because there are only two sets of electrically common points in a
parallel circuit, and voltage measured between sets of common points must always be the same at any given

58

time. Therefore, in the above circuit, the voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage across R2 which is equal
to the voltage across R3 which is equal to the voltage across the battery.
This equality of voltages can be represented in another table for our starting values:

Just as in the case of series circuits, the same caveat for Ohm's Law applies: values for voltage,
current, and resistance must be in the same context in order for the calculations to work correctly.
However, in the above example circuit, we can immediately apply Ohm's Law to each resistor to find its
current because we know the voltage across each resistor (9 volts) and the resistance of each resistor:

Now, the way to find the equivalent resistance is applying the formula
(

WHAT IS A SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT?

If circuit components are series-connected in some parts and
parallel in others, we won't be able to apply a single set of rules to every
part of that circuit. Instead, we will have to identify which parts of that
circuit are series and which parts are parallel, and then selectively apply
series and parallel rules as necessary to determine what is happening. Take
the following circuit, for instance:

59

This circuit is neither simple series nor simple parallel. Rather, it contains elements of both. The
current exits the bottom of the battery, splits up to travel through R 3 and R4, rejoins, then splits up again to
travel through R1 and R2, then rejoins again to return to the top of the battery. There exists more than one
path for current to travel (not series), yet there are more than two sets of electrically common points in the
circuit (not parallel).
Because the circuit is a combination of both series and parallel, we cannot apply the rules for
voltage, current, and resistance "across the table" to begin analysis like we could when the circuits were one
way or the other. For instance, if the above circuit were simple series, we could just add up R1 through R4
to arrive at a total resistance, solve for total current, and then solve for all voltage drops. Likewise, if the
above circuit were simple parallel, we could just solve for branch currents, add up branch currents to figure
the total current, and then calculate total resistance from total voltage and total current. However, this
circuit's solution will be more complex.
The table will still help us manage the different values for series-parallel combination circuits, but
we'll have to be careful how and where we apply the different rules for series and parallel. Ohm's Law, of
course, still works just the same for determining values within a vertical column in the table.
If we are able to identify which parts of the circuit are series and which parts are parallel, we can
analyze it in stages, approaching each part one at a time, using the appropriate rules to determine the
relationships of voltage, current, and resistance.
The goal of series-parallel resistor circuit analysis is to be able to determine all voltage drops,
currents, and power dissipations in a circuit. The general strategy to accomplish this goal is as follows:

Step 1: Assess which resistors in a circuit are connected together in simple series or simple parallel.

Step 2: Re-draw the circuit, replacing each of those series or parallel resistor combinations
identified in step 1 with a single, equivalent-value resistor. If using a table to manage variables,
make a new table column for each resistance equivalent.

Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the entire circuit is reduced to one equivalent resistor.

Step 4: Calculate total current from total voltage and total resistance (I=E/R).

Step 5: Taking total voltage and total current values, go back to last step in the circuit reduction
process and insert those values where applicable.

Step 6: From known resistances and total voltage / total current values from step 5, use Ohm's
Law to calculate unknown values (voltage or current) (E=IR or I=E/R).

Step 7: Repeat steps 5 and 6 until all values for voltage and current are known in the original circuit
configuration. Essentially, you will proceed step-by-step from the simplified version of the circuit
back into its original, complex form, plugging in values of voltage and current where appropriate
until all values of voltage and current are known.

60


G.

Step 8: Calculate power dissipations from known voltage, current, and/or resistance values.
What is ?

Node

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Circuit

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Current

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Ampere

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Volt

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Ohm

______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

H.

What type of text is used in the passage?

I.

Identify which of these components are connected directly in series with each
other, and which are connected directly in parallel with each other

61

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3

Series _____________________
Series _____________________
Series _____________________

Parallel _____________________
Parallel _____________________
Parallel _____________________

J.

K.

Solve for the unknown quantity (E, I, or R) given the other two, and express your
answer in both scientific and metric notations:
I = 20 mA,
R = 5 k;
E=

I = 150 A,

R = 47 k;

E=

E = 24 V,

R = 3.3 M;

I=

E = 7.2 kV,

R = 900 ;

I=

E = 1.02 mV,

I = 40 A;

R=

Complete the table of values for the circuit

R1

R2

R3

V
I
R
P

GLOSSARY
Ampere

Diode

PCB

Amplifier

Electronics

Power

Analog-to-Digital
Converter

Equivalent Resistance

Resistance

Inductor

Resistor

Integrated Circuits

Series Circuit

Ohms Law

Transistor

Ohms

Voltage

Open Circuit

Volts

Parallel Circuits

Watts

Analogue Systems
Capacitor
Current
Digital Systems
Digital-to-Analog
Converter

62

Total

CONTROL SYSTEMS
READING
A.

Read athe following passage.

WHAT IS A CONTROLLED SYSTEM?

The controlled system has an input variable and an output variable. Its response is described in
terms of dependence or the output variable on the input variable. These responses between one or several
variables can normally be described using mathematical equations based on physical laws. Such physical
relationships can be determined by experimentation. Controlled systems are shown as a block with the
appropiate input and output variables.

Example:
A water bath is to be maintained at a constant temperature. The water bath is heated by a helical pipe
through which steam flows. The flow rate of steam can be set by means of a control valve. Here the
control system consist of positioning of the control valve and the temperature of the water bath. This
result in a controlled system with the input variable temperature of water bath and the output variable
position of control valve

OPEN-LOOP CONTROL AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

An open-loop control takes place in a system where by one or more variables in the form of input
varibles exert influence on other variables in the form of output by reason of the laws which characterize
the system. In an open-loop system the output does not have any influence on the input variable

63

Example:
Volumetric flow is set by adjusting a control valve. At a constant applied pressure, the volumetnric flow is
directly influenced by the position of the control valve. This relationship between control valve setting and
volumetric flow can be determined either by means of physical equation or by experiment. This results in
the definition of a system consisting of the valve eith the output variable volumetric flow and the
input variable control valve setting.
A closed-loop control is a process where the controlled variable is continously monitored and
compared with the reference variable. Depending on the result of this comparison, the input variable for
the system is influenced to adjust the output variable to the desired walue despite any disturbing influences.
The feedback results ina a closed-loop action.
Example:
The volumentric flow (output variable) is to be mantained at the predetermined value of the reference
variable. First a measurement is made and this measuremtne is converted into an electrical signed. This
signal is passed to the controller and compared with the desired value. Comparison takes place by
substracting the measured value from the desired value. The result is the deviation.

WRITING
B.

Imagine that you are riding a bike, explained and create a block diagram of the
process as a controlled system. Is that a closed-loop or a open-loop?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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64

Block Diagram

C.

The tank of the toilet is another controlled system; how does it work? Explained
and draw a block diagram.
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Block Diagram

D.

Investigate how air conditioners work and describe the process.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
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65

VOCABULARY
E.

Underline the word that better describes the definition.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY
1.

The variable that has to be controlled is:

a. Controlled variable
b. Deviation

c. Manipulated variable
d. Disturbance

2. The variable which can be canged to influence the controlled variable is:
a. Reference variable
c. Disturbance
b. Manipulated variable
d. Deviation
3. The influences that create the necessity of an closed-loop is:
a. Control response
c. Disturbance
b. Manipulated variable
d. Deviation
4. The set point or desired value of the controlled variable is:
a. Reference
b. Deviation

c. Manipulated variable
d. Control response

5. The result of a comparison of reference variable and the controlled variable is:
a. Feedback
c. Closed-loop
b. Control response
d. Deviation
6. This indicates how the controlled system reacts to cahnges to the input variables
a. Deviation
c. Control variable
b. Control responsed
d. Feedback
7. This hold the controlled variable as near as possible to the reference variable. This compares the
value of the controlled variable with the value of the reference variable.
a. Controlled variable
c. Deviation
b. Controller
d. Loop
8. A mechanism that contains all the necessary elements for automatic closed-loop control.
a. Closed-loop system
c. Motor
b. Open-loop system
d. Controller

66

9. A closed-circuit feedback system used in the automatic control of machines, involving an errorsensor using a small amount of energy, an amplifier, and a servomotor dispensing large amounts of
power.
a. Controlled systems
c. Servomechanism
b. Logic systems
d. Motor control
10. Situation when output from an event or phenomenon will influence an occurrence or occurrences
of the same event of phenomenon .
a. System
c. Servomechanism
b. Deviation
d. Feedback

GLOSSARY
Actuator

Open-loop

Closed-loop

Reference

Controlled Variable

Servomechanism

Controller
Deviation
Feedback
Manipulated Variable

67

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
SPEAKING
A.

Discuss the following topics.

Science fiction

Recent science fiction movies or books

Famous robots in movies

VOCABULARY
B.

Read the following questions and answers, match them.

Questions
1.

Does AI aim at human-level intelligence?

2. Don't some people say that AI is a bad idea?

3. How far is AI from reaching human-level intelligence? When will it happen?
4. Isn't AI about simulating human intelligence?
5. What is artificial intelligence?
6. What is intelligence?
7. When did AI research start?

Answers

i.

_________________________________________________________________________
It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand
human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are
biologically observable.

ii.

_________________________________________________________________________
Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.
Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many animals and some
machines.

68

iii.

_________________________________________________________________________
Sometimes but not always or even usually. On the one hand, we can learn something
about how to make machines solve problems by observing other people or just by
observing our own methods. On the other hand, most work in AI involves studying the
problems the world presents to intelligence rather than studying people or animals. AI
researchers are free to use methods that are not observed in people or that involve
much more computing than people can do.

iv.

_________________________________________________________________________
After WWII, a number of people independently started to work on intelligent machines.
The English mathematician Alan Turing may have been the first. He gave a lecture on it
in 1947. He also may have been the first to decide that AI was best researched by
programming computers rather than by building machines. By the late 1950s, there
were many researchers on AI, and most of them were basing their work on
programming computers.

v.

_________________________________________________________________________
Yes. The ultimate effort is to make computer programs that can solve problems and
achieve goals in the world as well as humans. However, many people involved in
particular research areas are much less ambitious.

vi.

_________________________________________________________________________
A few people think that human-level intelligence can be achieved by writing large
numbers of programs of the kind people are now writing and assembling vast
knowledge bases of facts in the languages now used for expressing knowledge.
However, most AI researchers believe that new fundamental ideas are required, and
therefore it cannot be predicted when human-level intelligence will be achieved.

vii.

_________________________________________________________________________
The philosopher John Searle says that the idea of a non-biological machine being
intelligent is incoherent. He proposes the Chinese room argument wwwformal.stanford.edu/jmc/chinese.html The philosopher Hubert Dreyfus says that AI is
impossible. The computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum says the idea is obscene, antihuman and immoral. Various people have said that since artificial intelligence hasn't
reached human level by now, it must be impossible. Still other people are disappointed
that companies they invested in went bankrupt.

69

C.

Read the following passage.

ROBOTS
The word robot is usually used to
refer to a mechanical agent that performs
one or more tasks in which it mimics a
human or animal agent either through
programming or commands. Another word
used synonymously is automaton. Virtual
robots exist, but are most often called by
the abbreviated name bots.
The name robot comes from the Czech
word robota, which means drudgery or
servitude. It was coined by Karel Capek, a
Czech playwright, in his play R.U.R., which
stands for Rossums Universal Robots. It
was published in 1921, and entered English
in 1923. The field of study of robots is
referred to as robotics, and people who
specialize in robotics are called roboticists.
Robots can be classified in a
number of ways. Robot creators may use
the means of locomotion as their
categories, differentiating their creations by
whether they are static, on the one hand, or
whether they have treads, a propeller, fins,
legs, wheels, rotors, or other means of
propulsion, on the other hand.
The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), however, classifies
robots in several different ways on their
Types of Robots web page. First, it
classifies them by whether they work on
Earth or in space. Second, it classifies them
by the industry they work in. And third, it
classifies them by the type of jobs they do.
Robots are employed in industries
such as manufacturing, medicine, the

70

military, and transportation. They are used

widely in assembly operations, in which
they complete tasks such as:
arc welding
diecasting
fettling machines
gas welding
manipulating machine tools
placement of items into a
structure thats being built
sealant application
spot welding
spray painting
Robots are also used for parts
inspections, making glass, cleaning,
monitoring radiation, sorting, loading and
unloading, fastening, forging, and sand
blasting. Because they are not human, they
can be used in hazardous situations such as
firefighting, military warfare, and bomb
detection. Surgical robots are under
development and robotic hands, for
example, are already used in some surgical
operations, allowing the human surgeon
more control in laprascopic procedures,
those done through a very small incision.

sector, robots are also categorized further

as to the types of capabilities and functions
of which they are capable. Cartesian or
gantry robots have an articulated arm that
does various welding, assembly, and partmovement functions. Robots with other
ranges of motion are labeled as cylindrical,
spherical, and parallel depending on where
they can reach and the level of dexterity
and control that their arms possess for
detailed work.

Droid is the name for a type of

intelligent robot. The name droid comes
from a shortening of the word android
which means an automaton that has
features of a human being. Examples of
droids include C-3PO and R2-D2 of Star
Wars fame. George Lucas, the creator of
Star Wars, has trademarked the term droid.
In the real world, a number of
companies are working on android robots
that closely resemble humans and are able
to interact with real people. Much of the
current work is being done in Japan and
South Korea. South Korea hopes to make
robots a household item in the next decade
or so.
Types of robots can be separated by the
tasks that they are meant to perform, their
role within society, their level of
advancement and other criteria. In
contemporary terms, types of robots are
often separated into classes by the jobs that
they perform, such as industrial, scientific,
and consumer robots. Within the industrial

71

Aside from how a robot is

physically designed, its degree of mobility
and size is also an important factor in
categorization. Especially within fields such
as the military, combat robots can be
autonomous flying drone aircraft, micro
robots the size of insects build for
surveillance, or large robotic systems built
into land vehicles designed as logistical
support or autonomous fighting machines.
Some military machines are also semiautonomous robots that can perform basic
maneuvering functions on their own, but
require special human control for complex
actions.
Scientific robots are used in a
laboratory setting to automate certain tasks,
or in exploratory areas to which humans
are unable or unwilling to go. This can
include types of robots such as those
carried by space probes to the surface of
Mars or an asteroid, robots built to inspect
the interior of nuclear reactor vessels, and
robots that inspect suspicious vehicles or
packages for the police in case they contain
explosives. Laboratory or medical robots
also can aid in the automation of mixing
drugs or biological samples, as well as

performing microsurgery
guidance of a physician.

under

the

Humanoid robots are among the

types of robots most often pictured in
fiction or movies. They can serve
educational or entertainment functions, and
are often seen as a form of servant to
people with a level of intelligence of their
own that puts them on a par with the
simple thinking of young children or pets.
Where they get out of control, they are
often a subject of debate about whether
they should have been created in the first
place. Types of robots built on the human
model are the most challenging to create
due to the fact that simulating how human
beings walk is a very difficult task to do for
a machine, as well as how human beings
see the world or understand language so
that they can effectively interact with each
other.
As technology advances, robots
become more and more a part of day-today life. Much of what they do remains
hidden from society in general as they work
in factories and remote regions, taking
dangerous jobs once required of people. As
industrial, scientific, and military robots
become more advanced, however, these
developments are being used to improve
upon humanoid models that may one day
exist and work alongside people on a
routine basis.

THREE LAWS OF
ROBOTICS
72

These laws were created by science

fiction writer Isaac Asimov in the book I,
Robot. They are:
1.

2.

3.

A robot may not injure a human

being or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm.
A robot must obey orders given it
by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First
Law.
A robot must protect its own
existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with the First or
Second Law

WHAT ARE THE

DIFFERENT TYPES OF
ROBOTICS JOBS?
Different types of robotics jobs are
available in research science, academic
teaching, professional design, software
development, and industrial operation.
Robots are used everyday in manufacturing
factories throughout the world to make a
variety of products. Industrial robots need
to be built, maintained, and controlled.
Robotics jobs are available in each of these
functions. Research in robotics and
artificial intelligence is conducted by
scientists and engineers employed at
universities and within in the private sector.
It is usually necessary to hold a
college level degree before obtaining a
robotics job. The level of education needed
varies based upon the type of position.
Many robotics jobs require a graduate
school level of education, which could

include the need for a doctorate degree in

computer engineering or a related field.
Robots have been used in industrial
operations for many decades, and are often
utilized in assembly line production of
items such as cars, heavy machinery, and
computer equipment. While the robots
complete the physical labor in a factory,
robotics jobs are needed to ensure the
machines are operating safely and correctly.
Robots in factories run around the clock,
so robotics operators work in shifts so
someone is always present to manage their
operation. Panel operators, technicians, and
software control specialists are all
responsible for work completed by factory
robots.
Engineers and robotics software
developers are employed by industrial
companies to design the equipment and
programs that operate the machines.
Individuals hired for these positions are
trained in computer and electrical
engineering. They produce robot design
schematics and write the code that manages
the basic functions of the robot to
complete its tasks.

D.

Innovation in robotics is achieved

by academic and private research scientists.
After completing an undergraduate
program, individuals who seek robotics
jobs can choose to complete a doctorate
program that is focused on robotics
research. During this time, they take classes
and work towards submitting a thesis
project. Robotics laboratories employ
students and research assistants in
internship level work to complete
experiments.
As robotics knowledge increases
and robot use becomes more ubiquitous
among industries, university programs that
specialize in robotics education are being
created. These programs train the next
generation of robotics scientists, engineers,
and programmers. Robotics jobs in
universities are available for professors and
researchers. Software developers working
at university robotics laboratories focus on
creating control programs that utilize
concepts of artificial intelligence to allow
decision making and fine tune motor
operations.

Answer the following questions

Have you ever seen the movie I, Robot? What is the movie about? ____________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

73

Do you think that in the future we are going to coexist with robots as in the
movie I, robot? _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Are robots useful nowadays? _________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Are robots useful in your career? Explain the advantages or disadvantages of

robots in your field. _________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Imagine that you buy a robot for helping your mother with the house chores
but she doesnt want it, how do you persuade her. Write a paragraph with your
persuasive arguments.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

74

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

In your words, which are the benefits of the Artificial Intelligence?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

In which areas is artificial intelligence most applied? _______________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

How is artificial intelligence applied in your field? _________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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75

76

REFERENCES
Ecology
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Ecology
http://www.presentationmagazine.com/example-persuasive-speech-global-warming-6769.htm
http://abdn.ac.uk/environment/water/wasting.php

Materials science
http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=758&page=19
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/whatis.html
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videospecial
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videowhatis
http://www.strangematterexhibit.com/popup.html?asset=whatis_panel&page=videoeveryone
http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/matstructure.html

Thermodynamics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics
http://www.thefreedictionary.org
http://www.cstephenmurray.com/onlinequizes/physics/thermodynamics/thermodynamicsquiz.htm

Manufacture Process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing
h
http://www.adelaidebrighton.com.au/ABCManufacturingProcess.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fastener
h s
http://technoman.hubpages.com/hub/Fusion-Welding
www.wbfasteners.com

Metrology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrology

Electronics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/analogue.htm
http://es.scribd.com/doc/51672333/7/Chapter-1-Quiz
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/ohmslaw.htm
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com

Control Systems
www.pacontrol.com/download/process-control-systems.pdf

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